I

in(Fronoh
A MANAAL OF qfrENCH DIOTIOIV
AIVD qfrENICH VOCAL frEPERTOIfrE

Thomfi,s firubb
WITH A FOREWORD BY PIERRE BERNAC

SCHIRMER BOOKS
A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
NE\¡/ YORK

Collier Macmillan Publishers

LONDON
 rll

Contcnts

List of Musical Examples xi

Foreword by Pierre Bernac xiii
Preface xv

An Introduction to Singing in French

Diction, the Missing Link I
The French heu and the English zz 3
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
French: A Legato Language 5
Consonant-Vowel Flow 7
Hiatus, Mute and Aspirate h 9
Syllabic Division 12
Stress and Word Rhythm 16
Scores, Editions, Printing Procedures, and Errors 18

2 Singing the Sounds of the French Language 21

The Fifteen Vowel-sounds in French 2l
Ways of Classifying Vowels 22
Some Guiding Rules for the Formation of Vowels 24
The Tip of the Tongue 24
The Sides and the Middle of the Tongue 25
The Rounding of the Lips 25
The Jaw 25

vii
vlll Contents

Glottal Attacks 26
Vowel Modification 26
Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds 27
The Tongue Vowels 27
til 27
[e] 28
[e] 30
[a] 31
Exercises 32
The Lip Vowels 33
[q] 33
[c] 34
[o] 35
[u] 37
Exercises 37
The Mixed Vowels 38
lvl 39
lsl 40
[a] 42
The [a] and [a]. or Schrta +j
Pronunciation and Slllab,ificatiern ol Final -('. 'e.\. -ent 16
Singing Final. Unstressed -¿'. -(.\ . -¿'ri1. [e] or [a]? 48
Vocalization of the Hiatus in Final [ice]. [ea], [ya] 53
Exercises 53
The Nasal Vowels 54
tól 56
tól s8
tél 58
tcl 5e
Exercises 60
Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Semiconsonants
61
Semiconsonant [q] 62
Yod Lil 64
Semiconsonant [w] 65
Erercises 66
Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Consonants 67
The Explosives [b] tdl tcl tpl [t] tkl 70
The Fricatives [v] [z] Bl tfl tsl Ul 73
The Nasals [m] [mm] [n] [nn] 75
The Lateral [] [Il] 77
Flipped [r]. Rolled [rr], Uvular [R] 77
E 19
',erci.re¡
IX Contents

Liaison 8I
Forbidden Liaisons 82
Optional Liaisons 85
Compulsory Liaisons 88
Phonetic Changes Due to Liaison 90
Special Words and Liaison 92
Exercises 95

How to Phoneticize and Prepare the Text of a Song or

Aria 97
The Phoneticization and Intoning Procedures 97
The Interpretation of a French Song or Aria Text 99
Selection of the Song or Aria 99
Fluent Recitation of the Translation 100
Fluent Recitation of the Originql f,ext in French 101
Research on the Text 101
Interpretation while Singing 102
"French Style" 104

The Application of Diction Techniques to Other

Aspects of Singing 105

Recitative 105
Diction in Coloratura Passages 134
Vocal Staccato 137
Vocalic Harmonization 138

A Catalogue of French Vocal Repertoire 141

Abbreviation Key 1,41
Songs 143
Arias 164
Coloratura Soprano 165
Lyric Coloratura 167
Lyric Soprano 169
Soprano (Dramatic or "Spinto") 172
Lyric Mezzo-soprano 175
Mezzo-soprano 177
Light Lyric Tenor 180
Tenor L82
Baritone I85
Bass-baritone, Bass 188
I
Contents

Appendix 191
Index of Vowel-letters, Single and in Combination l9l
Index of Consonant-letters, Single and in Combination 204
Pronunciation of Proper Nouns Occurring in the Repertoire 214
Bibliography 217
Answer Key 219
Recording Illustrations (F1ex-Record) 222
Musicnl Erunples

Musical Example I "Chanson triste," H. Duparc-J. Lahor 6

Musical Example 2 "Les Berceaux," G. Fauré-Sully- t7
Prodhomme
Musical Example 3 "Connais-tu le p&ys," Mignon, A. t7
Thomas
Musical Example 4 "Fleurs," Fianqailles pour rire, F. 43
Poulenc-L. de Vilmorin
Musical Example 5 Carmen (Act IIf , G. Bizet 43
Musical Example 6 "Lé Secret," G. Fauré-A. Silvestre 48
Musical Example 7 "Le Secret," G. Fauré-A. Silvestre 48
Musical Example 8 Carmen (Act IID, G. Bizet 49
Musical Example 9 "Il pleure dans mon coeur," Ariettes 49
oubliées, C. Debussy-P. Verlaine
Musical Example l0 "Ici-bas," G. Fauré-Sully- 50
Prodhomme
Musical Example 11 "Le Dromadaiae," Le Bestiaire, F. 50
Poulenc-G. Apollinaire
Musical Example 12 Manon (Act II!, J. Massenet 50
Musical Example 13 Carmen (Act II), G. Bizet 50
Musical Example 14 Faust (Act I), C. Gounod 51
Musical Example 15 Lia's recitative and aria, L'Enfant 51
prodigue, C. Debussy
Musical Example 16 "Asie," Shéhérazade, M. Ravel- 5l
T. Klingsor

xi
xii Musical ExamPles

Musicat Example 17 "Le Paon," Histoires naturelles, 52

M. Ravel-J. Renard
Musical Example 18 Louise (Act II), G. Charpentier 52
Musical Example 19 "De Réve,o' Proses lyriques, 53
C. Debussy
Musical Example 20 Carmen (Act II), G. Bizet 82
Musical Example 21 Roméo et Juliette (Act I), C' Gounod 83

Musical Example 22 "Phidylé," H. Duparc-Leconte de Lisle 98

Musical Example 23 Thésée (Prologue; 1675), J.-B' Lully t07
Musical Example 24 Thésée (Frologue; 1675), J.-B' Lully 108
Musical Example 25 "Tristes appréts," Castor et Pollux 109
(1737), J.-P. Rameau
Musical Example 26 "Tristes appréts," Castor et Pollux r09
(1737), J.-P. Rameau
Musical Example2T Orphée et Euridice (Actlll;1774), 110
C. W. R. von Gluck
Musical Example 28 "Absence." \Ltir: d étá (1840), tt2
H. Berlioz-T. Gautier
Musical Example 29 "Absence.' -\'¿ri¡-i ¿l t'¡á (1840), 113

H. Berlioz-T. Gautier
Musical Example 30 "-{bsence. -\'zri¡-r ./ .'¡,' fl840), tt4
H. Berlioz-T. Gautier
Musical Example 31 Fa¿¿s¡ (Act I: 18:9 r. C. Gr¡unt¡d 116
Musical Example 32 Carmen (Act III: 18--1 --+r. G Bizet t2t
Musical Example 33 Manon (Act V: 18831. J. \lassenet 123
Musical Example 34 "La Chevelure." Cl¡a¡lsttns tl¿ Bilítis 127
(1897), C. Debussy-P. LouYs
Musical Example 35 Pelléas et Mélisctnde (Act 1: 1891- 128
1903), C. Debussy
Musical Example 36 Arianna (1608), C. Monteverdi 130
Musical Example 37 Dialogues des Carméliles (Act II: 19-s7l' t32
F. Poulenc
Musical Example 38 Scylla et Glaucus (1746), 135

J.-M. Leclair, I'ainé

Musical Example 39 Les Pécheurs de Perles (Act I: 1862- 136
63), G. Bizet
Musical Example 40 "Green," Ariettes oubliées (1888), 138
C. Debussy-P. Verlaine
Musical Example 41 "Lydia" (c. 1865), G. Fauré-Leconte de 139
Lisle
 L

Forcutord
bU Piorrc Bornoc

In vocal music, the sonority and the rhythm of the words are an integral
part of the music itself. They inspired it no less, and at times even more,
than the idea they express. A literary text has its own and proper music.
If the singer ought to make an effort to sing each work of music in its orig-
inal language, the reason is that the music of the poem is as important as
the music set lo the poem. The music of the words and the music itself are
one and the same; they should not be disassociated.
The artist who attempts to sing all his repertoire in the original language
realizes that a careful study is required to enable him to render justice to
the literary texts as well as to the music. Not only has he to make himself
understood to those who know the foreigrr language, without any faults
in his pronunciation and especially without spoiling it with the typical ac-
cent of his own language, but also, and this is very important, he has to
acquire the same quality of sound, of voice production, that he has in his
own language, or in the languages most favorable to his voice.
My long experience as a performer and as a teacher makes me believe
firmly that one does not have to speak a foreign language fluently in order
to sing it not only correctly but also expressively. But if it is by overcoming
technical problems that the singer succeeds in performing the musical
line, it is also by overcoming technical problems that he will succeed in
performing the literary text in a language that is foreign to him.

The French vocal repertoire contains some of the most genuine master-
pieces ever written in music. But English-speaking singers are sometimes
reluctant to attempt their interpretation because of ideas they may have

xiii
 xtY Foreword

about the difficulties of singing the French language. Again, I can take
advantage of my long experience in teaching it to English and American
singers to assure them that they can sing in French as well and as com-
fortably as in any other language, if they are taught the proper basis'
This is why I am proud and happy to present this book, which to my
knowledge has no equivalent. It is remarkably conceived and cleverly
realized. Its author is not only an excellent linguist, but first of all an ex-
cellent musician as well. He has a thorough knowledge of his subject and
great experience in applying this knowledge.
Singing in French is the perfect basis for anyone who has to teach this
repertoire and a most precious book ofreference for any singer who has
to interpret it. In my opinion this is an invaluable contribution to the study
of French vocal literature.

Pierre Bernac
Paris, France

F
Prcfoco

This book, written and revised five times over the past nine years, was
a product of sheer necessity for my coaching both at the conservatory and
at home. Following the French dictum On n'est jamais si bien servi que
par soi-méme, "He who helps himself is best helped," this manual of
French singing diction and vocal repertoire was compiled to be used both
as a text for the classroom and as a source ofreference in the private studio.
It was my class schedule at the Manhattan School of Music that initially
determined the outline and scope of this manual: two weekly classes, one
hour apiece, for two semesters, with no more than ñfteen students per
class. This is ideal, I admit, and happily, the Manhattan School realized
the importance and intricacy of such a course. I dedicate the first semester
to amastery of all the sounds and of the legato (through chapter 2). The
second term is then spent in the application of the skills learned in the
first to the singing and performing of the French vocal repertoire. Not all
of my colleagues, I know, have been so fortunate-budget problems,
outdated "priorities" (who said singers need theory and music history
more than diction?), administrative or departmental confusion. Nor will
the situation be rectified overnight. But this manual can be easily adapted
to a course of almost any length if the instructor is willing to organize it
effectively and efficiently. In only one class hour per week in a fifteen-
week semester, the most and best that can be accomplished is a mastery
of the sounds, of the legato, and their application to one or two songs.
Work in depth is always better than skimming, when a skill is involved;
the singer can later transfer what has been thoroughly learned to other
materials. Above all, a course in diction for singers müst not be "aca-

XY
xYt Preface

demic." Instead of endless tests on the memorization of the rules. read-

ing the manual aloud in class, and, worst of all, precious time spent on
grammatical drill, the singers should emerge from a diction class "warmed
up" from having intoned the vowel-sounds or, better yet, complete song
texts. Chapter 4 of this manual is dedicated to a description of textual
preparation, intoning, and the application of diction to interpretation itself.
The instructor must tirelessly correct and refine the sounds, make use of
the accompanying record, and insist upon the utilization of cassette tape
recorders whenever possible. Oral and w'ritten erercises have been pro-
vided throughout. They are intended to occup)'the singer outside ofclass,
as well as to enable the instructor to keep track of his students' compre-
hension. (An answer key is provided in the back c¡f the book.) If the singers
can sing passably well in French upon lear ing the course, meaningful
progress has been made. (A little class recrtal in place of an exam serves
as a great incentive to young performers.I Those u ho want to speak, read,
or write in French should take the appropriate academic courses.
Lists of songs and operatic arias have been provided in chapter 7. These
should aid the singer, voice or diction reacher. and coach in the search
for and selection of the proper repertoire for a specific voice. Alphabetical
vowel and consonant charts also can be found in the Appendix, for quick
reference to phoneticization of lerrers. single and in combination.
But the classroom is not the onll territorr u here this manual will be
useful. It is intended as well for the pri\are studio. Here the singer alone
or with the aid of a coach, conductor. or voice teacher. can consult it re-
peatedly. The basic aim of the manual rs to conñrm the importance of a
beneficial union between healthy vocal producrion and clear. uncompli-
cated diction. No mysteries. no secret tbrmulas. and. abore all. no sep-
aratism! Singing diction is the vocalization of a text. r.ocalization is the
singing of words and their sounds: such a combined study must be per-
petuated throughout a singer's career. not truncated with the completion
of degree work. Before an audition. a recital. or an appearance in an oper-
atic production, for the duration of a career, progress can and should be
made in one's diction and its vocal delivery.
Teachers of French not acquainted with this specialized area of their
field also may find this manual helpful when called upon to "coach a
singer's pronunciation." For some reason, singers assume that anyone
u ho can speak French should be able to coach them in diction. They forget
that the most important aspect of their delivery-singing itself-will of
ne.-essit¡ shift the emphasis in the instruction.
\-es. I am -A.merican born. I was fortunate enough to have lived in France
iir se\eral vears and to have dutifully studied the French language ancl
li:er":ure. as ri ell as instrumental and vocal music (French and non-French
;irke beitrre the idea of "diction" ever came to mind. Only when asked
:rr -gi\ e ¿ Jrrlrr:e in the subject did I flnd myself concentratingtpon it per
xvlt Preface

s¿. In retrospect, I realize that a compatriot can be more in tune with the
dilemma Americans face when confronted with diction study. My own
questions, confusions, problems, and controversies regarding good dic-
tion were luckily cushioned with fluency in the language and a background
of study and life experience. As a teacher, I now understand that antici-
pation of difficulty via firsthand exposure is sometimes more useful than
complete ignorance of it. I would not have had it any other way. This
should encourage those of you who are subject to the same self-interro-
gation. As Americans, you understand more about your compatriots than
anyone else.
Most of the insights presented here are the results of my collaboration,
as pianist and coach, with the eminent French baritone, doyen andmaítre
of French art song, Pierre Bernac. His personality, as a man, as an artist,
and as a teacher, has been my inspiration, source of knowledge, and sup-
port in the writing of this book, as well as F r.ny o*tt personal study. Since
1970 | have had the privilege of accompánying and coaching his master
classes in the United States, Canada, and abroad. He has patiently gone
over every page ofthis manual; he has corrected and counseled me when
necessary; and he has encouraged me in many moments of duress. In turn,
I have attempted to illuminate every corner of this study with his teaching
and example in mind. Few disciples have had the good fortune to have had
such a consummate and generous maitre as I.
Next, I want to thank Miss Alice Tully who, through the Alliance fran-
gaise de New-York, has been most supportive and interested in this project
over the years.
I would like to acknowledge Robert Taibbi from the recording studio
at the Juilliard School who so expertly and patiently engineered the tap-
ing of the enclosed record. The singer is Guy Merola, a student of mine
at the Manhattan School. Guy gave of his time, energy, and vocal ability
with a professionalism rarely encountered in one so young. I also wish
to express my gratitude for their advice and interest in my work to the
following: Marguerite Meyerowitz, Daniel Ferro, Judith Raskin, Sabine
Rapp, Dr. Emmy Joseph, Dorothy Uris, Frits Noske, Thérése Casadesus
Rawson, Chris Macatsoris, Carol Ann Kimball, Mary Beth Armes, Paul
Sutton, and, last but not at all least, my students at both the Curtis In-
stitute of Music and at the Manhattan School and countless friends and
colleagues throughout the country who have brought both gaps and
superfluities to my attention.
T.G.
An lntroduction
io Singing in Frcnch

Diction, the Missing Link

There are many approaches to the study of diction depending upon the
means, nature, and level of the communication involved. A diction lesson
may be useful to the actor, the television announcer, the chairman of the
board, or to a politician. In each case, the method and nature of study
will be different. An individual may wish to rid his speech of an impedi-
mentor aregional accent. Again, a specialized approach will be necessary.
Courses in "diction" are offered to singers throughout the country,
very often as electives ¿ind as part of their "academic" study. They are
all too often considered necessary evils. Some highly reputable institu-
tions consider the study of English diction unnecessary and even demean-
ing to the American-born, English-speaking singer. Courses in the diction
of a foreign language are usually cluttered with a misguided emphasis on
grammar and vocabulary and, occasionally, a flimsy set of general rules
for pronunciation. Such courses and attitudes serve to demonstrate the
widespread ignorance concerning the role of diction in singing.
Yes, the singer, too, needs to have a specialized approach to diction
study, whatever the language in question may be. Singers must undertake
the study of the singing of their own language, as well as that of several
foreign languages: the "big three" (in alphabetical order)-French, Ger-
man, and Italian-and others, notably Spanish and Russian. The latter
should not be excluded, since arespectable percentage ofthe basic reper-
toire involves these languages as well. How formidably vast this study
becomes when one very obvious fact is overlooked: the singer must above

7
 AN INrnooL-crroN ro Slxctxc tx FRrxcu

all learn to sing comfortably and intelligibly in these

languages, not neces-
sarily to pronounce them, read them, or converse in them.
The singer's highly speciarized and stylized method of vocal production
and delivery-singing-dictates a similarly speciarized
and siylized ap-
proach to the study of language. This is the
sludy of "singing diction,',
the term to be used here to differentiate it from other dictián
,troy. th.
study of singing diction has many of the same aspects as general
diction
study, but it is differentiated from the latter by the added a-spect
of iearn_
ing how to sing in an intelligible and vocaily comfortable
wáy the sounds
of any given language.
Singing diction is the missing rink in the chain of vocal study.
It bridges
the gap between language and vocal deriverl. itself by defininj
the sounds
upon which the voice is to be transmitted. The sonorities
and shapes of
words and their sounds are to the sin-ser \\hat steps and patterns
are to
the dancer and what corors and stroki are to the painter.
The sound of
a word is the vehicle upon which'ocarizarion is conveyed.
It makes the
essential connection betw'een basic r ocal procluction
and the end result:
coruectly produced. preasing. intelligible. and erpressive
singing. The
sounds and the meanings of *t¡rrls can coror una rrigntigtt
tire voice,
shape and align its approach to a phr:rse. choreograph
and sketch its path.
The presence of language mosr significantlr clistinguishes
vocar music
from all other music. The role of *ortrs in rhe singing process
is equal in
technical and expressi'e importance to those orproduction,
support, reso-
nance, and phrasing. Since the unrform prorluction
o. o..uriánur modifi-
cation of a vowel-souncl is an integral pait of rhe stucrl,of
singing diction,
even a vocalise or a coloratura displal piece cannot escape
its sphere of
influence. The singer should make ¿ictlon his allr
and consider ir as a
means of deflnition and simplification. Diction is musical:
diction is vocal;
diction is expressive. only when it is srudied *ith the same
zeal as the
other aspects of vocal and musical training ancr is properrl.,
integrated into
the study process will the singer discover the missing irnt
tñut singing
diction can be for him.
So, good singing diction has two purposes:

1. to facilitate and clarify the singing process b-v a definition and mastery
of the sounds to be sung; and
2. to communicate the sounds, meanings, and overail message of a text
in an intelligible, natural, and appropriately expressive waly.
Furthermore, singing diction has three essential aspects, all
.
importance:
equal in

7 ' pronunciation, or the conversion of the letters of a word into the proper
vocal sounds as represented by the symbols of the Internationar pho-
netic Alphabet (I.p.A.);
 The French heu and. the English zz .

2. vocalization, or the distinct and natural singing of these sounds in all

registers of the voice with responsible modification where absolutely
necessary, the aim always being toward intelligibility and natural, un-:.11
hindered vocal production; and
3. interpretative expression, or the effective communication of the mean-
ing, mood, and character of the text as set to music.

The French hea and the English am

When a Frenchman is at a loss for words, which happens more often than
one might expect, he rounds his lips in the position of a pout and drones
on "heu" for a moment, a sound that approximates the -er of English but
which is much more frontal and without the final r. This rounded, defi-
nitely frontal utterance is the "at ease'' position of the French mouth and
clearly illustrates the typical placement of French vocalic emission and
resonance, which is somewhere between the upper front teeth and the base
of the nose. In contrast, the English-speaking conversationalist fills his
void with a heady "um" or a throaty "ah." His lips are flat and the reso-
nance tends to remain somewhere beneath or in back of the nose.
French is a frontal, highly placed language. English, especially Ameri-
can English, is median, somewhat contained and occasionally dropping
in its placement. The Frenchman's lips are highly active in the formation
of words and his vocalic flow is buoyantly resonated in the upper teeth-
to-nose area of his face. Yet French is truly devoid of the raspy nasality
of some American accents. The Frenchman coos and clicks onward at
what seems to be breakneck speed due to the legato character ofhis tongue,
whose syllabic flow is orily slightly more rapid than that of English. To a
foreign ear, the absence ofboth a strong tonic accent, or the heavy stress-
ing of a syllable in the word at the expense of others, likens French to the
patter of a typewriter. The Frenchman's voice seems to rise and descend
in a highly predictable, monotonous melody devoid of cadences and reso-
lutions.
But listen to French! It sings, it floats, it groans, it purrs, and it titillates
the ear with its crisp, clean consonants, its pure, highly resonated, frontal
vowel-sounds. The French and Engfish languages are both tongues of ex-
ceptional beauty and share many etymological similarities.. But they are,
in their essential resonances, as different as the people who created them.
Americans, with their own set of characteristic speech habits, will find
themselves using a previously neglected set of facial muscles and reso-
nating chambers when pronouncing French words and phrases. Singers,
with their heightened vocal awareness, will experience these sensations
even more acutely. The singer's study of French will necessarily involve
 AN INrnooucrloN ro SINcrNc rN FnBNcrt

a greater adjustment and technical precision than that of the conversa-

tionalist. He must master the singing of these sounds with authenticity,
but without vocal discomfort or loss of personal timbre.

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic sym-
bols representing fixed sounds that appear in languages. Each language
employs only certain of the IPA symbols according to the sounds making
up the language. Some languages share common sounds and symbols'
One should be reluctant, however, to transfer the use of the same symbol
from one language to another without the guidance of an expert. The
sounds of these symbols may var-v slightlr from language to language.
After all, the languages evolved naturall¡' before any such system was
heard of. For this reason, the singer must adapt his use ofthe IPA to each
language being studied, for, although basic similarities are most certainly
present between vowel-sounds in t*o different languages that are repre-
sented by the same phonetic s1mbo1 . the¡ ma1'differ significantly with
respect to resonance and coloration. Beuare of systems that rely on
equivalents in English or other Ianguages, It is just not that simple. Lan-
guages cannot be expected to share identical vowel-sounds just because
of a set of phonetic s.vmbols. as helpfui as thel'may be. In this manual,
the phonetic symbols under eramination. and the sounds they represent,
are applicable to French onlr'. ercept uhen. in rare instances, they can
be safely compared to sounds in other languages'
In French singing diction there ¿ire thrrt¡'-six sounds represented by a
corresponding number of phonetic sl mbols: fifteen vowel-sounds, eigh-
teen consonant-sounds. and three semiconsonant sounds. IPA symbols
will of course be used ertensir ell rn this manual. These symbols must
always be enclosed in brackets. uhether single ([a], [s],) or multiple
(tbotel). whole lines of verse should be enclosed in one set of brackets
if comprising a single. uninterrupted musical phrase:
Dans ton coeur dort un clair de lune.
[dótókcerd cr& kl e rd ce I I n ce]
(In your heart there sleeps a moonlight.)
Phonetic symbols should always be made clearly and exactly. A slight
variation in the formation of the symbol might make for ambiguity. Never
write phonetic symbols in script or capitalize them for any reason unless
the symbol happens to be a capital, which is very rare in French. "Bright
¿" (tal) must not be confused with "dark a" ([o]), and so on. The symbol
[ce] must always be drawn "siamese-style" and not [oe], since the latter
 French: A Legato Language

symbols represent two dtfferent neighboring vowel-sounds. All punctu-

ation such as commas, apostrophes, periods and the like are foreign to
phonetic spelling and must not appear in phoneticizations. Phonetic sym-
bols are pictures of exact sounds, not of inflection, stress, or duration.
Two diacritical marks may be used within the brackets of a phonetici-
zation. The ñrst, [/], may be used to indicate ahiatus or any break between
neighboring sounds:
Hélas! hélas!
[elos/elos]
(Alas ! alas !)

The second, [-], may indicate a sizable prolongation of a vowel-sound

and serves to phoneticize the effect of a legato:
Ah, fuyez! douce image!
[o-+ fq ij e-+ d u-+ s i m a--.> 3 e]
(Ah, be gone! sweet image!)

French: A Legato Language

When singing in French, the basic tenet of bel canto must be strictly and
constantly observed: legato. Although almost everyone knows that legato
involves a connected, smooth, and unintem¡pted production of sound,
this vocal ideal is rarely linked to singing diction as it should be. Also,
there seems to be considerable confusion as to what a true legato is and
how it can be achieved.
An understanding of what vowels and consonants are, and their proper
relationship, is necessary to the realization of a true legato. A vowel
(ah, ee, oh, and so on) is a'free, unobstructed, defined vocal sound pro-
duced by the breath, which becomes voice at the vocal cords, passes
through the mouth, and ultimately takes on its particular vocalic defini-
tion through the various and precise positions assumed by the lips and
tongue upon emission. The word vowel comes from the Latin word vox,
meaning "voice." A consonant(tuh, vuh, muh, and so on) is the stoppage,
blockage, or friction, partial or complete, of the breath sufficient to cause
audible separation of the vocalic flow. The woÍd consonant comes from
the Latin word. consonare, meaning "to sound with."

A true legato is the uniform production of pure vowel-sounds for the

duration of their assigned note-values, these pure vowel-sounds being sep-
arated and ushered in by rapid, late, and clear consonants that, in turn,
must never be allowed to shorten or alter the preceding or following vowel-
sound.
 AN INrnooucrloN ro Sl¡¡cINc rN FnnNcg

To illustrate the principle of legato and its relationship to the flow of

vowel- and consonant-sounds, the opening phrase of Henri Duparc's well-
known song "Chanson triste" shall be examined here'

ttChanson tristert' H. Duparc-J. Lahor

Lent
trZs dnux.
Ld-ó-e --->?.+&*t-@+Y.....-¿¡ij
r/

Daru ton c.e,ur dorL un cleir cie l* - ne.,

Ldñ'--->li -+ke * rdc r&. *kl¡. * ¡la -- Ly 11&

- -
7

Da¡ts ton dirt tLT:- cLrtr áo L* i1P,

As demonstrated on the accompan¡ ing recording. (Recording Illustration

A) in line one only the vori el-sound: 3¡s i¡trrned in an uninterrupted stream
of vocalized sound. These .''o$e1-5ounds must be as distinct but at the
same time as uniformll "placed" as pr-rs:ibie, It is misieading to assume
that goocl diction is founcleci on e\agger¿1ted. hrghlr differentiated vowel-
sounds. Instead, neighboring vouel-sounds should aluays be closely
matched in singing by a conscious e.ramination t¡f u hat thel' have in com-
mon. The first flve vowel-sounds of this line are all I er¡ closely related,
all being centered around the basic ltezr position. Their individual differ-
ences may be subtly and distinctly underlined in order to make the text
intelligible, but never at the expense of the uniformitl of the vocalized
flow of sound. The vowel of the word clair is the onll unrounded one of
the phrase; in its "raw" state it is bright and w'ide. But to exaggerate these
aspects of the vowel-sound [e] would be a mistake. just as it would be to
conceal them entirely. Also, the vowel-sound of the ¿l of fhe word lune
is the most closed and pointed of the line of verse that speaks of a heart
filled with sleeping moonlight. It would be a jolt to the mood and vocal
flow of the phrase to fail to match this [y] of lune as closely as possible to
the surrounding open, mellow vowel-sounds while at the same time re-
taining just enough of its intrinsic quality for the sake of intelligibility.
"Singr¡?8 diction," yes, by all means, but never "singers'diction" and
the self-conscious exaggerations such a term implies!
In the second line of the example above, the consonants have been
slipped in rapitl, late, and clear, on the same stream of vocalic sound'

r
I

l,
 Consonant-Vowel Flow

French consonants must be:

rapid, not prolonged or dwelled upon;
late, never anticipated or shortening the preceding vowel-sound, but
"postponed" as long as possible, serving only to usher in the following
vowel-sound; and
clear, not mumbled, fuzzy, or inaudible.
As can be seen by the phoneticization and heard by the intoning and
singing of the second line, consonants in singing exist only in relation to
the vowel. They serve to separate and propel the vowel-sounds without
ever inhibiting or arresting their flow.
Even and especially in fast-moving, wordy, so-called staccato reci-
tations the legato principle is applicable. A vocal staccato is the reverse
of an instrumental one because words are involved: in singing it is the
attack on the consonant that creates the effect of staccato; on an instru-
ment it is the release of the sound (or úowel, in vocal terms). The singer
must render his consonants even more rapid, late, and clear than before
to provide the incisive, wordy nature of the vocal staccato. More impor-
tant, at the same time, he must elongate and sing as much as possible the
vowel-sounds so that the voice is at all times resonant and audible and
the text intelligible. (See the section on "Vocal Staccato" in chapter 5.)

Consonant-Vowel Flow
Beginning students of French often complain that the language seems to
"run together" and that, unlike English and German, there are no clear
separations between wbrds of a French sentence. Although but a super-
ficial impression, it is true that the tendency to melt words together makes
French the legato language that it is. Singers need not complain of this
characteristic, for it makes the language eminently singable and a good
starting point for the mastery of a true legato. The legato character of the
French language is due to the regular and practically uninterrupted alter-
nation of consonant and vowel flow within the individual word and from
word to word as well. This word-to-word flow is achieved by means of
three linking devices.
l. Liaison is the sounding of a normally silent final consonant in a word
that is followed by another word beginning with a vowel or a mute l¿. (See
the following section for a discussion of the mute á.) Note how liaison is
marked in the following example:
Elle est ici avec un homme.
teletisYavekénYmel
(She is here with a man.)
 AN INrtooucrIQN ro SINctNc IN FnnNcn

be "in liaison" with the fol-

Here, the t of est and the n of un are said to
would be silent'
lowing vowel-soundr. Ño'-uttv, these final consonants
as in the following examPle:

Elle es/ venue avec uy' cadeau'

[elevcnYavekókado]
(She has come with a gift')
are here followed by
That is because these same final consonant-letters
of two vowel-sounds' as in
consonant-sounds. s",,1; "'"id the meeting
are pronounced as if
the first example sentence, these final consonants always' the conso-
As
itr"y *".. the first t"tte,s áf tn" follouin-e r'r'ords' ushering in the
nant in liaison mrst;;;api¿, iut.. ancl clear' smoothly
the preceding- one,' Liaison
new vowel-sound, never aliering or shortening
in singing diction than in every-
is more frequently un¿ 'tvtlttltállt usetl
after the usage of the French classi-
day speech, ana l, g.*'ait1" moOet'O
br a feu set rules' grammar and
cal theater. fts apptication-is governed in chapter 3'
syntax, euphony un¿ Jooá-tu'it li"iton
is further discussed
-e in a word that is fol-
2. Elisíon is the oÑssion of a final' unstressed
a mute lz' Note how elision
lowed by a word b.;i;;i;= uith a ro$e1 or
is marked in the follouing e.rample:
EllP e:t ici dePuis une-heure'
¡e
_-"le --tisidcepl'i=-z -v -nceral
(She has been here for an hour')

Here,thefinal-¿'sofelleandunearesaidtobe"elided"'abasicruleof
French versification, are foilo§ed respectively' by a vowel-
'illtt 'tttv preceding the elided e is de-
sound and a mute l¿' The consonant-sound word' In
just
layed until the following vowel-sound of the next
before
the [e] of es¡' thus allowing
this example, the Ul of 'tln l" sounJed with
of its syllable Above all' liaison
the [e] of elle to o."upy it'" totut duration
is not to be confused *ith The two words are not interchangeable'
"li'ion'
noriselisionut.un.tutionofliaison.Whereasliaisonistheadditionofa
consonant-Soundthatisotherwiseunsounded,elisionisthecontraction
Elision is common to both
of a vowel-sound that is otherwise sounded'
and is relatively inflexible' The
everyday speech uttá to singing diction'
are more thoroughly
final _¿ and its musical settinglnd phoneticization
discussed under [ce] below'
a normally sounded final
3. l,lormal Linking-(Jp is the carrytng over of
a vowel or a consonant. Note
consonant i.rto u *oi¿ U'"ginning witir either
examples:
how nr¡rmal linking-up is-markád in the following
Ilest ici.
[iletisi]
(He is here.)
 Hiatus, Mute and Aspirate h

Dans ton claiCde lune.

[d d-+ t "oeoCdor?un
ó-+ kc-+ rd c-+ ré -+ kl e-+ rd a I y-+ ¡6]
(In your heart there sleeps a moonlight.) :j
In the first example, the l of i/ is said to be "normally linked-up" with the
following vowel-sound, in rapid, late, and clear fashion, as always. Al-
though its effect is the same, normal linking-up should not be confused
with liaison, since each is governed by a different set of rules concerning
phonetic changes. (See chapter 3, "Phonetic Changes Due to Liaison.")
For example, an -s that is in liaison becomes [z], but an -s that is normally
linked-up remains [s]:
sans amour senfextasiés
ls dYamurl ts d s e kst oziel
(without love) (senses in ectasy)
Here, the normally silent, final -s of sans js in liaison with the first syl-
lable of amour, and is sounded as [z]. Birt the final -s of sens, normally
pronounced as [s], remains [s] when linked with extasiés. Sounding the
flnal -s of sens as [z] in this expression would render "sans extasier,"
which is sheer nonsense meaning something roughly akin to "without
giving ecstasy." In the second example above ("Dans ton coeur dort un
clair de lune"), the normally pronounced r of dort (d,o not link the r in
liaison!) is linked with the [ó] of un, and the r of clair with the [d] of de.
Similarly the r of coeur is sounded immediately before the [d] of dort.
Consonant-sounds must be normally linked-up with ensuing consonant-
sounds just as they are with ensuing vowel-sounds in the interest of the
legato. Remember: rapid, late, and clear.

Hiatus, Mute and Aspirate h

Hiatus is the meeting of two vowel-sounds, either in the same word (as
in chaos [kao], meaning "chaos") or in two different words (as intu es
[tye], meaning "you are," andinpeu d peu lpaapol; meaning "little by
little"). Hiatus is often indicated by the presence of the dieresis in such
words as Noél [ncel], Azaél fazaell, and natf [naif]. Although the
tendency in French is toward a constant alternation of consonant- and
vowel-sound, hiatus most certainly does occur upon occasion. Above all,
it must not cause any real interruption in the legato. When in the same
word, or in different, closely related words, there should be no glottal
click interrupting the vocalic flow:
erylryté luilgtlglle
[kryote] [yieele]
(cruelty) (he and she)
10 AN INrnooucrloN ro StNclNc lN FneNcn

Nor should a forbidden liaison be made just to prevent hiatus:

Le printgrylP/ est triste.
Impr6tóetrista]
(The springtime is sad.)
Here, the liaison is forbidden on a singular noun. the word printe mps
meaning "springtime." But, the absence of liaison is r¡o reason to inter-
rupt the legato vocalic flow. lnstead, the volvels should occupy, each in
turn, the full note-value assigned them. *'ith no glottal click in between.
occasionally, for the sake of textual claritl . or because of the presence
of an aspirate h (to be discusseil immediatel¡ below), a gentle separation
may be made between the neighbonng Io*el-sounds of two different
words that create the hiatus, or even be¡reen the consonant-sound that
would normally be linked by elision or liaison and the ensuing vowel-
sound. This latter separation nra-v be due to punctuation or the need to
avoid confusion in the meaning of the tert:
Elle/i la mer: nousi¿ru tombeau
[cl/a--tla--- m er/n u''o+ t ó - L,o ]
(It, to the sea; we, to the tonlb t

("Beau soir." Debuss) -Btrurget )

Here, a slight separation after ¿11¿' a,, r¡ids the ambiguous intrusion of
Ualal in the line of verse. The separation trf i¡,r¿¿s from o1t can be justified
by the claritying punctuation in the English translation:
Comm¿;une larme. il s érapore.
[kc-->my-nc-la+rm i-.-] s e-- \ 3 - p r -..- rctl
(Like a tear, it vanishes.)
("Le Secret." Fauré-Sllvestre )

Here, although Fauré does not indicate such a separation in his setting
of the line, the comma and the synta\ cr) out for a slight separation be-
tween lartne andi/. To say tttrny)il uould be tantamout to saying "tear it"
in English.
ung/honte l4lhaine
[yntr/óta] [1alcne]
(a disgrace) (hatred)
In the above examples, both ft's are aspirate, which does not really mean
what it suggests. The letter l¡ in French is almost never sounded (or aspi-
ratecl) as it is in the English word "how." But in French an aspirate á
forbids liaison and elision. Furthermore, its presence may justify a slight
reattacking of the vowel-sound following it, as shown in the above ex-
amples.
11 Hiatus, Mute and Aspirate h

Anyone who does not speak French fluently cannot expect to detect
the difference between a word beginning with an aspirate h- and one be-
ginningwithanh-thatismute.Todoso,hemustconsultthedictionary.
Only an initial ¿- can be potentially aspirate, such as tlte h- in the word
honte; the l¿'s in the wordbrouhaha cottld never be aspirate. To ascer-
tain the presence of an aspirate á, look up in the dictionary the word in
question that begins withh.If it is preceded in the dictionary by an asterisk
(*), an apostrophe ('), or a dagger (t), the word definitely begins with an
aspirate h. If, however, there is no such sign in the dictionary before the
word beginning with h, the inttialh- is mute. Whereas an aspirate ft for-
bids them, a mute á permits liaison, elision, and contraction:
un
-vllomme utry'lorreur l$onneur
[ancma] [yncrcr] [cnar]
(a man) (a horror) (honor)

Only in operatic outbursts such as "Je te hdis!" ("I hate you!") might
the aspirate ft be truly aspirated as in English how or German hell. This
sound, however, is not typical to French and should be used sparingly
and only for reasons of expressive emphasis.
This discussion of the interruption of the flow of vocalic sound (or the
legato) is not to encourage an indiscriminate use of hiatus. Some singers
and coaches show an exaggerated, even misguided respect for punctu-
ation, especially commas, at the expense of the vocalic and textual flow.
A comma does nof necessarily indicate an interruption of the legato, either
in French or in English. Both the hiatus and the "punctuating breath"
are threats to a good legato if used irresponsibly and to extremes. Down-
right butchery occurs if, in the following line, a slight break or breath is
allowed for each comma. The English translation should amply ex-
plain why.

Voici des fruits, des fleurs, des feuilles, et des branches.

[vwa-+ si-+ de-+frqi-+ d e-+ fle-+ r d e--+f ej e-+ z e-+ d e-+ b rd-+.1 a]
(Here are fruits, flowers, leaves, and branches.)
( " Green, " Debussy-Fauré-Verlaine)

Nor do other punctuation marks always call for breaks in the phrase:
Ah! s'il était ici!
[o-> s i-+ I e-+ t e--+ t i s i]
(Ah! if only he were here!)
(Faust, Gounod)

OnIy meaning and expression may determine breaks in a musical line,

not mere punctuation, just as in everyday speech.
12 AN INrnooucrroN ro SrNcrNc rN FnBNcn

Syllabic Division
To determine the pronunciation of a French word, a fundamental knowl-
edge of syllabic division is desirable, especially since most musical scores,
including those printed in France, give incorrect or unclear division. Some
simple rules govern the division of syllables in the French word. They
are best grouped according to vowels and consonants.

VOWELS

As a general rule, syllabic division in French is made after the vowel-

sound. In other words, most French syllables end in vowel-sounds, not
in consonant-sounds as they do in English. A srllable in French contains
at least one and only one vowel-sound.
¡ French vowel-sounds may be represenred in spelling by one vowel
letter:
almalbilltltg !/nuit_|,lq
[amabilite] [inytila]
(friendliness) (useless )

o French vowel-sounds ma1,be represented rn spelling by more than one *

vowel-letter, by two or three. and even four at a time:
trgg/ba/dour beau té
[trubadur] [bote]
(troubadour) (beaun )

cq.eur queue
lke rl lkfrl
(heart) (tail)
o Consecutive vowel-letters are usually grouped together, as above, in
the same syllable, e.\:cept:
l. When the second vowel-letter is marked by a dieresis (")
ndlf Nzdél
[n aif] [az a e l]
(naive) (Azaél)
2. When é or i (acute- and grave-accented e) is preceded or followed
by a vowel-letter:
p0/9/te bign-4i/mq/q
[p¡ete] [bjón(e)mee]
(poet) (beloved)
1.1 Syilabic Division

3. in cornbinations -ouill-. -euill-, -ueill-, where division is usually made

before -il1-(also in -aill-):
brou/illard fgu/illg rrar,¿r¡ iller
[brujar] ffajal Itravaje]
(fog) (leaf) (to work)
cue/ill!¡ grqlnqg/iU9
lkej irl [gra nuj eJ
(to gather) (frog)

4. When two or more vowel-letters are preceded by a consonant plus

I or r, in which case division is made between the vowel-letters:
cry/91 bleu/et
[kryel] lb ls el
(cruel) (cornflower)

-s. When letter y occurs between two vowel-letters, and in the word
pa-r's and its derivatives, where it is phonetically equivalent to -ii-:
voyage pays
(voi-iage) (pai-is)
[vwaja3a] [pei]
(voyage) (country)

6. In combination -ao-, ao-, which is usually divided:

ch4/qs {oua
[kaol [awa]
(chaos) (Aoual)

Erceptions:
Sa6ne 49Ut saoul
[son] Iu] ls ul
(Saóne) (August) (drunk)
paon pao/nne pao/nner
tpól [pona] [pone]
(peacock, m.) (peacock, f.) (to strut)

CONSONANTS

As a general rule, syllabic division in French is made before the conso-

nant-sound. Of course, a consonant cannot constitute a syllable without
being accompanied by a vowel-sound.
14 AN INrno»ucrloN ro SIr'¡crNc rN FnBNcn

letters'
o A single consonant-sound, whether represented by one or more
occurring between two vowel-sounds, belongs
to the syllable of the
sect¡nd vowel-sound:
js/U c4lcher bq/nheur
ts¡lil tkaJel [b¡ncer]
(prettY) (to hide) (haPPiness)

as one and
o Double consonants, with feu'erceptions' shouldbe treated
divided accordinglY:
a/ller calsse/ttq
[alel [kasete]
(to go) (strongbox)

oonlythosedoubleconsonantsininitialcombinationsíll-,imm-,inn-.
doubled and must be diri'1eil accordingly'
In this case' the
andirr-are
consonant-sound is merel¡' prolonged:
il/lursion im'mense
tillYzjól [imrnÓs¡]
(illusionl 'immen'c '

o Double consonants in initial cLrmLrinalit)ns ¿'r¡r¡- and etttttt'are usually

lndicates the presence
divided but not doubled' srnce the first of each
of a nasal vowel:
enrnu! em me ner
tónqil [ómcene]
(boredom) (to take along)
ExcePtion:
e/nng/mi
[encrmi]
(enemY)

on1¡r when followed by

¡ Double consonants -gg- and -cc- are divitJed
e or í'.
sug/gelrqr aclcgplfet 4c/c-ildent
[sYgSere] [aksePte] [aksidÓ]
itó trgg"tO (to accePt)
(accident)

Whennotfollowedbyeori,theyarebothrelegatedtothesamesyllable:
ylggrflvgr By'cchus
[agrav e] [b akY s]
(to aggravate) (Bacchus)
15 Syllabic Division

o Division usually occurs between any two neighboring consonants:

pgr/lsr edfant
[p arl e] lóf ól
(to speak) (child)
Except between a consonant followed by / or r:
t4lbleau a/pres sg,/cret
[tablo] [apre] [sakre]
(picture) (after) (secret)
And except in the following consonant combinations that produce orte
consonant-sound:
ch: tqg/chgr nh: lnhu/main
[t uJ e] [inyméJ
(to touch) (inhuman)
th: gq/thlque gn: Se:y'gneur
[gctike] e r]
[s eJr
(Gothic) (Lord)
ph: Sa/phq sc: de/scgn/drg
[s af o] [desódre]
(Sappho) (to go down)

Three consecutive consonant-letters are usually divided between the

first and second letters:
chgr/cher mglVgr§ rgs/plgp/dir
[JerJeJ [malgre] [resplédir]
(to look for) (in spite of) (to shine forth)
But not in combinations affected by the rules already given above:
atUléltg flphreldlte úfflleer
latletal [afrcdite] [afli¡e]
(athlete) (Aphrodite) (to afflict)
Since the letter x is usually representative of two different consonant-
sounds, it is generally cut in half:
e*il Etcq/llent
[egzil] [ekseld]
(exile) (excellent)
But not in most numerical words:
soi/xadte
[swasdta]
(sixty)
16 AN INrnooucrloN To SINGING IN FnBNcn

Sfress and Word RhYthm

Inmostlanguageswithwhichthesingerisconcerned,onesyllablein
every word or word-group receives more weight or emphasis than the
re-
otheis. This weight oi emphasis is known as s/ress, and the syllable
ceiving it is called the stressed or accented syllable. The intermittent
as word
occurrence of stressed syllables within a line of verse is known
rhythm or prosodY.
i stress on a syllable so heavy that it affects the vowel quality and
length of the surrounding syllables is knor"n as a tonic accent'
An ex-
of the *ord interest.It dominates the
urnit" in English ls tne syttaile i¡¿-
*oid, ,o to speak, and the remaining s¡11ables fall away from it'
In French, there is no tonic accent comparable to that of Italian, Ger-
man, or English. Unlike English. the stress in a French word habitually
-e'
falls on the flnal or last vowel-sound. but never on final, unstressed
.¿§,or-enlsoundingas[tr]or[a].Compare¡hefoliowingwordsinEnglish
between
and French, noting the differences in stress and s¡'llabic equality
the two languages as shou'n br the nLrte-\a1ues. \\'hether spoken or sung,
French syllabic equality is more even and re-su1ar than that of English
(see Recording Illustration B):

ENcI-tsH Fns,Ncn

3
hi\N
1fi.¡dellityl . ..,,"I'
fidélité )' ¿' ,' )
3 .,
4(morous) -31-.! ,,11
-
u*r*. ).¡ ;
'\'- intéressant
fl\l
-3-
,'J
in( teresting) ¿ . .
t J' J'

Word-groups follow the same principle in French: the stress falls on

-e'
the last sounded vowel of the word-group, except flnal' unstressed
-es,and-ent.ComparetheEnglish..Thatisimpossiblel..totheFrench
..Ciest impossible!" Note, however, that for emphasis in both languages
stress may be changed by accenting the first syllable of the word impos-
the
siál¿. Most important of ail, the tonic accent in English diminishes
length and resonance of the surrounding syllables' whereas the stress on
the flnal syllable in French has no diminishing or varying effect on the
preceding syllables.
All of this is to warn the singer not to insert whimsical stresses into a
sung line of French verse by exággerating or distorting the rhythm.
Mark-
voice is also foreign to all vocal styles except perhaps
ing tne beat with the
nulrr..y rhymes and some folk music. Such monotony of stress is deadly
in its effect on the legato, on the expressive delivery of the text' and is
:-.lnll.unmusical and tiresome to the ear. Instead, a consistent vocali-
-':ion of ail the vowel-sounds and their corresponding syllables is the key
; -- good legato in French. If the composer has demonstrated a good sense
"
-: prosody, the stressed words or syllables will emerge of their own ac-
:.¡rd. Sometimes, unimportant words may fall on the "strong beat" of the
:reasure, but this is no reason to stress them. Good phrasing and legato
:rction must resist the "tyranny of the bar line."
Equalization of the syllabic flow by occasional stress where appro-
1i,a1!e1s,tle ideal here. In singing dotted and triplet patterns (J. ) ,¡. ,',
, ' ) , - ), etc.) the longer note should not be accented at the expense of
.¡e shorter one unless the music is of a martial, folksy, or highly declama-
:.¡rv nature. In general, it is a good idea to underline carefully the syllable
,ssigned to the shorter note. Anticipate it slightly, and vocalize it fully to
.nsure the legato and the natural evenness of the French syllabic flow. In
:ne following examples, in which the prosody is somewhat weak, note
:row a gentle underlining of the short note can "iron out" a rhythmic
-erkiness inappropriate to both the text and the musical phrase (see Re-
:ording Illustration C):

'rles BerceauX," G. Fauré-Sully-Prudhomme

/rr.Ásnre J.=,,

Le to¡o d.u oit¿"; lps orml.6- Ya'Lí-SEI,ILX,

J-ro
-

''Connais-tu le paysr" Mignon, A. Thomas

lrndante
do'Le

.,ün - I4§-tu Pl- ys

:.:member that this underlining of the shorter note-values is a means of

. rrrothing out and equalizing syllabic flow. It must not be misused to
- eate false accents within the musical phrase.
 18 AN INrnooucrloN ro SrNcINc rN Fnr,ucn

Scores, Editions, Printing Procedures' and Errors

A good musician and a serious student of diction must always start with
the premise that there is no such thing as an edition without errors. Some
have fewer than others, but none can be completely trusted. A "reliable
edition" is one that has been carefully checked against other editions by
experts thoroughly acquainted with the repertoire. First editions are some-
times the least accurate. Anthologies, so common and so widespread in
the United States, are the most suspect, especially the large-print variety
"edited by X" or "with an English version by Y"' Beware of unacknowl-
edged transpositions and ossic interpolations. They can both betray and
deform the true character of a composition and, more often than not,
would not have been condoned by the composer.
Some points to remember when deciphering the texts in French vocal
scores, whether published in France or not are:

. A capitalized word is not aluals an important one or a proper noun.

The first word of a line of verse is traditionalll' capitalized in the print-
ing of poetry and rvill appear so in the musical score.
o Composers and editors (both French and non-French) do not always
syllabify words correctl). Fuñhermore. thel often fail to insert dashes
between syllables to shou that ¡her b'elong to the same u'ord. It is al-
ways beneficial to see the tert in its original poetic format' Some edi-
tions provide such information for this reason and should be consulted.
o Due to lack of space, accent-marks are traditionalll omitted over capi-
tal letters in print. Thus, the word étoile ma\ appear as Eroile when
capitalized, but it still sounds the same as uhen uncapitalized.
o Original punctuation is often omitted or incorrectli'inserted in scores.
Again, verification with the isolated poetic tert in a literary' source is
the best procedure.
o Very often there are inaccuracies and outnght errors in translations pro-
vided in some editions. Always check them in the dictionary or with
a qualified expert before believing in them. A smooth, even faithful
translation need not necessarily be word-for-word. Such a literal trans-
lation inserted into the score may help the singer be aware of the mean-
ing of each word he is singing. But when reading a translation out loud
a fluent one is preferable, or one that is faithful to the origiral but reads
well at the same time.
. Some words, alas, are truly untranslatable. It is not always an affecta-
tion to say that there is no real English equivalent for a certain French
word. For example, the word ennui means "boredom," "slight de-
pression," and "worry" all wrapped into one word.
o And finally, the "translation" provided directly beneath the original
French text in the score should be considered an "English version,"

li
l9 Scores, Editions, Printing Procedures, and Errors

not a translation. This is a sad remnant of the time when art song was
sung in paraphrase translations that rhymed, a blatant dismissal of the
fact that the poem existed in its own right before the music set to it, and
that it was the poem in its original language and poetic form that in-
spired and guided the composer. Fortunately, today the world has been
sufficiently "internationalized" so that Schubert songs are no longer
sung in French translation for after-dinner entertainment and the poetry
of Verlaine is no longer paled by genteel Victorian couplets.
Singing nhc Sounds
of ühc Frcnch Longufiqc

The Fifteen Vowel-sounds in French

Below is a numbered list of the fifteen vowel-sounds in French that gives
for each vowel the phonetic symbol, its "name," and words that contain
the vowel.sound in question. (Consult Recording Illustration D.)

TIIE FOUR TONGUE VOWEL§

1 til "phonetic i" midi, il lit, cygne
l. lel "closed e" Qt§, aimer, nez
3. [e] "open e" bslle, mlre, mais
a. [a] "bight a" l¿ t¿ble, ¿rt

THE FOUR LIP VOWELS

5. [o] "dafk a" ime, passer
6. [c] 'oopen o" mqrt, robe, aurqre
7. [o] "closed o" mqt, beag, faux
8. [u] "phonetic z" d@x, eü, grenouille

THE THREE MIXED VOWELS

e. tyl "phonetic vowel y" lune, dur, but
10. [s] "o-slash" deux, fgg, quggg
1 1. [ce] "oh-ge" fl2r, coeur, cil
Ie] "schwa" lung, bien-aimég

2t
)) SrNcINc rnr, SouN»s oF THE FnsNcn LeNGuec¡,

THE FOUR NASAL VOWELS

12. Ldl "dark a nasal" enfant, sembler
13. tól "closed o nasal" bon, tg¡qber
t4. lÉ) "open e nasal" vin, pain. simple
15. tél "oh-ee nasal" un parfum. humble

Thevowelchartbelowindicatestherelationshipsbetweenthevowels'
Inthetoprowaretheeightbasicvou-el.sounds.Thefirstfouraregov-
erned byiongue position, the four adjacent are formed by the
lips' Below
three sets of solid lines that meet connect
these eight vowel-sounds, the
and lip po,sitions. rihich. respectively, pro-
those combinations of tongue
The four clotted lines connect the
duce the three mixed vowel-sounds.
basic vowel-sound or the mixed Vo$e1-st¡und §ith its nasal counterpart'

Ii Is]--[*] Iu]
J-t.------..-
-\
\ -lol

\
\
tÉJ ia) t6l

WAYS OF CLASSIFYI\G VO\\-ELS

There are seven groupings among the ñfteen rc¡uel-sounds in French.
l. Tongue ancl Lip vot¡els. The fc¡rmatit'rn of four French vowel-sounds
is governed exclusively bV the tongue: iil. iel. tel' ial ' These four vowel-
sounds are commonly callecl "front" ro'uvels b¡'phoneticians. Similarly,
the following four vou'e1-souncls are formed mainiy by the progressive
rounding of the lips: tol. t¡]. tol. tul. These four vowels are commonly
called "back" vowels by phoneticians. a term obviously out of place in
the study of singing diction.
2. Mixedvowels. The three vou'els tl l. tsl. and [ce] are called "mixed"
because their formation is dependent upon the simultaneous positioning
of the tongue and of the lips. These three voweis are also called "mixed
rounded vowels" and "rounded front vowels" by the phoneticians. Along
with [ce], number eleven in the list on page 21. is given the neutral, weak
vowel [e], or "schwa." This vowel is an unrounded, unfronted version
of [ce] that never occupies a full syllable, is always unstressed, and is of
split-second duration.
 ,l The Fifteen Vowel-sounds in French

3. Nasal Vowels. The last four vowel-sounds in the list on page 22 are
produced by the resonating of three basic vowel-sounds and one mixed
vowel-sound in the nasal cavities behind the nose. They are [ó], [ó], [é]i
and [ó].
4. Closed and Open Vowels. There are seven vowel-sounds that are
more closed than open: [i], [e], [o], [u], ly),lsl, and [ó]. This closed qual-
ity may be effected by either the tongue or the lips, or by both simultane-
ously. In vocal terms, a "closed" vowel should be thought of as more
"focused" or "pointed" when sung. Singers must abandon the errone-
ous concept of the closed vowel as being restricted, constricted, and
"enclosed" in the mouth or throat. On the contrary, they are the easiest
to project when properly executed. For good singing diction, a "closed"
vowel must never be pinched or "swallowed," but instead matched as
closely as possible with neighboring vowels that are more or less open to
insure the uniformity of the vocalic flow.
Five vowels and three correspondins rtasal vowels can be considered
"open": [e], [a], [q], [c], [ce], [d], [é], and [ó]. Their openness is dependent
upon either a wider opening between the tongue and the upper back molars
or less rounding of the lips. These vowels, although usually considered
to be comfortable and preferable to sing, are the ones most apt to be
"spread" or to lose "foc¡"rs" when being sung. Every effort must be made
to preserve the uniformity of the vocalic flow from open to closed vowel
by correct focusing and resonance of the open vowel when in the midst
of neighboring closed vowel-sounds.
5. Rounded and Unrounded Vowels. Six vowel-sounds and two cor-
responding nasals are more "rounded" than the rest. In forming them,
the lips are thrust forward in varying degrees in the shape of a circle. These
vowels are [c], [o], [u], lyl,lsf, [a], [ó], and [é]. American singers are
often guilty of "flattening out" rounded vowels. Also, they frequently
fail to preserve the roundness of the vowel during its emission by a slack-
ening in the lip position. This is perhaps due to speech habits and the
diphthongal character of the English language itself, and plus the fact
that the lip muscles may not be properly trained to achieve and retain re-
laxed but consistent rounding. The over-rounding of vowel-sounds is
equally objectionable for obvious reasons: first, defective pronunciation
and the resultant lack of intelligibility, and second, unhealthy vocaliza-
tion that can lead to hooty, constricted, or throaty singing.
Five vowel-sounds and one corresponding nasal require no rounding
of the lips for their formation: [i], [e], [e], [a], [q], and [é]. When these
unrounded vowels occur next to rounded vowel-sounds, they are some-
times pronounced incorrectly due to an unwarranted rounding of the lips
during their emission. Some singers round all their vowel-sounds indis-
criminately, either for "vocal reasons" (that all-encompassing, lame

-
24 SrNctNc rne SouNos oF THE FnBNcn LeNcuecB

excuse) or because they think that this is "French," probably an impres-

sion received from the prosaic Gallic pout observed in the parodied imi-
tations of a French accent so prevalent in American films and on the stage.
This annoying (and amateurish) habit, a true vocai and linguistic man-
nerism, only results in vocal monotony and hootiness, not to mention
lack of intelligibility. For example, a rounded [i] sounds like [y], making
"Je dis" sound like "Je dus." A rounded [c] resembles [a], thus con-
fusing "pére" and'"peur," and so on. Onll for reasons of vowel modi-
fication to achieve vocal facility should an1' degree of rounding be exer-
cised on unrounded vowels, and then onl1'rrith the guidance of a trained
ear.
6. Controsting Vowel-pair.s. There are four contrasting vowel-pairs,
three in the "closed-open" categor). one in the 'bright-dark" category'
These vowel-sounds receive their identit¡ L,r ctrntrast rather than as iso-
lated sounds:
Closeo Oprr
the two "e's" [e] le,
the two "¿¡'s" [ol
the two "er's" [o] r'a

BRtcur D rRx
the two "¿'s" [a] [ol
7. Isolated Vov'el-sounds Thar Fornt tt FLtntilt [i] tul t-""1. Both [i] and
[u] are isolated in that the_v alone of the eight b,asic French vowel-sounds
have no corresponding open. bright. or dark rersrons, But the remaining
unclassified vowel-sound [y]. also uithout a corresponding version in
French, is formed by a simultaneous combination of [i] and [u] , thus
grouping the three together to form a vou'el famil¡

Some Guiding Rules

for the Formation of Vowels
THE TIP OF THE TONGUE
In the formation of all flfteen vowel-sounds in French, the tip of the
tongue must always be gently placed behind the two front lower teeth,
without undue pressure and never arching forward, however. In this way,
the middle and sides of the tongue are free and in position to participate
in the formation of each vowel.
 Some Guiding Rules for the Formation of Vowels

THE SIDES AND THE MIDDLE OF THE TONGUE

. ie
sides of the tongue may be called upon to rise slightly to or toward
::r upper back molars. They must do so without any undue rising of the
-..Jdle of the tongue toward the hard palate. And although the middle
: lhe tongue may approach the hard palate in the formation of some
' ..'.els. it must never actually touch the hard palate. Any positioning of
: irrrrgu€ must be effected with utmost rapidity and precision both to
- - '.:. accuracy of vowel quality and to avoid diphthongization. Also.
- :: ti on of the tongue must be maintained for the duration of the vowei-
-' : r

,- , ..r note-value), quietly and with relaxation.

'¡ ', --\', (-lF THE LIPS

. r . :r; :.¡ be rounded, they must leave the teeth in the shape
: - ' r .r.i act of whistling. Depending upon the vowel, this circle
'
- : . : : n311€r in diameter. All lip-rounding must be effected with
' : .:-:ion. and rapidity. To test lip relaxation, stroke the
:. :-:k11 w'ith the index finger. Any resistance on the part of
:=, eal the slightest trace of tension. Since lip-rounding in
j:-:. ill)
less extreme and, above all, less sustained, rounded
: - - - ' o\\.els may initially cause the English-speaking singer slight dis-
-'-:: or self-consciousness. Hitherto neglected lip muscles may be
. :: rpon in the formation of the rounded French vowels. While avoid-
-- '.::ion at all cost, the degree of lip-rounding must be exact to insure
'; ::sired vowel quality, and positioning must be split-second to avoid
: - -..ngization. Then, once the position of rounding is assumed, it must
. for the duration of the syllable or note-value.
'r.,

-r: \\1- T

' : :u Should never be directly applied to the format)on oI any vowe)-

It must be left absolutely loose in the formation of all vowel-sounds.
--:: ltrtally mobile and free, the jaw must never be unnecessarily
- ,
dropped
' :,.he d downward in the formation of any vowel-sound. For any un-
- ::J vowel, the lips may assume the natural "ah" position while the
:, --i the tongue insure the formation of the vowel-sound. There should
' : - - :lenching of the jaw for closed or rounded vowel-sounds. When in
' : rr.rJe sS of rounding, the lips should be thought of as separate from the
.,, hich. of course, they are. In the formation of the closed, rounded

=
-..¡unds, the jaw must not drop unnecessarily; such a motion will
. . :elared and effective lip-rounding that much more difficult. In the
'- -:i.rrn of the more open, rounded vowel-sounds, the circle of the lips
-, .:.: desired degree of rounding determine the degree of jaw release,
26 SrNctNc rnr, SouNos oF THE FnBNcs L¡,NcuecB

not the reverse. It is most often the jaw, not the tongue or lips, which
serves as a source of undesirable tension in the singing process. Articu-
lation of any kind is the function of the smallest part of the anatomy.
Singers must consciously form vowel-sounds with their tongues and lips,
not their jaws or throats, just as a pianist articulates notes with his fingers,
not his arms or neck. It is precisely these larger parts that produce dis-
comfort when they are allowed to participate in a process in which they
have no place.

GLOTTAL ATTACKS
Except in rare instances, there should be no glottal attack at the outset
of any French vowel. This gJottal snap. srr common in American speech
(for example, the society matron s '.{ctuall¡ ") may be avoided
by preceding the vowel-sound u ith a -slight aspiration, or a little "h," or
simply by thinking "h" upon e missrrrn, Occasronall¡'. a very gentle glottal
separation may be appropriate for erpre.:i\ e rrr phonetic reasons as was
demonstrated earlier in the section on hiirrus. the mute and aspirate /r.

VOWEL MODIFICATIO\
Vowel modification is based on pure.ommon sense and good artistry,
but it must not be attempted until alter ¡he r ouel-sounds are secure in
the singer's ear and mouth. lf¡s r¡rriel-:trunds place (focus, resonate) the
voice in different ways. With each r Lr\,.e1-ir)und there is a particular reso-
nance, level, and direction of the 1lo\' r,i rrrcal sound. The singer must
first acquaint himself thoroughli u ith rhe e si.nrial characteristics of each
vowel-sound. Only then can hs ¡¿-:pon:rirlr and intelligently know how
to modify it in the different register\ of rhe r.¡ice.
For example, the vowel [y], as it appear: rn the uord lune, is best pro-
duced as a rounded [i] in the upper reache> r)f the range, while in the lower
voice this vowel is best projected \\ hen thought olas [u] colored by a touch
of [i]. AIso, lel can be opened toward [e ] rn the upper register as long as
the resonance and placement are high. \asal r ou el [e] is most beautifully
sungwhenresonatedin"uh"positiclninalnro.tcrcrr resister.Notall singers.of
course, will modily the same vou'els in thc :anr.- rr-cistcr in the same way. As a
rule. closed vowels in their natural state ar: le.,: cr¡mlortabie to sing in the higher
register, while the open vou'els olten seern to lack "i-¡cus" in the lower reaches of
the voice. Some singers, however. preier to think the closed vowel on a high notc
and may find the open vowel to be perfectl¡ suitable to his lower voice. Tasteful
coloring and projection of any r,'ou'el in anv rcgistcr is a mark of' vocal and
linguistic sophistication and may be arrived at only alter a certain degree of
mastery in both areas. Painters learn to use their basic colors before venturing
into the realm of the nuanced hue. So it is with singers.
:- Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

\-ou'el modification has two objectives: to facilitate the singing process

""-J to give the illusion of the desired vowel-sound. Exaggerated modifi-
,.,:ion that borders on unintelligibility is symptomatic of three possible
-: rditions: faulty or underdeveloped vocal technique, a misconception
: lhe sound and formation of the vowel-sound in the first place, or. more
- -' rmonly, uneducated indifference.

P honeticization, Formation, and Singing

,-)-fthe Vowel-sounds
-HE TONGUE VOWELS
.il midt [midi]
: .el 9té [ete]
, .el belle [bele]
- .el l4 [a]
lhe four tongue vowels have two things in common:
The fronting or raising of the sides of the tongue. All four require,
: :: h to a different degree, the fronting or raising of the sides of the tongue
.,. ard the upper back molars and, to a lesser degree, the fronting or rais-

-: of the middle of the tongue toward, but never to, the hard palate. For
. iour vowel-sounds, the jaw should approximate the "ah" position,
., .J the lips may expand gently to an unforced trace of a smile.
). Resonance, focus , or placemenr. All four tongue vowels are directed
:..*ard the eyes-nose-upper teeth region of the face, sometimes referred
.¡ as the "mask." From [i] all the way to [a], this point of resonance must
:e maintained for authenticity. All opening in these vowels' formation
nust be upward, not downward. The firsttwo sounds, [i] and [e], are so
:lose together that this is almost automatic if they are correctly formed.
\\ ith [e] and [a] the tendency among English-speaking singers is to drop
-.r lower the resonance below the upper front teeth. When this occurs,
.re vowel-sounds are no longer French.

r. Phonetic i [i] Model word: m[di [midi] (noon)

FonuerroN:
Lips in natural "ah" position, corners expanded in slight, unforced smile.
Sides of the tongue touching the upper back molars. Avoid unnecessary
thickening of the tongue, thus keeping the throat area open. Avoid closing
and tensing of jaw. Check to see if the index finger will fit between the
teeth. Placement or resonance high in the "mask," but without nasal
constriction or rasp. Avoid dropped ee of English see.
28 SrNcINc rnr, SouNos oF THE FnBNcH LeNcuecB

SperuNcs:
(N.a.: Spellings. represent all possible vowel-letters or combinations
thereof in any given syllable. Nasalization not considered until nasal
vowels.)

!, i, i as a general rule, when only vowel in syllable, except when Biliris Thais
nasalized (see [é1) lbilitisl ltaisl
(Bilitis) (Thais)
ile
lilel
(island)
ie when final, alwa¡-s la vle Sylvie
llavil lsilvil
(life) (Sylvia)

when medial, in forms and derivatives of verbs in -ier,blut not in j'oublierai

final -ier: gublirel
oub_liler biler (I shall forget)
lubliel [ier] [ier]
(to forget) (yesterday)
y, i, os a general rule, when it is the only vowel-letter in a syllable, ly. Styx
except when nasal (see [El) llisl [stiks]
(lily) (Styx)
LouÍs
llwi sl
(Louys)

2. Closed, [e] Model u,ord: été [e t e] (summer)

FonuerroN:
Lips in natural "ah" position, the corners gently raised in an unforced,
hardly detectable smile. The sides of the tongue touching the upper back
molars, ever so slightly less raised than for [i]. The middle of the tongue
almost imperceptibly lowered or flattened from the position assumed in
the formation of [i]. Avoid unnecessary thickening of the tongue, thus
keeping the throat area open. Avoid closing and tensing ofjaw. Check to
see if the index finger will fit between the teeth. Placement or resonance
high in the mask, but without nasal constriction. Avoid dropped diph-
thong ay of English day. This vowel-sound is extremely close in sound
and formation to [i], but it must not be confused with it. The point of reso-
: - Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

--: ft¡r [e] is slightly broader than, but just as high as, for [i]. Some
-:: > mav find it helpful to begin with [i] to insure the proper placement
- .'_ But the similarities between the vowel-sounds should not render
-.-. iilentical. for they are absolutely distinct from one another.

SPrurNcs:
c as a general rule désiré étoilé
[dezire] [etwale]
(desired ) (starry)
g before final, silent -d, -ds, -r, -z Pied je m'assieds
Ip.re] [;cemasje]
(foot) (I sit down)
allqr pariez
lalel [parle]
(to go) ( speak)
in initial combinations eff-, ess-, dess-, desc- (may be gffet essaim
phoneticized t(e)l to indicate slightly less closed quality; [(e)fe] l(e)s él
see [e] for any exceptions) (effect) (sw,arm)
dgssein descendre
[d (e) s ó] [d(e)sddra]
(design) (to go down)
in a few isolated words qt clef
[e] [kle]
(and) ( key)
eh rqs s us citer
Iel [res-vsite]
(ehl) (to resurrect)
in short words like /es, mes, etc. (normally [e]), when les étoiles
immediately followed by [e]; phoneticize as l(e)l il(e)zetwalel
(the stars)
. (normally [e]) when final in verb forms j'ai .je serai
[: e] [jrtscrre]
(I have) (I shall be)
invocalic harmonization (see Chapter 5) when unstressed bien-aimé gareté
' ai, normally [e], closes to [(e)] whenfollowedby stressed [bjón(e)me] Ig (e) t e]
lel (beloved) (gaiety)
in -ais- (normally [e]) when followed by lz) plus a closed plalsir maison
vowel (use [(e)]) [p1(e)zir] [m (e) z ó]
(pleasure) (house)
 Srs.c'\.N.q rut' Souuos oE -tHE FneNcu L'qNcu'ccE

je vais je sais
in a few isolated words and their derivatives gcvel [3cese1
i(I eo)
(I know)
il sait cu
[ilsel [g e]
(he knows) (eav)
quai aigu
[k e] [e gv]
(quav) (acute)

regypan Phqgbé
&, ce in a few words of Greek origin [e¡ipó] Eeb el
(nymPh) (Phoebe)

\1o.1el ritrrtl: bqlle [bela1 (beautiful)

3. open, [g]
FoRu,q.rtoN:
Lipsinnatural"ah"position'thcct)rr1er';gentl\raisedinaslight'un-
L'¡l¡elr r'¡uching the upper back
forced smile. The sides .')1 the t.rngue asfor fil and
molars, slightly t"r, than ftrr:e ' Placenlent the same
"l'"tl b'righter. resL)nance than for its English
[e], thus insuring a higher anrl
bri-chter' lrncl somewhat more closed
counterpart. (French t'Ztrc ¡'higher'
than English á¿l/.) Avoicl
"cotiting' ol e uhich may lead to flattening
of vocal coror. Avoid uly .pr.rrilngii,.,".
irr re son¿rting [e] in same place
as [i]. Avoid diphthong a-r' of English
rlc;" '

SpEt-l-INcs:
pere r0ve
g, O, q as a generul rule
lperel [reva]
(father) (dream)
No§l
[ncel]
(Noel)
ilqst 1'est
tt,hettfoll¿tt,edb1'one()rtttoteL()tts()tt(ltttt,silentt¡rsttunded' Iest]
ittthesunte.s-r,1/r¡óle(except*henfollowedbysilent'final[i1e1 (he is) (the east)
-t1, -d.s, -r. or -z: see [e]) éternel
les
¡t e1 [eternel]
(the) (eternal)
 31 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

whenfollowed by a double consonant (except in some initial 91le faiblgsse

combinations; see [e] and [a] and in combination enn and [elel [feblese]
emm; see [a], [d]) (she) (weakness)
mgttre gugrre
[metre] [gere1
(to put) (war)
ei. ey, as a general rule (except when nasalized; see [é]) reine abgille
eal [rcna] [abeje]
(queen) (bee)
Leguerney je songeais
Irrgerne] [ScesóSe]
(Leguerne.v) (I was musing)
al. 41 as a general rule (for exceptions, see [e] and [a]) (may be mais était
[(e)] in vocalic harmonization) [mc] [ete]
(but) (was)
connaitre
[kcnetra]
(to be acquainted with)
aie, aiss as a general rule, in all positions (ay may be [(e)] in vocalic haie tu essaies
aient harmonization) [e] [t y (e) s e]
aY, üs, (hedge) (you try)
ayes Souzay pays
[suzc] [pei]
(Souzav) (country¡
ils étaient
[ilzete]
(they were)

a. Bright ,lal Model words: la table flatable] (the table)

. ,RttrlIoN:
:: in slightly raised "ah" position, sides of tongue midway between
,::er back molars and floor of mouth. Avoid unnecessary dropping of
,.,. or tongue, thus insuring resonance in the same place as [i], [e], and
it) - Slight, unforced smile at corners of mouth helpful, with soft palate
- ¡h or lifted so that throat opening is upward, not downward. Avoid
rttl
-:L'rican "ah" of "father" and, above all, the [e] of American "cat."
ercessive nasal resonance-aim for the eyes. This "bright a" of
'1)
"
32 SINcINc rns SouNos oF THE Fnr'Ncu LeNcuecr'

Frenchcanbesafelycomparedtothe[a]ofltalian.Nineoutofeveryten
,.ah,,-vowelsinFrencharebright;theexceptionisdark[o]'withouta
authenticity'
truty trigh, bright [a], any singei's French will lack

Spr,r-lrNcs:
la madame
a, ¿ as (t general rule $ot exceptions' see [o]) [madame]
Ial
(there) (madame)
nous donnámes
is normally [o]; only in rare verb endings
[nudcname]
(we gave)
paonne paonner
ao rare, when follou'ed b1 -rtrr- [pane1
[pan]
(peacock, f.) (to strut)

when medial femme solgnnel

-¿'¡trr-
rare, only in combinations -eli ?/il - and ' [sclanel]
[fame1
(woman) (solemn)
fréquemment
[frekamó]
(frequentlY)

preceded by only oiseau volx

oi, oy as lwal, when initial in word or when lwazol [vwa]
orr""orro.runtinsamesyllable,excepti,|tgloireanda (bird) (voice)
few others
g1Úe royal
[glwara] [r w aj al]
(glory) (royal)

mqglle s'asseoir
oe, eoi as [wa], rare, only in a few uords
(r¡e rl&]'be [e])
[mwale] [saswar]
(marrow) (to sit down)

EXERCISES
following slowly
1. Intone (see Chapter 4 for description of intoning) the
and legato, with one breath per set of brackets:
[i-+] [e-+] [e-+] [a--+] [fifefefa] [fefefafil
[fe fefifa] [i-+e+1 [e-->e--+] [e+a+]
[i -+ e-+ e --t a] [a-> e--+ e+ i--'>]
marks and
2. Carefully copy the following text' including all accent each
Then' above
underlines, skipping a line betweÁ each line of verse'
 -n
33 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

-.nderlined vowel-sound, insert the proper representative phonetic symbol

r brackets.
Lydia. sur tes roses joues
Et sur ton col frais gt s! blanc
Roule (tincelant
L'or flulde que tu d(noues;
Le jour quj luit qst le meilleur
Oubllons l'§tgrnglle tombe
Laisse tes baisers de colombe
Chanter sur ta lévre en fleur.
Un lys c¿ch( ripand sans cesse
Une odeur divlne en ton sein;
Lqs tlélices comme un essaim
Sortent de toi, jeune déesse
Je t'aime qt meurs, 6 mes amours,
Mon áme en baisqrs m'est ravie
O Lydia, rends-moi la vie,
Que je pulsse mourlr toujours!
"Lydia," G. Fauré-Leconte de Lisle

HE LIP VOWELS
' ol ime [ome]
¡l mort [m ¡r]
- ol met [mo]
' ¡l dqgx [du]
::;rnning with [q], which involves neither lip-rounding nor raising or
- --ring of the tongue, the subsequent three vowels in this category are
-:ed by a progressive rounding of the lips and a gradual backing of the
-Jue toward the soft palate. Lip-rounding is a voluntary, visible action
- j .an be easily controlled. The backing of the tongue, however, is dan-
-:-.'uS busirtess, since it is mostly involuntary and is indeed invisible.
-. singer should guard against excessive tongue-backing and, above all,
- '.ld never consciously back the tongue except under the guidance of
':,.ined expert. For general comments on lip rounding, see above, p. 25.

-: Dark, [q] Model word: áme [sma] (soul)

Fon-verroN:
r ;ps in natural, unraised, "ah" position, tongue flat as when saying "ah"
f*r the doctor.
34 SrNcrNc rnB Sou¡ros oF THE FnBNcn LaNcuecs

Sper-LINcs:
lilas
a when followed by silent, final -s, (except in final -as of verb b+s
forms, see Vowel-letter Index, p. 192) ¡bo1 Iilc1
(low) (lilac)
passer cl¿sse
when followed by medial -ss- (exceptinchasser [J a s e] and
bassin [base]) lpssel lklosal
(to pass) (class)
extase gazon
when followed by medial -s- sounding as [z] or -z-
lekstazel fgoz6)
(ecstasY) (lawn)
hél¿s
in a few isolatecl words and derivatives (only the most
!
ah!
common in the repertoire are given here; check Io] [elosl
(ah!) (alas!)
dictionary)
espace f4ble
lespqsel lfoblal
(space) (fable)
s¿bre dqmner
[sobfe] [doneJ
(sabre) (to damn)
cadgvre p¿ille
lkadovrel lp oj ol
(cadaver) (straw)

chiteau ficher
a as a general rule (except in rare verb endings is [a])
lJ ot ol [foJ el
(castle) (to anger)

r (except in croire cloitre

or'q!, 9y as [wo], generally after a consonant plus / or
gloire is lwal) [krwara] lklwotrel
(to believe) (cloister)
croyant
lkrwsj ól
(believer)
poéle
oe only in word pot:le
[pwola]
(stove)

6. open, [C] Model word: mort [m c r] (dead)

FonvretloN:
Lips slightly rounded and away from teeth,
 -t
Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

. -,',i el in more. Tongue relatively flat, tip behind lower front teeth. Avoid
, .-:ing on "ooh" upon release, retaining "aw" position until voice has
- -.pped or until new consonant- or vowel-sound. Avoid vowel-sound of
i:r-rerican hot, which is unrounded.

>:rrI-tNcs:
- as a general rule, and usually when followed by a pronounced robe frivfe
consonant (see [o] for exceptions) or vowel-sound in same [r c b a] [frivcla]
word (dress ) (fickle)
Nqél poéte
[ncel] [peete]
(Noel) (poet)
: - only when followed áy r (otherwise is [o]) and in two isolated aurore laurier
words, mauvctis and Paul [c r a r e] lcrjel
(dawn) (laurel)
rnauvais Paul
[mc v e] [prl]
(bad) (Paul)

-um when final, in a few words of foreign origin (otherwise is [é]) minimum maximUm
lminimcml [maksimcm]
(minimum) (maximum)
album rhum
[albc m] [r¡m]
(album) (rum)
-. r- only in the word toast tgASt
[tcst1
(toast)
-3ur- after g and before r Georges
[5cr5e]
(George)

-. Closed, [O]
Model word: mgt [mo] (word)
- ,lRr.r,A,rlON:
-
ips very rounded in the shape of the phonetic symbol and aimed slightly
:..u'nward away from teeth with upper lip gently curled over lower lip.
ir oid unnecessary dropping of jaw (this makes relaxed rounding uncom-
-.:table). Avoid closing on "ooh" upon release or delayed rounding of
rs. giving the diphthong "ow" of English. Avoid throatiness or "round-
:_s" of throat.
36 SINcINc rnB SouNos oF THE Fnr'Ncn L¿'NcuecB

Sp¡,lr-tNcs:
écho Roméq
o when final in word
[eko] [rcmeo]
(echo) (Romeo)
mqt trgp
when followed by silent, final consonant (except -n which nasalizes
to [ó]) [mo1 Itrol
(word) (too much)
(may open to [c] in liaison or u'hen unstressed in word rrop:)
trop aimable troP souffert
[trcPemable] [tr:sufer]
(too kind) (too much suffered)

r9se émgtion
when followed by s sounding as Iz] or by suffix -rion
[roze] [emosjó1
(pink) (emotion)
gdeur qasis
in a few isolated uords
[oder] foazisl
(scent) (oasis)
gn9me fqsse
[gnom] [fose]
(gnome) (pit)
grqsse vgmir
[grosa] [vomir]
(faO (to spew fortht
r and in words mauvais qgtomne chaud
au as a general rale, ercePt ri hen ft¡11on ed by
[otcne] tJ ol
and Paul (see [c])
(autumn) (warm)
saUle fléau
[sole1 [f 1e o1
(willow) (scourge)

1'eau beauté
eau as a general rlzle, alwa-vs
ll ol [botel
(water) (beauty)

Sadne
ao rare
[sone]
(Sadne)

geolier Peuggqt
eo as a general rule, afler g, except before r
[s olj el lpszol
(ailer) (Peugeot)
 j7 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

¡ as a general rule hétel le nótre

lotell I anotra]
(hotel) (ours)

t. Phonetic, [U] Model word: doux [du] (soft)

a,IRMATION:

rps very rounded as for [o], but aimed slightly upward away from teeth.
\o dropping of the jaw. Avoid diphthongizing effect due to delayed lip-
:.-unding of "ahooh." Avoid throatiness or "rounding" of throat.

> PE LLINGS:

. l. oü, oü, as a general rule loup oü

Iu] Iu]
(wolf) (where)
goüter
[gu t el
(snack)

{uec) when final or in verbs whose infinitive Indoue je jouerai

ends in -ouer [édu] $aSurel
rhl (Hindu girl) (I shallplay)
aou, aoü as a general rule (btf notinAoua! [awa]) aoüt saoul
lul [s u]
(August) (drunk)

:-\ERCISES

i. Intone the following, slowly and legato, with one breath per set of
^ -r;kets:

[i] [e] [e] [a] [q--,] [c-+] [o-+] [u-+] [fo-+fc--->fo-+fu->]

[f u --+ f o ---> f ¡ -+ f o -] [o -+ c --> o --> u -+] [u -+ s -+ ¡ -+ s --r]
[poze] [ekstoze] [elos] Uotol [krwore] [frivcle] [pcete]
[¡ r ¡ r] [m c v e] [e k o] [t r o] [r o z e] [o t c n a] [fl e o] [b o t e] [g u t e]
[ebl ui r] [bruj ar] [pard rne mwa] [s ilvu ple]
[purkwamatilkite]
i. Carefully copy the following text, including all accent marks and
 SrNcrNc r.sB SouNos oF THE FnBNcn LeNcuecp

underlines, skipping a line between each line of verse. Then above each
underlined vowel-letter(s) insert the proper representative phonetic
symbol(s) in brackets.
Dans un sgmmeil que ch¿rm4[t ton im¿ge
Je rgvais le bonheur, ardent mirqge:
Tqs yeux §taient plus doux, t4 voir pure 9t sengre,
Tu rayonnais cemme un ciel fclair( p4r 1'aurqfe.
Tu m'¿ppelais 9t je qulttais la rerre
Pour m'enfuir ¿vgc toi vgrs l4 lumiire:
Les cieux pour nous entr'ouvraient leurs nues,
Splendeurs incgnnues, lueurs divines entrevues,
H(las! triste r§vqil des songesl
Je t'appelle, Q nuit, rends-moi tes mensonges;
Reviens radjeuse, é nuit mvsrérieuse:
("Aprés un réve." G. Fauré-Bussine)

THE MIXED VOWELS

e. tyl Iune üynal
10. tÉl deux td Él
11. [a] fleur [flar]
lel lune Iyna]
The mixed vowels have the folloriing characrerisrics in common:
l. They are all formed by the simultaneous production of a tongue
vowel and a lip vowel:
Tongue position of [i] plus lip position of [u] : [y]
Tongue position of Ie] plus lip position of [o] : [s]
Tongue position of [e] plus lip position of Ic] : [ce].
2. They are all rounded vowels since three of the rounded lip vowels
are necessary in their formation.
3. They are all front vowels since three of the frontal tongue vowels
are necessary in their formation.
The only essential difference between the three mixed vowel-sounds
is their degree of closedness or openness. The most closed of the three
is [y]; [p] is slightly less closed and much less "tongued" than [y]; and
[a] is definitely an open vowel.
In their progressive formation, from [y] to [0], to [e], the tongue and
lower lip (and consequently the jaw) drop to a more open position. It is
-19 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

itrr this reason that they can be called open or closed variants of one
¿nother.
All the mixed vowels are front and round. The last one [a] is front,
,pen, and round,

e. Phonetic y [y] Model word: lgne Iyne] (moon)

FonprerroN:
Tongue in [i] position, lips in [u] position. The most important ingredient
of a good [y] is til, especially in the higher registers. The [u] element of
[y], effected by the lips, takes on an added importance in the middle and
lower areas of the voice. But it is the presence of the tongue position of
[il that will guarantee the ly] in all registefs; upon this [i] the rounded lips
may gently superimpose [u] to create the illusion of [y]. Never pinch or
over-round this vowel. Such constriction closes off the sound and also
creates an incompatibility with surrounding vowel-sounds and their uni-
form, legato flow.
Diphthongization will be the undesired result of a delayed positioning
of the tongue and lips in the formation of [y]. These articulatory parts
must assume their position simultaneously, just a split-second before emis-
sion. Likewise, these positions must be retained until emission ceases or
until the ensuing consonant introduces the new vowel-sound.

PnecrIcB:
li ui u iu iul Note that as the tongue rises at the sides to the upper
back molars, the lips flatten; and that as the lips
round, the tongue lowers at the sides.
[iyiyiyiy] Note the stationary position of the tongue while the lips
alternately round and flatten. The lip-rounding must
be gentle and unforced.
lu yu yu yu yl Note the stationary position of the lips, while the sides
of the tongue alternately rise and lower to and away
from the upper back molars.

} PE LLINGS:

!. ü(e), as a generalrule, whenthe only vowel-letter in a syllable (if dq dü

--er-) nasalized is [&], see [é]) td vl idyl
(of the) (had)
40 SINcrNc rnp SouNos oF THE FnBNcn LeNcuecp

une murmurer
lynel [myrmyre]
(a,,,pn) (to murmur)
cryel vue
[kry e l] lv yl
(cruel) (sieht)
il tuera
[iltyra]
(he will kill)
Esaü cicué
lezaYl lsigyl
(Esau) (hemlock)
but note that ¿r is usually silent after g and q (see [q], [w] for
exceptions ) :

langlir lang¡áeur
[1ógir] [ógcer]
(to langursht (languor)
q]/i ql¿eue
tk il tk ól
(»'ho) (tail)
eu, eü rarely. and only in forms of the verb uvc¡ir and in isolated words j'ai eu il eut
lseyl tilyl
(I had) (he had)
gageure
[gaSyra]
(wager)

t0. o-susrr [p] Model word: deux [d É] (two)

FoRv,c.rroN:
Tongue in [e] position, lips in [o] position. In contrast iiith [],]. it is the
lip position of [o] that insures this vowel's formation. The tongue position
of [e] takes on an added importance in the upper register when the lip po-
sition may be slightly relaxed for vocal comfort, if necessary. The [o]
position of the lips is especially important in the middle and lower regis-
ters. As with [o], excessive dropping of the jaw should be avoided, since
this makes lip-rounding more difñcult. The rounding for [É] can be arrived
at by an energetic whistle positioning of the lips. Without the appropriate
degree of lip-rounding, [É] will not be authentic. Be sure that the lips leave
.ll Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

the teeth in their rounding. Avoid excessive tongue-raising or [p] will

sound too much like [y]. Whereas [y] is essentially a tongue vowel, [/] is
essentially a lip vowel. Remember: find the whistle position for [É]!
Delayed positioning of the tongue and lips will result in diphthongi-
zation. Instead, these must assume their positions simultaneously, a split-
second before emission. These positions must be maintained until emission
ceases or until the ensuing consonant that introduces the new vowel-
sound.

PzurcrIcE:
eoeoeoeo] Note that as the tongue gently rises at the sides to the
upper back molars, the lips flatten, and that as the
lips round, the tongue lowers at the sides.
t ÉeóeítQ) Note the stationary pqsi¡ion of the tongue while the lips
alternately round tó the whistle position and then
flatten.
.oÉoÉoQoOl Note the statibnary, rounded position of the lips, while
the tongue alternately rises and lowers. Care must be
taken to avoid pinching [s] through an excessive rais-
ing of the sides of the tongue.

Sprlr-rNcs:
eu when final in word fcu adieu
tf Él ta di Él
(fire) (farewell)
when followed by silent, final consonant(s), usually t andx deux il pleut
td Él lilpldl
(two) (it is raining)
in final -euse, -eute, -eutre heureuse meute
l(ó)r 9zel [mptal
(happy) (mob)
neutre
[n/tre1
(neutral)
in a few isolated words mgle meunier(-ére)
[m/le1 [rn É nj e] [-e r a]
(hayrick) (miller)
in vocalic harmonization, when unstressed [a] followed heureux
by stressed [É] closes to t(d)l t(É) rÉl
(happv)
 42 SrNclNc rns SouNos oF THE FnENcu LaNcuecp

in derivatives of the above deuxiéme

ldgzjc,mal
(second),,1

oeu when final in word voeu

tv
(vow)
ll
when followed by silent, final consonant(s) nozud des boegrfs
lnÉl tdebÉl
(knot) (oxen)
ueu(e) after g or q (where first ¿¿ is silent) when followed by silent, foug¡[egx qÉgge
flnal consonant or as final -ueue in final -ueuse Euell tkal
(ñery) (tail)
moqÉeuse
Ím¡kózel
(mocking)
only in vocalic harmonization uhen unstressed [ce], given cheveux
as [a] in the dictionary, is follow'ed by stressed [É]; to be l! @)v 0l
phoneticized as [(É)] (hair)

rr. orr-ee [(E] Model nord: fleur [flar] (flower)

FonuerroN:
Tongue in [e] position, lips in [c] position. This vowel-sound is perhaps
the most characteristic and common of the French language, yet often
the least understood and the least accurately executed.
Remember that [a] has three definite characteristics:
Front. This may be insured by proper rounding of the lips and the slight
frontifig of the tongue. Failure to do so will result in [o] or [c].
Open. Too often [É] is heard instead of [a] in such words as coeur, feuille,
le, etc, Also, the word, de [da] must not sound lke deux {dSl.
Round. Failure to round the lips in the formation of [a] will result in the
sound of the English vowel in the word rub, definitely too flat for a
French [e].

PnacrrcB:
[c e c e c e c e] Note that the sides of the tongue lower as the whole
tongue backs for [c], and that the sides ofthe tongue
rise as the whole tongue fronts for [e].
43 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

[¡trcccaca] Note that the lips remain stationary in the position

of [c] as the tongue alternately lowers and rises.
[ctlerre<tea] Note that the tongue remains stationary in the position
of [e] as the lips alternately round and flatten.

The [a] and [a], or Schwa

In conversational French, as well as in sung French, [a] may be long (or
stressed), as in the word peur [pce:r], or short (unstressed), as in the
word jeune [¡ a n]. The only difference between these two is one of dura-
tion. The wordpeur takes almost twice the time to say as the word.jeune.
But one of the greatest discrepancies between spoken and sung French
occurs in the use of the schwa ([o]). This sound may be best described
as an unrounded [a] and is used in the dictionary to phoneticize the vowel-
sound of the word le and the first two vowel-sounds of the word devenir.
This sound is unrounded, unstressed, and óf split-second duration.
Singers must be careful to distinguish between a schwa that is a true
schwa and one that must be sounded in singing as a short or unstressed
[a]. In singing, the conversational [e] rarely occurs within the phrase. It
may appear at the end of the phrase, habitually on a very short note, tied
or untied, followed by a rest. Only in this position can final -e, -es, -ent be
sounded as a genuine schwa in singing, either as a brief "uh" or simply
as a light expulsion of quasi-vocalized breath after the well-sounded con-
sonant, as shown in the following examples.

"Fleursr" Fiangailles pour rire, F. Poulenc-L. de Vilmorin

Treo calme J ="u
te dñ La !n* ne a &l
P

el dñs b, che - mt le -e [n

Carmen (Act IID, G. Bizet

AIIeoro molto moderaho
tín par Le, re o da, yd. te ta o*f

Je par - Le-rai llüLt de-ymú eL - lÉ- - Ah!

44 SrNcrNc rse SouNos oF THE FneNcH LeNcuecp

In the first example, the final -e of cheminy'e is sounded as the brief "uh"
mentioned above-unrounded, unstressed, and of split-second duration.
In the second example, the final -e of elle amounts to a small expulsion
of breath after the well-sounded [].
However, when what is phoneticized in the dictionary as [e] is assigned
a note of any considerable duration, whether within or at the end of a
phrase, the vowel-sound of this syllable ceases to be a true [e]. Instead,
it takes on the rounded, more frontal quality of unstressed or short [e].
For example, in the phrase le coeur de ce petit the traditional phonetici-
zation would be fiekardesepeti], and in the rapid click of French
conversation, two of the schwa's would be typically dropped: fiaker
d e s p til. When sung on note-values of any considerable duration, at least
more than split-second, the schwa takes on the rounded, more frontal
quality of unstressed or short [c], thus occupying the time allotted to a
normal syllable, and must be phoneticized as such:
2 ¡']
't¿i ). ¡l¡.¡ i
le coeur de ce pe - tit
Ia + k c-+ rd ce--- s rr-+ p ce --+ t i]
It would not do to elongate the schwa by singing "luh coeur duh suh
puhtit," nor would it be any more appropriate to shorten the note-values
and thereby destroy the legato of the French vocalic llori . It is this fre-
quency of the schy,a sounded as short, unstressed [tr] in singing that
renders it crucial to the legato. Only the short [e] can project and carry
the same amount of vocalized sound in the appropriate frontal position
as the vowels of neighboring syllables. Without it, French sounds uneven.
lacks true legato, and is simply Iess "singable." Above all. it must be kept
in mind that the IPA was not conceived with the singing process in min«1.
The IPA is, after all, only a system. To be useful and applicable to sing-
ing, certain adjustments must be made in it. This conversion of the [e] to
short [e] is one of the most crucial of these adjustments.

Spplr-rNcs (or' [ce]):

eu when followed by a pronounced consonant (except in final fleur seul
-euse, -eute, -eutre. or in vocalic harmonization: see [fler] lsall
lol) (flower) (only)
peuplier aveugle
lpapliel [avagle]
(poplar) (blind)
when followed by Ljl @r -ill-, -il) fzuille der4l
[faj e] tdajl
(leaf) (mourning)
15 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

oeu when followed by a pronounced consonant (except -se, coeur oeuf

see [É]) [k ce r] [af]
(heart) (eee)

after g and q (where first z is silent) and followed by a langüeur vainqíeur

@
pronounced consonant (except final -se; see [d]) llógarl [vókar]
(languor) (conquering)

cueillir querelle
ue only in combinations cueil- and'gueil when medial and
que whennot followed by double consonant and when [kcei ir] [kcerela]
(to gather) (quarrel)
final
orgueil que
[c r g cej] [kce]
(pride) (rha0

only in combinations oeil, oeill' qil ceillet

ta jl [aj e]
(eye) (carnation)

(phoneticized as [e] in dictionary) when final in syllable ceci je

and notfollowed by double consonant, or whenfinal in [scesi] ls al
(this) (r)
word (for exceptions see [e], initial combinations)
chevelure
tJcelclyral
(head of hair)
in initial ress- (exceptin ressusciter is [e]) ressembler ressentir
liasóblel [rcesátir]
(to resemble) (to feel)
in initial dess- of two isolated words (normally [(e)]) dessus dessous
[dcesy] [dcrsu]
(over) (under)

in flnal unstressed -es (plural endings of nouns and les belles filles
adjectives, verb endings) but never in short words like tlcbelcfijGl
/¿s (see [e]) (the beautiful girls)
m'aimes-tu?
[memcety]
(do you love me?)
in finalunstressed -ent ofthird person plural verb endings ils parlent
(in other words may be lóJ or [é]; see these) [ilparlce]
(they speak)
viennent-ils?
[vjencetil]
(are they coming?)
 46 SrNcrNc rns SouN»s oF THE FRBNcH LaNcuecs

Note: see below concerning syllabification of final -e, -es , -ent and meth-
ods of determining presence of [a] or short [e] according to the musical .3.

setting.
ai rare, only informs of the verbfaire (to make, do) beginning nous faisons
with unstressed/aís- followed by stressed syllable, and a z ó]
[n u f
derivatives (noie that je fais is tScef el) (we are making)
je faisais
[gefazel
(I was making)
malfaisant
lmalfazdl
(evil-minded)

only in the first syllable of the uord tttonsieur, monsieur

s!
phoneticized as [a] in the dictionarl'and often closed to tma sj ll or tm(P) sj É
(sir)
t(0)l

PRONUNCIATION AND SYLLABIFIC.{TIO\

OF FINAL -e, -es ) -ent

Below are listed the following: the conjugation and English translations
of the verb parler (to speak or talk) in the present indicative tense and
some underlined examples of final, unstressed -e. -es as they appear
in
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives:
Parler (to speak, to talk)
SrNcur-en Plun¡'l
1. j9 parlg I speak) nous parlons (we speak)
2. tu parlfu (you speak) vous parlez (you speak)
3. il parlg Ge speaks) ils parlent (they speak)
elle parlg (she speaks) elles parlent (they speak)

Ils écoutent mais n'entendent rien aux mots que nos bouches se
disent.
(They-listen but understand nothing of the words that our lips say
to each other.)
(" Sérénade italienne," Chausson-Bourget)
Les lignes, les couleurs, les sons deviennent vagues'
(The outlines, the colors, the sounds become vague')
("Soir," Fauré-Samain)

lt

I
t
 I

17 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

All of the underlined syllables in the above examples are examples of

the f,nal -e, -es, -enl sounding as [a] or short [c]. Note that in the conju-
-sation of the verb parler the endings of the flrst, second, and third
person
:ingular and of the third person plural forms are all pronounced the same.
In conversation, they would all be dropped, with only [parl] sounding
ior all four, which is nol the case in French poetic versification, a tradi-
:ional system of syllabification followed by both poets and composers
..f vocal music.
Again, a major difference between spoken and sung French must be
:trnsidered by the singer. Note that in the examples above, all the final,
lnstressed syllables are followed by words beginning with a consonant.
f he French line of verse is governed by s¡tllabic couttt . Every final -e, -e"s ,
. r¿l that appears before a word beginning with a consonant must be
,trurited as a syllable and is accordingly set to a note by the composer
:rcept in rare instances discussed below). Of course, if the final -e is
nmediately fbllowed by a word beginning with a vowel-sound, this final
-. uill be elided. For example:

Elle me parle. Elle me parll en frangais'

[eloe moeparla] [e lce moe pa ñl of rq s e ]
(She speaks to me.) (She speaks to me in French.)

Similarly, the final -es and -ent of verb endings must be syllabified and
-'..unded as short [ce] within the line when followed by a consonant-sound
: a vowel-sound (in which case the final -s or -/ is sounded in liaison):
Tu parles trop! Tu parles en frangais.
ityparlatrol [typarltszdfrdse]
(You talk too much!) (You speak in French.)
Elles parlent toujours. Elles parlent encore.
[elceparlcrtu3ur] [claparlclokcra]
(They always talk.) (They are still talking.)

ese final, unstressed syllables may not be capriciously dropped or elided

- :inging, unless, of course, the composer has specifically indicated by
-.¡ns of notation that they be omitted, which sometimes, but rarely,
,,urs in the vocal music of a few composers (see below).
R.emember also that final, unstressed -enl may be phoneticized as [e]
- . hort [cr] only in third person plural verb endings. Beware of final -ient ,
. ird person singular verb ending sounding as [i é], or final -ent innouns,
-

,,.;;tives, and adverbs sounding as [o]:

I1 fréquemment. Le mouvement est lent.
vient
[ilvjófrekamñ] [lcemuvcemóeld]
tHecomesfrequently.) (The tempo is slow.)
 48 SrNcINc rsB SouNns oF THE Fnr'Ncn LaNcuecr'

SINGING FINAL, UNSTRESSED 4,'es, <nt: lcl OR [e]?

It is the musical notation that dictates the vocalization of a final, unstressed

-e, -es, -ent andthe subsequent distinction between [a] and [e]' In either
and literary
case, none of these syllables must ever be accented' Tempo
style play significant ioles in determining the phonetic quality and dura-
tión oi túese final, weak syllables as well as notation' At any rate' most
composers are quite cleai as to how they wish these.syllables to be
their indications' which'
.orrrrd"d; it is mérely a question of deciphering
although at times are rather specific, are often ignored'
the phrase if:
Sound final 'e, 'es , 'ent as short, unstressed [e] at the end of
pitch different from the preceding
1. They are assigned a new note on a
pitch.

"Le Secretr" G. Fauré-A. Silvestre

Adagio
t3e 'tz lce le,n tE ti lc r@ tcel
)= u'

\.e ma'Lt¡t
Je ^tw W

2. They are assigned an untied note of sizable duration on the same

pitch as the note before, especially in a slow-to-moderate tempo and also
when followed bY a rest sufficient to obtain a good breath for the next
phrase.

"Le Secretr" G. Fauré-A. Silvestre

Adqto I,kc my n& I,atm / it re va Pc r@,)

---::

bruit, Com-mB u'tw W^É / iL s'é-uo' - Po

and
3. Sometimes even a tied note may be sounded as [a] if the tempo
especially if there is a rest following that
mood so permit or indicate, and
is sufficient for a good breath for the following phrase'

ll
{9 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

"Il pleure dans mon coeur,,t Debussy-Verlaine

t'lodérémenL anLrné)
fsd' za mu re sd'/ €+ 'rua- md kcrl

Sa,rrs a mour eL s0,?15 "rnDn- c,ELú

Sound final -e, -es ) -ent as lel at the end of the phrase if:
1. They are assigned a short tied note of the same pitch as the preced-
-ig note, especially when followed by a rest that allows just enough time
'¡r a breath, no rest at all, and/or
a vocally taxing note or phrase. In this
:.rse sing the vowel-sound preceding the final, weak syllable for the com-
rined value ofthe tied notes, then the [e] or, ifthere is a consonant. sound
: as well as the [el:

- irmen (Act II!, G. Bizet

Nlegro molto modereto
Lie par Le. re o d.G, yA t¿---,la &-)

Je par - 1e -roi 11 1Lr de-yutt eL - E - - Ah!

'I) pleure dans mon coeur," Ariettes oublióes, C. Debussy-P. Verlaine

H,odÁrément animá ( triste el mo¡wtone)

_tptt r& ke - rki
-5d* ngl.-=-----*a oto 1Í-b"1'--)
p
-
--
Pour LLnL ce.Lr qui l\1Ll Le brutt

- They are assigned a short, untied note of the same pitch as the pre-
.:-.r9 note and are immediately followed by a new phrase with no rest
- ';ient for breathing. The consonant, if there is one, must be clearly
-:ded, Then, in place of sounding the final, weak syllable as short
 50 SrNcrNc rnB SouNos oF THE Fneucs LeNcuecB

[e], supply a split-second [a] and make time for the optional breath in
preparation for the next phrase:

"Ici-bas," G. Fauré-Sully-Prudhomme
At,d.antir,o
dble LL si ba tu l¡. ti b. mn ro tu ld üz wa zo sd ¡¡_-*r J

t - ci-ba¡ tolus l,es tt- l¿s meu-tenl.,Tor¡ L¿s clwús d¿s cú sear¿x wrt uurts,

3. They are assigned a grace note. a most specific request for an [e]
by the composer;

"Le Dromadaire," Le Bestiaire, F. poulenc-G. .{pollinaire

Trés rythmé - Pesan t ,- to
[a v¿k e ta trce d.rc md dL - re ]
nf bienlii

A- vec, es qua- Lre d¡o - ma- d.aLres _

Manon (Act II!, J. Massenet
lse se r¿ m,¿. za nu dd. ?á.,ek1a d.e rtra a a"
f A
¿
'¡ '\ . x, sqita.

motl-rtrI Ce. se-rutLrnres a--mis, darc w é-clat dz-rí-re lAhl oh! oh! ahl ah! aht,
-
When a vowel-sound, not a consonant-sound, precedes the final, weak
syllable and this syllable is assigned a grace note, exclude it entirely:
k*--
Carmen (Act trI), G. Bizet

lki 6t sa 5i de trd pe,ri da. dy pe ri d.e. uc Le ri ]

*
G-
s'l.-git dE trom-pe-ri- q, De á^u-pe-ri - q , De vo-l,e.-ri- R,
a
 5l Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

Sound final -e, 4§, +nt as short, unstressed [e] within the phrase if as-
signed a note and followed by a word beginning with a consonant. Note
that final -e is elided if followed by a word beginning with a vowel-sound;
the notation will again testify to this, as shown in the following musical
examples:

Faust (Act I), C. Gounod

t3i re te r {e La gLuare. La gbsaro si d¿:.ene,mí Le. pre)

J't-roi cherchBr 1r-g1.oí-re,La gtoír¡auseind¿r enfie'TLls, Le prs-

Lia's recitative and aria, L'Enfant prodigue, C. Debussy

- B,éciL?tictenent)
Andante [ta ,n^-á vt ta soe La 'ne nl

- nÉt-¿:n tnin cias-p l'qrl- r.¿ -

Do not sound final e,lss <nt at all (as either [a] or [ce]) within the line
ifthey are assigned a short tied note or no note at alt. This is common in
the works of Maurice Ravel and a few others, the intended effect being
one of natural declamation. Here, the consonant preceding the final, weak
vowel is well-sounded and immediately linked to the next consonant- or
vowel-sound:

".A,sie," Shéhérazade, M. Ravel-T. Klingsor

+e ¿,fr,
1üa

Eb dp,s yLd-W bril' - 1.ü¡\-tz;s dc lote-

d d¿ po 5o-nka med¿zo y6-\e

-1
)

á
r"
I

I 52 SINcrNc rns SouN»s oF THE FnsNcn LeNcuece

ttl,e Paonr" Histoires naturelles, Ravel-J. Renard

Sans háte et
rwblement Lgb il sc, pra rnc na \e ky. '¡xd Ly-rde Píí, §¿

GLo - rietrxr- tt se - yq,ixrt. ál- trrP de prírw{tn -

üF i pre ?Á d
J\t' l
oc
eL L^¿t -rtsvr tu
:L
-J-

- d.ien ytÉ richps prá-sents üusr;g/-

Also, within the line, final -e , -es, -ent and even medial -€- are some-
times contracted in the tert itself uith the notation seconding these con'
tractions. In this case. they are not sounded and accordingly not phoneti-
cized, except when the¡r are assigned a grace note or a short tied note
before a rest or when they are final rn the line or phrase:

Louise (Act II), G. Charpentier

Pocopiu artimato
Ie mlra ske 1la Pta
,.ff
ctqtnl'lx,s plaqü - rais. P1oi,

mbaLre *1í kcn svr ma

-.1

@lo pér'wut, ribo,Lbre, j'L* cogn'óvr ma-

i a pLy dnlar 1@r l

5l Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

\ LIC-.\LIZATION OF THE HIATUS OCCURRING IN FINAL [i n], [e ce], AND [y n]

1s already stated, hiatus. or the sounding of two neighboring vowel-
-.,unds, occasionally occurs in French. Onc of the most common inci-
i.nces of such hiatus appears when stressed [i], [e], or [y] is followed
^', a short, unstressed [ce] at the end of a musical phrase. In all three of
:ese combinations, the sides of the tongue must be raised to the upper
:lrlars for the stressed vowel, then lowered directly to form the ensuing
:, with no lil or [i] in between (thus incorrectly rendering [eicl or
:.1 cel). The passage from the stressed vowel-sound to the unstressed
: must be direct and immediate with no sound in between.'l'he most
, -rmmon combination is [e ce] as it occurs in the follou'ing erample:

"De Réve," Proses lyriques, C. Debussy

f.ndantino
[rn¿ te xñ 'r'a vre @ a 7 a rnL na v1

{.
o" )1a- - m¿rs
-CJ
e.
lulotn-te -TaxLt no, - 'vre - e , rLa, \fe-
-i the fel of navrée is properl¡, erecuted, haif the battle is already won.
.:raised position of the sides of the tongue for [e] shouid discourage
'. further tongue-raising before the lower tongue position for the un-
-r'>Sed [ce]. Any additional tongue-raising before [ce] will create [eit-e]
ejcel, which are decidedly unacceptable. The [tr] must, of course, I

': . er b€ accented or stressetl here. Also, the singer should formulate the
. b¡ rounding the lips and a gentle dropping of the tongue and jaw.
' rre singers erroneously attempt to produce such an [ce] "inside" the
-'th. This rvill only lead to lack of clarity and bad vocal habits' Others
' it on singing [/]in place of [tt] here: this is equally incorrect. Finally.
^.¡ desired effect is li ol or [e e], sound a gentle, split-second "uh" after
: :tr€sSCd vowel for the schva.

\F-RCISES

Intone the following. slowly and legato. with one breath per set of
- -, retSi

[i-* e* t-a--'] [o-+ c-+o-+u--+] [fy-] [f9-] [fc---1

[s .v- É-=] [s y--+ c+] [y-+ Q - 6-+] [i+ y-+ i--+]
ie -+ p -+ s jl [s 'r 1¡ -r e -+] [i -'> t¡ --+] [e -+ ce +] [y ---r r¡ -'+] [i al
[e a] [É ró] [1 rr v É p u rl a v i tr] tdj És y s t cl [s i t y l cer, fl1
!l a fI ce r d cr m av i ef e r m e ctl [v u m«r d i t c d cr m tt t e r a]
-purlckttrkilublial
54 SrNcr¡¡c ruB SouNos oF THE FneNcn LeNcuec¡,

2. Carefully copy the following text, including all accent marks and
underlines, skipping a line between each line of verse. Then. above each
underlined vowel-letter insert the proper representative phonetic symbol
in brackets. Use the Debussy setting of Il pleure dan.s mon coeur t-o de-
termine the sounding of final -e. Final ¿'s that are not underlined should
be elided. Be able to intone all underlined vowels.

Ilpleurg dans mon coeur

Cgmme il plqqt sqr lq villg
Quglle gst cgttq langueur
Qui pénqtre mon coeur?
O bruit doux de lq pluie
Par tgrre et sgr les to.its
!

Pour un coeur quj s'ennuie

O Ie bruit d9 14 pluie!
llpleurq sans raison
Dans cq eoeur qu.i s'gc.oeurg.
Quoi! nqllg tr4hlson?
Cq deuil gst sans raison.
C'9st bien lq plrg peinq
Dg ne s4voir pourquoi.
Sans qmour ct sanq hainq.
Mon coeur a lant dq peinq.

THE NASAL YOWELS

12. lól e¡fa¡t tófól
13. tól bon hól
14. lé) vin [v é]
15. tél un parfum [óparfé]
Three important principles govern the nasal vowels and their pro-
duction:
1. Over-nasalization is neither good singing nor good French. In a
sense, "nasalization" is a misnomer, and, indeed, a misleading term for
the singer. A "nasal" vowel is correctly resonated in the nasal cavities
which are located behind the nose, in the "yawn," more or less in the
center of the head. It must never be placed solely in the nose! A correctly
resonated nasal vowel-sound has added richness and depth. This is
achieved when one-third of the vocalic flow is allowed to resonate in the
nasal cavities, right above the soft palate and behind the nose. The soft
palate is gently dropped in the process, thus permitting entry into these
 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

:esonating chambers in the center of the head. The process has often
-ien compared to "covering the tone" and, as stated above, "singing
r the yawn." The major part of the vocalic flow, however, must con-
nue to emanate from the mouth. A nasalized vowel should not shift the
r.1sic placement or timbre of the voice, but instead is a heightening, col-
.:ing. and enrichment of the singer's normal production. The miscon-
- 3ption that "nosey nasals" will "Frenchify" one's French will only lead
,a parody ofthe language. One has only to listen to an educated French-
-r..ro'S corlv€rsation to understand that nasality per se is absent from his
-:eech. Indeed, many French people, and for that matter Europeans in
=:reral, find American speech to be excessively "nasal," or at best
,,.\angy." It is therefore self-incriminating for well-meaning Americans
' .' .ing French "nasal" vowels with this alleged American nasality, besides
-::ng linguistically incorrect and vocally unhealthy. Admittedly, some
::nch singers of the "cabaret" variety revel in an exaggeration of the
,.:al vowels. This is entirely appropriate to a certain style of singing in
. :nch popular song or chanson, of which Edith Piaf is the model. But
- - nparable differences between the "popular" and "legit" vocal styles
- ..r be cited in the United States, as in any country. Even the exponents of
: :nch art song display added nasal resonance from time to time, but only
' erpressive or coloristic effect, for mood, or even intended vulgarity on
- -¡sion. Such additional nasality must be used sparingly and, above all,
-. :tically and responsibly. Do not try to "out-French the French" with
,: nose-you may find yourself being accused of sounding "too Ameri-
. :- (?S if there could be nothing worse)l
- The most distinctive feature of each of the four nasal vottels ís íls
. t'ox,el quality, not its nasalization. How often the word "nasal"
::3ars scribbled over a syllable in a singer's score. Nasal wáar7 Such
--riation completely disregards the fact that it is the basic vowel quality
- ,, is being nasalized that determines the syllable's particular pronunci-
r and consequently the meaning of the word. Imagine an indiscrimi-
-,.J nosey "honk" for each of the following words, each of whose pro-
,-:iation is differentiated by a definite vowel quality and not by nasal
:--:lilflCei

-. tlól (long)
' fl ól (flax)

- " )¡ just nasalization , btt what vowel-sound is being nasalized that

" , .. here.
1 The m or n that follows every nasalized vowel-letter (.or all nasal-
' '.,¡el-letters) is silent. A nasal vowel is just that, a vowel, nof a
..-plus-a-consonant, a sort of ru or n, or the faint "ng," a consonant-
 Stt¡cINc rgB SouNos oF THE FRBNcn LeNcueor,

sound nonexistent in French that so many non-French singers seem to

enjoy attaching to the end of the nasalized syllable. Some dictionaries,
not to be recommended, even suggest this quasi-Oriental (but hardly
French) sound in their clumsy ' 'phoneticizations. " Like any vowel formed
in accordance with the principle of legato, the nasal vowel must fill the
duration of its assigned note-value, unaltered and unshortened. There may
very well be a consonant-sound following the nasalized vowel, but it will
probably be in the following word or syllable. The one and only time that
nasalizing n may be sounded is when it is in liaison with the following
vowel. Nasalizing ¡z is never sounded under any circumstances. When
underlining nasal-vowel spellings in the text, be sure to include the nasal-
izing m or n.

RULE: Any vowel-letter(s) follo*'ed b¡' rz or n is usually nasalized unless

this m or n is followed by:
1. a vowel-letter or volvel-sound in the same word' or
2. anm, n, or h in the same rvord.

So, whereas the vowel-sound of the riord seüt [sé] (breast) is nasal-
ized, the name of the river flou'ing through Paris, the Seine. is not, since
the n is followed by a vowel-letter. The first syllable of the word impor-
tant is fél in French, but in the ivord itnmense [immÓsa] the same syl-
lable is not nasalized due to the double -tntn-. The same goes for intense
[étóse] andinnocenr [innrs ó]. And although the vu'ord bonlb ól is most
definitely nasalized, the same letters in the word bonheur fb¡ncerl are
not, due to the /z following them.

Pnacrrcr,
Decide which of the vowel-letters in the following i,r,ords u,ould be nasal-
ized and, according to the nulr,, give the reason why:
enfant inutile bonté inhumain dompter damner
faim femme songe sonner tomber autonne
plein pleine dans danser canot pain
gaine immédiat Jeanne inné fantóme intime

12. Dark, t u.U [ó] Model word: enf4st [óf ó] (child)

FoRuerroN:
Dark a nasal is slightly more rounded than basic [o], approaching "aw"
or [c]. Care must be taken not to flatten or back the vowel; the result is
-<7 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

-:n unpleasant nasal rasp with displaced resonance. Rather, [d] is some-
.,.hat rounded, frontal, and "tall." Of course, over-rounding will result
r [ó] and must be avoided.

>pErlINcs (Remember the Rule):

:'i1 . &11, em, arn aS A general rUle cependant temple
[scepódó1 [tdpla]
(however) (temple)
champ
IJ ó]
(field)
not in final -ien , or in final -iens , -ient of
verb forms (see [é1)
'l

not in a few proper nouns and words of

foreign origin (see [é]):
Carmen Poulenc
[karmen] [pulék]
(Carmen) (Poulenc)
but, contrary to the RULE, [d] appears in ennur
all words beginning with emm- or [ñnqi]
enn- (except ennemi [e nemi]) (boredom)
gnqmener
[ómane]
(to take away)
also, contrary to the RULE, [ó] appears enivré
in a few composite words beginning [ónivre]
with en- plus a vowel-letter (intoxicated)
ggorgueillir
[d nargej ir]
(to make proud)
s'enamourer
[sdnamure]
(to fall in love with)
.-n. aén, aon, ean as a general rule, with rare exceptions Saint-Saéns Messiaen
lsÉsósl [mesjó]
(Saint-Saéns) (Messiaen)
Jean paon
ts dl tp ol
(John) (peacock, m.)
 58 SrNcrNc rsp SouNos oF THE FnBNcH LeNcuecB
--
13. Closed, nas* [ó] Model word: bon [bó] (good)

FonruertoN:
Give the basic vowel [o] resonance in the nasal cavities. This vowel is
customarily and quite inaccurately given in the dictionary as [51, which
sounds closer to [ó] as in banc than the nasalized o of bon. Always close
the nasalized o and phoneticize it accordingly.

SpBr-I-tNcs (Remember the Rule):

on, om as a general rule mon long

lmól tlól
(mv) (long)
tq¡qbeau bonté
lt6 b ol [bóte]
(tomb) (kindness)
but, denasalization may occur in iiaison with bon:
Bonjrppetit I

[bcnaPeti]
(Eat hearty !)

as a general rule pigeon

§l¿q
lpisól
(pigeon)

14. open, [ó] Model word: vin [v é] (wine)

"ura
Fonr.lerloN:
ln nasalizing [e], the singer must soften the basic vowel-sound by resonating it in
the "uh." Abovc all, {o not ¿rllow the basic vowel-sound either to spread or be
accompanicd by a nasal raspiness. Aim for a mellow, rich sound. This vorvel-
souncl can be most unattractive if the resonance is not properlydistributed'
("uh"
- the vowel-sound of English'the)

Spr.r-r-tNcs (Remember the Rule):

r_g, i., yn, ym as a general rule brin infini
[brel [éfini]
(sPrig) (infinite)
simple Jocelyn
[sóplo] lscsl6l
(simple) (Jocelyn)

:' t -'-:' :- - ''

'
::::- : -- = ''
59 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Vowel-sounds

sympathie thym
[sépati] It él
:(liking) (thyme)
rln. alm, eln, elm as a general rule pain fairn
tp él lf él
(bread) (hunger)
ceinture Reims
ls 6 t yrel [rés1
(belt) (Reims)
etr although usually [ó], may be [É] in final bien liens
-ien(s) tbj él tljél
(well) (bonds)
in final -ient of third person singular il vignt on tient
forms of such(
verbs as venir, tenir, tilvj él tó tj él
-1
etc. (he comes) (one holds)
in a few proper nouns Poulenc Abencérages
lpul6kl [abésera5e]
(Poulenc) (Abencerages)
Bgjamin
lb é¡ am él
(Benjamin)
-,in [w6], uin [qé] or [é] as a general rule loiu point
llwél [pwe]
(far) (point)
jur¡ coquin
tsqél [kcke]
(June) (rogue)

t-<. o*-ee
"".ur [ó] Model words: un parfu¡n [ép arf ó]
(a fragrance)
- rRrtellION:
::gn by intoning the model word for lcrl,fleur [f I a r]. One by one, leave
-.: the consonant-sounds, thus isolating the vowel-sound. Then resonate
'----r i¡1 the
nasal cavities. The resulting sound should be [ó], the French
:rd un. One must be sure to nasalize [ce], not [e], in the formation of
" .s nasal vowel. Conversational French may condone this interchange
- ¡asic vowel quality, but in singing French a definite distinction must
-.'nade between them. Also remember that any [a], nasalized or not,
- -;fbefront, open, andround.
 SrNcINc rne SouNos oF THE FnBNcn LeNcuecr

SpBI-I-r¡¡cs (Remember the Rule):

un, um as a general rule un parfug hu¡qble
[ó p arf ó] [Gble]
a fragrance (humble)
luodi
[ódi]
(Monday)

eun onlY in the exPression: á jgsq

[as ó]
(fasting)

EXERCISES

l.Intonethefoilowing'sloull.andlegato.withonebreathpersetof
brackets:

[o- 3- o - u -]
[i--+ e-+ e-+ a--->]
ly-A---,¡e--+l [fó--+] [fó-J [fÓ--] lftrl
iitror"rareráratal [fofóf ¡fófof óf ufo] tf] fófÉfóf(rfól
(Repeattheaboveline,substitutingthethreeothernasalvorvels-lól'
[é], and [é]-for [ó].)

[i-+ d-+] [e+ ó--+] [e+ ó-+1 [a-+ ó-+]

[o+ ó-+] [c-+ñ-+] [o--+ d+] [u-+ ó-+]
[y - ó --] 16 ---> i-->) [m
-+ ó -+]

(Repeattheabovethreelines,substitutingthethreeothernasalvowels-
[ó], [é], and [é]-for tó1.) line of
2. Copy the texts given Uetow, skipping a line between each m or n
verse. únderline all vowel-sounds (always underline nasalizing
and
that follows the nasalized vowel-letters as part of the vowel-sound),
determine their pfroneiic quality by inserting the
proper phonetic symbol
above the line. Phoneticiz! ail final -e's as [ce] unless
they are elided with
the following vowel-sound' Indicate all elisions'

a. Instant charmant oü la crainte fait tréve,

Oü nous sommes deux, seulement!
Tiens, Manon, en marchant, je viens de faire un réve!
(Manon, Massenet)
6l Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Semiconsonants

b. En vain pour éviter les réponses améres,

En vain tu méleras,
Cela ne sert á rien,
Les cartes sont sincéres,
Et ne mentiront pas !
(Carmen, Bizet)

c. Je veux vivre
Dans ce réve
Qui m'enivre
Longtemps encor!
(Roméo et Juliette, Gounod)

d. Je n'en dis rien. Cela peut nous paraitre étrange,

parse que nous ne voyons jamais que l'envers des
destinées, l'envers méme de la nótre. . I1 avait
toujours suivi mes conseils jusqu'ici, j'avais cru
le rendre heureux en l'envoyant demander la main de
la princesse Ursule. . Il ne pouvait pas rester seul,
et depuis la mort de sa femme il était triste d'étre
seul; et ce mariage allait mettre fin á de longues
guerres, á de vieilles haines. . Il ne l'a pas voulu
ainsi.
(Pelléas et Mélisande, Debussy)

Phoneticization, F ormqtion, and Singing

0f the Semiconsonants
i :emiconsonant sound has some of the characteristics of both vowels
::.rd consonants. For example, the lettery in the English wordyorz pro-
--r;es the semiconsonant sound U]. They here functions as a consonant
- :ce it ushers in the vowel-sound. Although it lacks any real blockage
: friction, its semi-vocalic nature cannot qualify it as a vowel, since it
--,es not constitute a syllable. (See Recording Illustration E.)

]HE SEMICONSONANTS

.ql nqit
Jl dieu
*I sq_ir
 62 SrNcrNc rH¡ SouNos oF THE FReNcu L¡NGuece

All three of the French semiconsonants have three things in common:

1. They are always before the vowel_sound of the syllable.
2. They are introductory closures that open into or glid" irto the
more
open vowel-sound, which in turn occupies the
duration of the note-value.
3' They never, in themselves, con^stitute a syllable. when they be-
come vowel-sounds (and/or when they are assigned a note)
they lose
their qualities as semiconsonants, b"i.rg tiansformed into a par-
ticular vowel-sound. "u"h

1. Semiconsonanty [Q] Model word: nuit tnqil (night)

FonM,A,TroN:

Technically speaking, [q] is a split_second

[y] (formed by the tongue po_
sition of lil and the lip position of tr]l ar the very beginning
of the syllable.
The vowel-sound it ushers in must occupy the duration
of the syllable
and the note-value. Above air. the singer must
not settre for
of[q]' This can always be guaranreed b'the presence of[i] and[w] insteacl
its tongue
position in every [q]. Each combination presents
its own diff,culty:
l' iqil. concentrate on singing [i] throughout the duration of the syl-
lable, from its very beginning ro irs enci. Begin the
syllable on lil, with
the lips rounded ro a [u]. while sustaining the
[i]. dra*',¡. i,p, úu.t rro,
the [u] position to their naturar. unrounded srare. The higher
the note,
the less rounded the [u]; the [ou'er rhe nore. the more
roun-ded the [uj. If
the [i] is not present at the very outset of the s1llable.
the result will be
[wi], which is not acceptable. practice singing huis ft¡i). puis tpqil,
pluie Lplqil, and bruit lbrqi).
2' [qe]' concentrate on singing [e] for the duration of the s1,.riable,
from its very beginning to its nlgin the syllable on [e]. w.ith the lips
"no. the
rounded to a [u]. whire sustaining
[e], drar¡,, the ripi tack from the
[u] position to their naturar, unrounded state. The higher the note, the
less rounded the [u]; the lower the note, the more
rounded the [u]. If the
[e] is not present at the very beginning of the sylrabre, the resurt
[y a' with [q i] the superimposed iur or [q e] is of split-secondwilr be
"]' '
tion and must occur over the [e] that is always present in
dura-
the syllable.
Practice singing tué ltqel and nuée
lnqel.
3' [qe]. sing a split-second lyl ar the outset of the syilabre, gliding into
the [e] by simultaneously lowering the tongue, releasing
the jaw, and un-
rounding the lips. Again, itis herpful to conceive of the syiláble
as being
composed entirely of [e], with a touch of
[y] superi*por"á over [e] at the
beginning of the syllable. There must be no intermediary
sound or diph-
thong such as [qie] between the two sounds. Beware of singing
[we] in_

l-
63 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Semiconsonants

- :;;rd of [q e]. Practice singing muet lmqel, annuaire [a n q e rl, and tuais
,q e l.
a [q a]. The same procedure applies as for [qe], except that [a] is sub-
::ituted for [e]. Care must be taken not to insert [w] between the semi-
-..nsonant and the vowel-sound [qwa]. Practice singing suave lsqavel
.-:.d, rtuage [nqa5e].
-<. [qÉ] and [qce]. Here, the semiconsonant and the predominating
.,.uel-sound are very closely related in formation; therefore, great care
-.ust be taken to distinguish between them. A split-second [y] at the out-
,;t of the syllable must glide into a slightly less rounded and closed [p],
,. in the last syllable of luxueur Iyksqd]. In the case of [qce], the split-
.:'-ond [y] at the beginning of the syllable glides into a considerably less
-.unded and more open [ce] as inlueur [lqar]. The glide from the semi-
,..nsonant to the vowel-sound must be smooth enough to conceal the
.3.1m at which the former ends and the latter begins. Yet, upon emission,
.:.e semiconsonant must be distinctly more closed than the resultant
...riel-sound. Practice singing the words luxueur [1 yksq @l and lueur
-{ G rl.

_i pr LLINGS:

- in the following combinations of vowel-letters:

in ui, uie remember ¿¿ is silent after g and q except in the word puis plqie
aigu legyl and derivatives lpqil [piqi]
(then) (rain)
juin aigsille
lsqél [eeqija]
(June) (needle)
in ua, uai; remember ¿¿ is silent affer g and q, but may be [w] suave sanctgaire
in this combination; see [w] [sqave] [sóktqere]
(suave) (sanctuary)
in tté, uett, and medial -ue-; remember in final -ue is [y] or, if habitué lueur
after g or r7 is [a]: lab i tq el !qcerl
(accustomed) (glimmer)
vue qúe
[v y] [kce] luxueux mqet
(sight) (that) llyksqll [mq e]
(luxurious) (mute)
in a.r, (after a single consonant); if after consonant plus 1 or r is fuyez
[y]: lfqij el
(flee)
bruyére
[bryjere]
(heather)
64 SlNclNc rnr, SouNos oF THE FnBNcn LaNcuece

remember ¿¿ is silent after g or q:

Gldy
teil
(Guy)
Note: If letter u, normally sounding and phoneticized as [r{], is provided
a note in the score, it is sounded and phoneticized as [y]:

¡ lJ .h ¿N\¡ . a. a

lgs nu4ggs or lgs ng-¿-ggs

llenqaSal Ienya3ce]
(the clouds) (the clouds)

2. Yod Ul Model word; dleu tdjsl (god)

FoRuerIoN:
The same as for letter -.., of English,r'o¿¿.

Spr,r-uNcs:
i preceded by a singie consonant in the follow'ing cornbinations of diable nalade
vowel-letters: ldjablal lnajadel
(devi1) (water-nymph)
liaison miauler
Ijezó1 [mj ol e]
(liaison) (to mew)
bien biére
tbj él [bjerel
(well) (beer)
passion pieux
[posjó] lpió1
(passion) (pious)
aieux
lajsl
(elders)
when final: -ié , -ieu (nr¡t in medial -ie- in some verbs and adieu pitle
derivatives, see [i]; not in final -ie, see [i]) tadjrll [pitje]
(farewell) (pity)
in linal -¡l when followed by a vowel-sound. and in medial -il/-; (in l'oefiuvert gentjlhommt
-aill-, -eill-, -euill-, -ouill-, and -ueill-, -rleil|, division occurs be/ore [loejuver] [3étijcme]
the i; otherwise , divide after the i; see examples) (the open eye) (gentleman)
65 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Semiconsonants
I

fille grenoui_!!e
tfijal [groenuja]
(daughter) (frog)
t'euille juüet
l) when followed by a consonant-sound or final in
[f ej e] lsqijel
(leaf) (July)
line (before a rest), final -il sounds as diphthong
"cliPPed i"[i] : travaillcr abeille

soleil couchant
[trara¡e] [abeje]
O deuil! (to u ork) (bee)
[scle¡tuJa] [o d rei]
cueillir oeillet
(setting sun) (Oh mourning!)
lk cxi i rl [eje]
Ce deuil est sans raison (to gather) (carnation)
Isedrejesdr(e)zó]
(This mour¡ing has no reason)
l) in final -il (no other vowel-letters), the -/ is 3) in the following words and their de riratives.
sometimes silent, sometimes sounded: -ill sounds as [il]:
genti.l fusil grésiI sourcil mtlle vrlle tranquiile
[sót i] lfyzil [grezi] [sursi] [mile] [vila] [trdkila]
(nice) (gun) (hail) (e¡,'ebrou,) (thousand) (city,) (tranquil)
cil fi! lils fits pupille Séville
[sil] lfi ll [fi r] [fi s] [p1'pile] [sevile]
(eyelash) (thread) (threads) (son(s)) (ey'e) (Sevilla)

when followed by a vowel-letter in the same word tes yeux ral/on

Ittzjól lrcjó1
(your eyes) (beam)
". :e: If letteri, normally phoneticized and sounding as Ul, is provided a
- :: in the score, it is phoneticized and sounded as [i]:
, ll
I

) .l,lJ
cu-rieux or cg-ri-eux
lky r jñl [k y rip]
(curious) (curious)

a §emiconsonant, [W] Model word: sq_ir [s war] (evening)

FonvauoN:
The w of English we.
q7

66 SrNcrNc rse SouNos oF THE FnsNcH L¡.Ncuacr,

SpBr-r-rNcs:

qi as a general rule 9lseau cloitre

AS
ol
lwal,
'[w az o] [klwotrel
oy (bird) (cloister)
eoi
lwql
voyage s'asseq]r
[vwaja3el [saswar]
(voyage) (to sit down)
oua ([wa]) as a general rule, when initial or after a single Aoua! ouais!
ouai ([we], [we]) vowel-letter; oue- in all positions except final lawal lwel
qug- ([we], [we], is [u] (Aoua!) (yeah!)
lwól) fouet ouest
oué ([w e]) [f we] lwe s tl
oui ([wi]) (whip) (west)
ouie ([wi])
Rouen
lrw6l
(Rouen)
enroué oui
ldrúel lwil
(hoarse) (yes)
épanouir enfouie
lepanwirl ldfwil
(to bloom) (buried)
u only in combination -ua- after q and g, and only in aqgarelle qUatuor
a few words, mostly of foreign origin lakwarelel lkw atq c rl
(watercolor) (quartet)
Note: If letters oa, normally phoneticized and sounded as [w] . are pro-
vided anote in the score, they should be phoneticized and sounded as [u]:
)lJ. ¡ .h.h lJ. )
a-louq-ttg 4-lou-9-ttg
[alwete] laluetal
0ark) (lark)

EXERCISES

1. Intone the following in the usual manner:

tdqil tdqel [dqe] tdqél tdqal [dqó] tdjel tdjel tdjal tdjol
tdjcl tdjol [dju] tdj ll tdjGl tdjól tdjél ldjó] [dwe] [dwi] [dwe]
ldwal [rwq] [drwq] [krwo] [sw61 [oSurdqi]
[dapqilaS urus ce me sqidc nea]
67 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Consonants

2. Carefully copy the following text, "Villanelle" (T. Gautier) from Zes
Nuits d' été of Berlioz, including all accent marks, skipping a rine between
each line of verse. Underline all vowel-sounds and circle all semiconsonant
sounds. use the score to aid in determining semiconsonant sounds. Mark
aII elisions. Also, use the score to determine the phoneticization of final,
unstressed -e , -es. Then, above each underlined vowel-sound and circled
semiconsonant sound, insert the proper representative phonetic symbols,
one set of brackets per line. Be able to intone the phoneticization.

Quand viendra la saison nouvelle,

Quand auront disparu les froids,
Tous les deux, nous irons, ma belle,
Pour cueillir le muguet aux bois.
Sous nos pieds égrenant les perles,
Que I'on voit, au matin, trembler,'
Nous irons écouter les merles siffler.
Le printemps est venu, ma belle;
C'est le mois des amants béni;
Et I'oiseau satinant son aile,
Dit des vers au rebord du nid.
Oh! viens donc sur ce banc de mousse
Pour parler de nos beaux amours,
Et dis-moi de ta voix si douce toujours!
Loin, bien loin, égarant nos courses,
Faisons fuir le lapin caché;
Et le daim au miroir des sources,
Admirant son grand bois penché;
Puis, chez nous, tout heureux, tout aises,
En paniers enlagant nos doigts,
Revenons rapportant des fraises des bois!

Phoneticization, F ormation, and Singing

,tf the Consonants
3:lo'u' is a numbered list of the eighteen consonant-sounds in French that
: " es the phonetic symbol and a model word for each consonant-sound.
Fr)r a review of consonant formation in singing in French, see above,
:.,ges 5-9.) (See Recording Example F.)

_ r proslvr,s

ibl §ase (phonetic á. voiced)

[boze]
(basis)
68 SrNclNc rnB SouN»s oF THE FRr,Ncn LaNcuacp,

2. tpl passer (phonetic p, voiceless)

[pqse]
(to pass)
3. tdl don (phonetic r/, voiced)
td ól
(gift)
4. itl !our (phonetic l. voiceless)
lturl
(tower)
5. iel guide (phonetic g. r'oiced)
lgidel
(guide)

6. tkl ésho (phonetrc A. r oicelcss)

lekol
(echo)

Fnrcerrvr,s
7. lvl yase (phonetic r'. r'oiced)
[voza]
(vase)
8. tfl "fort (phonetic /. r'oiceless)
lfc rl
(strong)
9. lz) ro§e (phonetic --. i oiced)
[rozo]
(rose)
10. Is] §on (phonetic .r', r'oiceless)
[s ó]
(sound)
I l. [s] rouge (z-sa-zsa z, voiced)
lruS el
(red)
12. l| bouche (snaky s, voiceless)
lb uJ el
(mouth)

Nesels
13. [ml mode (phonetic z, voiced)
[mcde]
(fashion)
69 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Consonants

Imm] immense (phonetic double nr, voiced)

li mmó s el
(immense)
i1. [n] fine (phonetic n, voiced)
[fi na]
(ñne)
Inn] innombrable (phonetic double n, voiced)
[innóbrablo]
(innumerable)

t¡l cy4e (_t'od-n, voiced)

[si¡ a]
(swan)

L.a.tsRAr-

r6. Ill lion (phonetic /^ r'oiced)

ttj ól
(lion)
utl illusion (phonetic double /. voiced)
lillyzjól
(illusion)

:-tPPED, RoLLeo, Uvui-en

- [r] la ¡ue (phonetic flipped r, r,oiced)
llaryl
(the street)
[rr] horrible (phonetic rolled r, voiced)
[crribla]
(horrible)
r [R] Pa¡is (phonetic uvular r. voiced)
[paRi]
(Paris)

- rsult Recording Illustration F for the Eighteen Consonant-sounds.)

lll consonant-sounds in French have the following characteristics:
Thel' are either voiced or uttered simultaneously with sound from
-: r'ocal cords, such as Lb], lvl, [z], [r], or voiceless, or those uttered
:rrut sound from the cords, or whispered, such as [s], [p], [t], or [f].
- They are rapid, late, and clear, and definitely more energelic than
'..: English counterparts. The French consonant propels the ensuing
70 SI¡tcrNc rnp SouNos oF THE FnBNcs LaNcu.q.cs

vowel-sound and must never alter or shorten the preceding vowel-sound.

3. They are unaspirated, that is, neither preceded nor followed by an
escape of air as in English peep. (Compare French pipe.)
4. They are single, as a general rule, even when spelled with two (or
double) consonant-letters. There are very few exceptions. (See [1],
[mm], [nn], and frrl.)
Before beginning a study of the eighteen consonant-sounds, here are
some of the terms that will be used in this section to describe consonantal
formation:
l. labial-formed with both lips. the same as "bilabial" if no other
articulatory organ is involved, as for lbl and [m]-no tongue movement.
2. dental-formed with the tongue and the upper teeth, as for [d] and [t].
3. labio-den¡al-formed with the lower Lip and the upper teeth, as for
[v] and [f].
4. alveolar-formed by contact of the tongue with the gum ridge (in
which are fixed the upper front teeth). as for [z] and [s].
5. alveolar-palatal-formed by contact of the tongue with the border
area between the gum ridge (in u,hich are fired the upper front teeth) and
the hard palate (or the roof of the mourh). as for [3] and tJl.
6. palatal-formed by contact of the tongue with the hard palate (or
roof of the mouth), as for [g] and [k].
7 . uvular-formed by vibrating contact between the back of the tongue
and the uvula, or the v-shaped piece of flesh that hangs from the soft
palate, as for [R].

THE EXPLOSI\IES
VoIcBo Vorcersss
1. tbl 2. lpl
3. tdl 4. ltl
5. tel 6. tkl
Note that numbers 2,4, and,6 are merely numbers 1, 3, and 5 without
voice. These consonant-sounds require "explosion," or sudden, delib-
erate eruption of sound. In the case of the voiced explosives, the cords
vibrate (voice begins) when the articulatory organs assume a position
(closure) that is complete, continues through blockage Gtop), until the
explosion (release) ofthe consonant. These consonants are unaspirated,
totally voiced, whether at the beginning, middle, or end of a word, and
tend to be clearer, more resonant, and more energetic than their English
counterparts. The formation of the voiceless explosives is basically the
same as for those that are voiced, except that there is no voice accom-
panying their emission. They, too, must be kept "dry," neat and precise,
energetic, and without any leakage of air, or aspiration.
 -t Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Consonants

SpBrr¡Nc FoRprerroN Exerrprgs

l. tbl b, bb Voiced, with bilabial stoppage bois abbaye
[bwo] labeil
(wood) (abbey)
l. tpl P,pp Voiceless, with bilabial pipe appel
stoppage Ipipe] [apel]
(pipe) (call)
b @efore s, r) absent oltenir
[apso] lcpt e ni rl
(absent) (obtain)
tdl d, dd Voiced, with dental stoppage: dot
tip of tongue at point where fd ctl
teeth and gum ridge meet. (dowry)
(Avoiil using middle of addition
tongue and rim ofgum ridge
ladisjól
and/or hard palate) (check)

- [r] t, tf Voiceless, with dental lable

stoppage; same as for [d] [tablel
(table)
flatter
[flatel
(to flatter)
d (only in liaison) srand arbre
lgrótarbrel
(big tree)

' [g] g (before a, o, u, Voiced, with palatal stoppage: gáter agonle

or consonant) middle of tongue on middle [gote] lag¡nil
ofhard palate; avoid backing (to spoil) (agony)
of English [g]; as frontal as bague gros
possible
lb agal [groJ
(ring) (fa0
gg (before e, é, é suggérer
as [gS], or before [sygSere]
consonant as (to suggest)
tgl) aggraver
lag ra v el
(to aggravate)
72 SrNclNc rnr, SouNos or,' rno FRBNcs LeNcuecs

SpBr-r-rNc FoxueuoN Exeupl¡,s

X (in initial ex- exil
plus vowel as legzill
lez)) (exile)

6. tkl c(beforea,o,u or Voiceless, with palatal galme coEu

consonant) stoppage: same as for [g] [kalmel lkckyl
(More frontal than English (calm) (cuckold)
counterpart) enEore agtion
[okcral laksjól
(still) (action)
cc (before accord
consonant is [ak¡r]
[k]; before i. ¿ (chord)
is [ks]) accident
[aksido]
(accident)

_q
qui cinq
tk il [s ék]
(who) (five)
cq grecque
[grekal
(Greek)
ch (rare, in words choeur écho
of Greek and Ikcr] lek ol
Italian origin) ( choir) (echo)
chrétien orchestre
[kretje] lcrkestrel
(Christian) (orchestra)
g (in liaison) sang impur
tsoYepyrl
(impure blood)
k (rare) agoBa
[ascka]
(hibiscus)
1 (in initial er- extase veler
plus consonant [ekstoze] [vekse]
and in medial (ectasy) (to vex)
-ex- is fk sl)
 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Consonants

IHE FRICATIVES
, lcED VorcpLr,ss
- rl S.tfl
- .z) 10. [s]
i;l 12. tI)
\ote that numbers 8, 10, and 12 are merely numbers j,9, and. ll with-
,: r'oice. These six consonant-sounds are called "fricatives" because
'-.i\ are produced by audible friction of the breath against some part of
"-: articulatory organs of the mouth. Whereas the stoppage of the ex-
: -.sive consonant is complete, fricative stoppage is partial and sustained.
--an be safely stated that the formation of these consonant-sounds in
::nch is the same as for their English counterparts.

SpeluNc FoRIr.rerloN ExeuprBs

-vl v Voiced. with labio- yérité
dental stoppage; [verite]
upper teeth on lower (truth)
lip
f (in liaison) neuf heures
[n aYce r e]
(nine o'clock)
w (in some words of wagon Wallonie
foreign origin and
proper nouns)
[vagó1 lvalcnil
(rail coach) (Walloon uplands)

i-fl !, ff, ph Voiceless, with labio- iI rafale

dental stoppage; same ti fl [rafale]
as for [v] (yew) (squall)
effet Aphrodite
[(e) f e] [afr¡dite]
(effect) (Aphrodite)

'z) (between vowel-letters Voiced, with alveolar ro§e baiser

or -sounds, and in stoppage; middle of [roza] [b (e) z e]
liaison) tongue on gum ridge, (rose) (kiss)
tip of tongue just mes amis isolé
behind front teeth
tm&amil lizclel
(my friends) (alone)
74 SrNcrNc rnr, SouNos oF THE FnBucH LnNcuecs

SpeLr-rNG FonuerroN Exeupr-Bs

I (in some numerical deuxiéme,.

words, and in liaison; [dgzjenfe] [egzakt] [egzal
also in initial ex- plus (second) (exact)
vowel-letter or six ans elhaler
-sound) - -.\-/ - -
Lslzol legzale)
(six years) (to exhale)
Z Azaél
Íazaelf
(Azael)
ZZ le ja4
Ic d5 az]
(jazz)
10. [s] g (when initial, or u,hen Voiceless. with alveolar SOUS Salomé
preceded or folloued stoppage, same as ls ul lsalcmel
by a consonant: often for [z] (under) (Salome)
sounded when final: jasmin désespoir
see index to
[fasmé] fdezespwarl
consonant-letters for (jasmin) (despair)
further examples)
hélas jadis
lelosl l¡qdisl
(alas) (formerly)
ss (always) laisser frisson
[(e)se] lfris6l
(to let) (shiver)
g (before e,i,y) seEi 9ygne
[scesi] [s i¡ e1
(this) (swan)
g (always, with cedilla) frangais regu
lfr6sel [re s y]
(French) (received)
cc (before e, i, ory is accent Occident
tksl) laksól [cksidó]
(accent) (Occident)
sc (before e, i, or y) scintiller descendre
lsétijel [d(e)sódre]
(to sparkle) (to go down)
! (when medial and palient émoLion
before [j]; see index) [pasjó] lemosj6l
(patient) (emotion)
 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Consonants

SpsLrrNc Fonprerro¡¡ ExeuprBs

X (in most numerical six :j dix
words) lsisl [di s]
(six) (ten)
(in initial ex- plus con- exquis
sonant is [ks] lekskil
(exquisite)
(in medial -ex-, always) texte
ltekstal
(text)
(ñnal in several words, Béatrix
is [ks], see index) lbeatriksl
(Beatrice)
. [:] g (before e,i,y) Voiced. with alveolar- mirage givre
palatal stoppage; rim lmiras el [5ivra]
of tongue curled (mirage) (frost)
against gum ridge, lips Egyptien
quite rounded; avoid
[esipsjé]
td sl (Egyptian)
gg (before €, i,! suggestion
is [esl) lsyg¡estjól
(suggestion)
j (always) je déjá
[¡a] lde¡ol
(r) (already)
: t,il ch (except in a few Voiceless with alveolar- chose . cloghe
words, see [k]) palatal stoppage; same lJozal [klcJa]
as for [3]; avoid [tJ] (thine) (bell)
sch (rare) schisme
lJi s mel
(schism)

iF{E NASALS
']ICED
[m] [mm]
[n] [nn]
Lnl
\ote that all the nasal consonants are voiced. These consonants are
 LeNcuecB
76 Sn{cINc rnB SouN¡s oF THE FnBNcn

the breath passes through and

called "nasal" because in their formation
Ns¡ñ§a\\-¡s\s-s(ssrrss-
resonates in both trr" Lo"it ."d nasa\ ca.v'ttres.
voice begins upon closure and continues through
nants in French, the
energetic and rapid'
blockage until the release, wtrictt *ott b"

FonuerroN Exeuplr,s
SpsruNc
alqour climat
m (when followed bY Voiced. with labial
13. tml stoPPage lamurl [klimal
vowel-letter or (love) (climate)
-sound)
hymne (excep.)
(usuallY silent when fol-
[imne1
lowed bY n, alwaYs (hymn)
silent when nasal-
izing:
autotrtne '
Parfuú) homme
fe¡q¡qe
mm (excePt in initial
[f a me] [cmo]
imm-\ (woman) (man)

imm- (onlY when initiall Voiced. uith labial stoP- immense

[mm] pager a prolonged [m] [immóse]
(immense)
bo4heur
(when followed by Voiced' uith dental inutile
14. inl ! stoppage: tip of [inytile] [bcnar]
vowel-letter or (happiness)
-sound, silent when tottg" against upper (useless)

nasalizing excePt front teeth

when in liaison)
donger
nn (excePt in initial inn-)
[dcne]
(to give)
autogine da¿!4er
mn (m is usuallY silent, [done]
n alwaYs Pronounced)
[otcne]
(autumn) (to condemn)

initial) Voiced' with dental ignombrable

[nn] inn- (only when
stoPPage; a Prolonged linnóbrablel
(innumerable)
In]
iqnorer
g with
(almost always, Voiced' with palatal Seigneur
15. tJrl stoppage; middle of [seJrar] [i¡ cre]
notable exceptions (Lord) (to not know)
sounding [gn]: to'Uu"' not tip' -
Magnincat ;:ilHljlr:?lii.
stagnant
gnome)
 P¡t¡neticization. Formation, and Singing of the Consonants

. iIERAL
" -:D
tl 1l

-,) L'onsonant is called "lateral" because in its formation the breath

- .-;i out of the mouth along the sides of the tongue. Avoid the backed
, I nglish by articulating the French [l] with the tip of the tongue against
-: ;
-Se S of the upper front teeth. Keep the middle and back of the tongue
,, . irom the gum ridge and the hard palate. The soft palate must remain
-. .utel-'.- loose and inactive in the formation of French [l]. In spite of
-: .3irr "lateral," this is a mostfront¿ll consonant in French.

Spr,rrrNc FonlrerroN Ex,q,uplr,s

._ ! (almost always, but Voiced, with dental !il_as iI
may be silent when stoppage activated by ililol ti 1l
f,nal; see Ul) rip of tongue on edge (lilac) (he)
of upper front teeth
ll (except in initial i1l-) a[!er
[ale]
(to go)
1l ill- (only when initial) Same as for
t
[l], but pro- illusion
longed [i11yzjó]
(illusion)

FI.IPPED, ROLLED, UVULAR

!'o¡cso
-rl [r r]
^Rl
-.rrrect and effective flipping of an r demands that the tongue be re-
,,:J and nimble throughout execution and that the consonant be fully
.:ed. A flipped r, which is the predominant sort used in sung French,
..:trculated by the tip of the tongue flapping once across voiced breath
-.::nst th€ rim dividing the gum ridge and the hard palate. For those who
-: ihe flipping of an r difñcult, it might be helpful to start with a light
, rradually relaxing the stoppage and placing the tip of the tongue as
- :.r on the gum ridge as possible. and eventually on the rim. Remember
-..' :dl is an explosive with complete blockage and dental stoppage, while
- ras fricative qualities, with incomplete blockage and sustained stop-
- .-::. The rule is to relax and to use only the tip of the tongue.
78 SrNcINc rnB SouNos oF THE FnBNcu LeNGuecE

A rolled r is actually several flipped r's in succession, or a sort of "trill. "

It is the sound children make when playing with toy cars. If you can flip
an r, but cannot seem to roll one, try flipping a few r's in close succession.
After this, attempt to vibrate several together in a vigorous air flow which,
as with [r], must be voiced. Again, relax and use only the tip of the tongue
lightly against the division between the gum ridge and the hard palate.
The sides ofthe tongue should barely touch the sides ofthe hard palate,
as if to brace the relaxed tip.
A uvular r is formed by the vibration of the uvula, or the v-shaped piece
of flesh hanging from the soft palate. The uvula is vibrated by vocalized
breath against the back of the tongue, The French uvular r is high and
delicate, very unlike that of German, Yiddish, or several mid-Eastern
and Oriental languages. Its articulation can be approximated as being
almost directly under the nose. Even though most French people use the
uvular r while speaking, it is the flipped r and occasionally the rolled r
that is used áy the French thetnseltes in singing opera, oratorio, and
songs. The uvular r. however. is indeed used in the music-hall, cabaret,
and in folk-style, and ma-v be spannglf inserted into some contemporary
songs of a Parisian "street scene ' cast for an intended note of colorful
vulgarity. But, as a rule. French and non-French singers alike avoid this
troublesome and unstylistic consonant uhen singing the opera, concert
and recital repertoire simpl-v because it is somew'hat bothersome in a
vocal sense, hinders fhe legato, and has a distinctly commonplace ring
when sung. Use it only when advised to do so b¡ a qualified expert and,
again, resist trying to be more "French" than the French themselves.

Sppr-r-rNc FoRl.rerroN Exelrpr-ns

17. lr) (flipped) r, Ir (r may be silent Voiced, with alveolar Ilre gue[Ie
when final) stoppage (see lri r el [gerel
above) (to laugh) (war)
[rr] (rolled) L, fi (r may be silent Voiced. with alveolar brúle terrible
when final); only in stoppage: a pro- [brrylel [terrible]
words of forceful longed, trilled [r] (burn) (terrible)
emotion (see above)
irr- (only when initial) i¡¡émédiable
[irremedjable]
(irremediable)
-rr- (in a few verbs to je mourrais (pres. cond.)
distinguish between [5cmurre]
the imperfect and (I would die)
present conditional
tenses)
 Phoneticization, Formation, and Singing of the Consonants

Sp¡r-r-rNc FoRlrerroN Exauptr,s

' , ,.:l-l Lrr Voiced, with uvular Pads
stoppage (to be lpaRil
avoided as a rule in (Paris)
opera and art song; marrant
(see above) [maRó]
("a riot")

L-XERCISBS

l. Completely phoneticize a1l sounds (vowels, semiconsonants, con-

sonants) of the text of the song "Beau soir" by Claude Debussy. See the
section on phoneticization of a song or an aria in Chapter 4 before doing
:his. (See pp. 97-98.)
l. Insert the phoneticization into the musical score of the song and in-
:r)neit, legato, in rhythm, and in tempo. Again. refer to Chapter 4 before
ioing so.
 ,!

Ligison

,:rrn is far more frequent in sung French than in conversation. An

.,:otable, even required, liaison in song often sounds stilted in every-
.peech. Contemporary conversational French avoids many optional
..,.ns that only a generation ago were commonly heard. There was a
-. uhen one's use of liaison revealed breeding and background (or a
-, '¡f the same); today, liaison appears as a rule only when "compul-
- . and sometimes not even then, for fear of sounding affected or out-
, .1. Therefore, it is important to understand that the rules governing
, with the times and with the context or setting of the de-
-.n change
::'.. Because most of the texts of the French vocal repertoire are of
' -
:'.eenth- and early twentieth-century origin, or even earlier, the iiaisons
.:: in them should and do adhere to the literary and theatrical practices
isrs€ periods. Liaison in opera and song is generally made according
:e rules set by the Comédie fiangaise (the French National Theater)
- roetic declamation. For all these reasons, the average Frenchman
-
- rs not familiar with these styles of delivery may flnd some liaisons
.-: by singers to be unnecessary, pompous, even archaic. Indeed,
--:rs do sometimes make ill-advised and quite preposterous liaisons
- , .¡bscure or
even change the meaning of the text. Just one example
" ::roneous use of liaison should suffice: "un homme et une femme"
' :.:rS "?. man and a woman." The f of the word e/ mustnever be sounded
- :ison. If it is sounded, the resulting meaning of the above phrase be-
. -.is: "a man is a woman," a literal slip-of-the-tongue that would surely
- go unnoticed.
- ¡rief explanation of what liaison is may be found in Chapter I of this
' .r-1o1. Liaison may occur only between a normally silent final conso-
' . : and an ensuing vowel-sound, for example, "Ell¿esU"i." In this

'"
82 LrersoN

sentence, the r of ¿s¡ is said to be "in liaison" with the i of ici. (The e of
elle has been elided, an example of elision and not liaisonl) Under no
circumstances may the s of the word esl be pronounced or thought to be
"in liaison." A liaison can only be made on afinal, normally silent con-
sonant, nol a medial one.
Oddly enough, the best way to begin to study liaison is to learn when
not to make one. These rules are largely based on Pierre Bernac's mag-
nificent book The Interpretation of French Song (197A, Praeger; 1978,
Gollancz-Norton reprint in softcover). wherein are included over two
hundred song texts. For each text, Bernac suggests or discourages the
use of liaison, and it is from these indications that these guiding principles
have been drawn. Today Bernac stands alone in his scrupulously tasteful,
traditional, but enlightened approach to liaison. Born in 1899, he was able
to imbue himself in a musical-literar¡,' ¿ttmosphere that had all but dis-
appeared by the Second World War. Yet his language, like his artistry,
is never dated. His favorite recommendation to the young singer is, "And
please, do not sing this song in the bad taste of my youth," referring, of
course, to the offensive and tasteless self-indulgence rampant in vocal art
in the early years of this cenrur-v. And this sense of taste, founded at the
same time upon tradition and modern a\\'areness. must be extended to the
linguistic realm of vocal study' through a st1 Iized use of vowel quality and
of liaison.

Forbidden Liaisons
Forbidden liaisons are exactly that: they must not be made. Unlike op-
tional liaisons, those that are forbidden are not made in either singing or
conversation. Like compulsory liaisons that are sounded. forbidden li-
aisons contribute to the intelligibility of the text by their very absence.
Indeed, their inclusion often results in absurdity or ambiguiry. as illus-
trated earlier.
There are eight instances where liaison is unconditionally forbidden.
Do not make a liaison:
l. Over a rest or breath within the vocal line:

Carmen (Act II), G. Bizet

r@)

A
(7o
-Es -r,€r> 0, me dí - re'.
d¿tesb you, to satl to mysoLf :)
\-i Forbidden Liaisons

Ercept when the rest separates two grammatically related words

: s1'llables of the same word within the phrase that are separated by
.r punctuating lift within the legato (rather than by a breath or rest
-..rt interrupts the flow):

Rttméo et Juliette (Act I), C. Gounod

-empo di valse , arutmtuto
^ lla , ñ. zd. + kcr l

Long - temps e,n

(7or a, bng blme ót¿LL! )

Before an aspirate h (see Chapter 1):

Qui dans lel halliers humides te cueille!

[ki-+ d ó-+ I e---> I alj e"-> zy --> m i -+ d ce -+ te -+ ke j a]
(Who in the damp thickets gathers you!)
("La Rose," Fauré-L. de Lisle)
Note that a slight separation may be made before the vowel following
the aspirate h.

After a noun in the singular:

Le printempg est triste et ne peut fleurir.
I e-+ p ré-+ t é-+ e-+ t ri-+ s t e-+ nc-+ p /+ fla ri r]
(The springtime is sad and cannot flower.)
"Le Lilas," Chausson-Bouchor)
Temps des
Note that no separation is made between the [ñ] of -temps and the
[e] of esl.
La nui/ a des douceurs de femme.
I a-+ nqi-> a-+ de-+ du--+ s c-+ rdG-+fa-+ me]
(The night has womanly softness.)
("De Réve," Debussy)
Except:
a. In some common expressions:
nuiljt jour mot¡i mot de tempsjn temps
[nqiteS ur] [mo tam o] [dG td z ñtó]
(night and day) (word for word) (from time to time)
b. On a few singular nouns, notably enfant, voix, and áois, especially
84 LIersoN

in opera, and often to separate two similar or identical vowel-

sounds. A gentle, hardly perceptible consonant is sufficient here:
cet enfant a dormi enfanlibandonnée
[setófq(t)adcrmi] tófó(r)abódcneal
(this child slept) (abandoned child)
(Faust,Gounod) (Hérodiade,Massenet)
Note that although this light liaison on enfant is traditional, it is
not advised by Bernac: note also the parentheses around [t] above and [z]
below to indicate lightness of attack.
Obéissons quand leur voi_r appelle.
[c-+ b e ---> i-+ s ó -+ k ó-r ltt --> rv \f, a---, (z) ¿-+ p e lcel
(Let us obey when their voice calls.)
(Manon, Massenet)
Bois epais
[bwótz)epe]
(Dense wood)
(Antidis, Lullv)

4. After the conjunction ¿,r. meaning "and":

lui e/ elle e/ alors .)

llqieelal [ealrr]
(he and she) (and theni'])

-5. Before most interjections and numerical words (see below. "Special
Words and Liaison"):
Il a di/ oui. lel onze hommes
[iladiwi] [1e/ózcme]
(He saidyes.) (the eleven men)

6. On words ending in -rd, -rs, -rt.Instead, normally link the sounded r

with the following vowel-sound:
Dans ton coeur dorfun clair de lune.
[d ó ---+ t ó --> k ce --+ r d J -> r é -+ k I e -+ r d «r -+ I y -> n al
(In your heart there sleeps a moonlight.)
("Chanson triste," Duparc-Lahor)
sur le borf,arrivée
Ls y --- r I ce--+ b I --+ ra--+ r i -> v e]
(arrived upon the shore)
("Chanson perpétuelle," Chausson-Cros)
F Optional Liaisons

- ;i.r ne serG rien.

- t - I a--rn(r-+ s e-->ra-+ r.i é]
lhat is useless.)
Carmen, Bizet)
.. :r-tr erfun
immense espoir
,:
- rG -+ n i -> m m d -+ s e-+
t r a--> v e--+ s pw ar]
.hrough an immense hope)
' La Bonne Chanson, Fauré-Verlaine)
::pt:
To show pluralization of final -rs:
Si mes vers avaient des ailes
[s i -+ m -Yr, --> t z a--)v e -> de -, z e-+ I a]
"
{If my verses had wings)
("Si mes vers avaient des ailes," Hahn-Hugo)
Sometimes on the word toujours (see below, "Special Words and
Liaison")
In inversion of third person singular verb forms and their pronoun
subject:
\leu4-on de volupté')
jrl ó*d(r-
v c-- I y
lm ce
(Does one die of pleasure?)
-pt el
(Chansons madé c as s e s, Ravel-Parny)

enumerations of any kind:

viennent. Femme/, hommeg, enfants
Ils von/, ils
[ilvó/ilvjena] ffama/cma/ófo]
tThey go, they come.) (Women, men, children)
: proper nouns:
Paril est beau. Manol enchanteresse!
,pariebol [manódJótaresa]
tParis is beautiful.) (Enchantress Manon!)

:rional Liaisons
-
- :citalist and concert singer seem to be more scrupulous in their use
, :on than the opera singer. The abuse of liaison in opera is probably
- ,r foreign influence and the shopworn excuses of "tradition" and
. , iacility. But nothing can justify what the French call a "barbarous"
86 Ll,qrsoN

liaison. Bernac says, "There are a great number of cases when the liaison
is optional, and left to the taste of the performer." This is dangerous
territory, where sound taste, common sense, and a thorough knowledge
and feel for the French language and its literature are required. This is
not to intimidate the already awe-struck English-speaking singer faced
with the intricacies of French pronunciation, but it is a word to the wise.
Bernac goes on to say that more liaisons might be made in a lyrical song
a folk song (in a Duparc song as opposed to one of the Ravel's
text than in
Greek Songs, for example):
Aime¡p loisir, aimer et mourir
[(e) mEr alw azi r/ § m e re muri r]
(To love at leisure, to love and die)
("Invitation au voyage," Duparc-Baudelaire)
Pour le noue/autour de tes cheveux
[p u --+ r I e --+ n u --) e --> o --t t u -+ r d a. - t ¿ -+.f (.9) v g1
(To tie it around your tresses)
( " Le Réveil de la mariée," C hans o ns p o p ul air e s g r e c qu e s, Ravel)

He also discourages the use of liaison when it would create sounds

more disagreeable to the ear than its absence, or when it makes for ambi-
guity, unintelligibility, or comical alliteration:
Dans tesgeuf/alors, je boirai
[dd-+te--+z jil- Ial¡-- r3 c-;bwa--+re]
(In your eyes then, I shall drink)
Tant de baiserl/ et de tendresses
[td--+ d ¡s+f (e)+z e--> le+ da-+td-+dre-+se]
(So many kisses and tendernesses)
(C hans on tris t e, Duparc-Lahor)
Here, both liaisons are avoided to reduce the recurrence of [z] within the
line, as well as to put the words "alors" and "et de tendresses" in ex-
pressive relief by means of gentle separations and reattacks on fhe vowels
with no real halting of the legato.
One of the most common misconceptions regarding liaison is that it
cannot occur over a comma. There are several kinds of commas: some
separate closely related words; others separate entire clauses and quite
unrelated material. In the following lines, liaison is advised over the
comma. The words in liaison are short introductory ones that are closely
linked in meaning, syntax, and mood with the following words:
Pui¿elle s'épanche
lpqizelasepóJel
(Then, it overflows)
(" Le Jet d' eau o" Debussy-Baudelaire)
 'r::-..:a.l Liais.rn:

\fai¡. helas. les plus longs amours sonf courts

-m e - z e-+l o --, s I e-+ p I y__+ I ó-+ za_) mu_-> rs ó _+ ku r]
( But. alas.
the longestloves are short)
r " Adieu, " Fauré_Grandmougin)

: -' in the following Iine, the liaison is discouraged since

it obscures and
::kens the text. The words ,.Oh, my beloved,, gain
in impact by being
, ",, ,-1,:^.:lressive relief by avoidini
liaison ani gently siparating the
.. cr 50unos:

Mat¡,16 mon bien_aimé, pour mieux sécher

mes pleurs
lm e / o -+ m ó -> b j e + n (e) + m e _+ / p u _+ r m
(But, i [ -__rs e _+ J. e -+ m g _-_ p I tr r]
oh my beloved, in order to better dry my tears)
(.Samson et Dalila, Saint_Saéns)
slntax. or sentence structure, is equally important
::3sence or absence of riaison. Grammaticalry
in determining the
unrelated words shourd
: be in liaison:

Et le charme des soirfi ta belle áme est cher

[e -+ I s -+ J a r -+ m c _-> d I _+ s w a _-> r a __+ t a __+ b _+
I I o _+ ¡¡ s __+
c r]
(And the charm ofthe evenings to your J.
beautiful soul is dear)
("Rencontre," Fauré-Grandmougin)
Le temps des lila/ et le temps des rose,l est passé
fl ce -+ t ó + d e _+ I i _+ l o _+ e _+ l e _+ t d _+ d e + r o _>
(The time of lilacs and the time ofroses
ze _.> I _+ p o _+ s e
l
is past)
("Le Temps des Lilas,,, Chausson_Bouchor)
the first example ("Rencontre"), the normal
word order would be ..Et
: des soirs est cher á ta belre áme." poetic word
order often
'harme
-\taposes clauses and raises havoc with normar syntax. This can be
seen
.-,silf in the English translation.,soirs is not linked
to d ta beile áme be_
''use this prepositional phrase
':e normal word order given is governed by the word cher. _Even in
above, soirs would not be linked to esl be_
-:use this singurar verb- form is the predicate of the
,ingriu. subject
"'t'ne' As a generar rule, plural noun, and singular u".uJio, singular
and plural verbs) shourd not be in liaison
"uns demonstrated with each other. This is
''rther in the second
- the words roses and "*u*pl"
from.,Le r"-p, á., Lilas,,
' esl. Also, the conjunction et rorn".t, temps and.
' ''ps and should not be in liaison with the word rilas precetring it.
Yes, it sounds complicated, and it is. But
a little úard thin?ing will
':orv that liaison is based largely on common sense and a desire for in-
':lligibility' For the singer who does not speak French, agood
word-for-
' rrrd translation wiil aid in deciding upon the use of liaison
with respect
-- syntax.
88 LlersoN

Compulsory Liaisons
In conversation as well as in singing, some liaisons are unavoidable, or
compulsory. Most of these liaisons are based on grammatical structure.
Some of the most common are listed below:

Arwevs Maxr, e LrersoN Br,rwr,r,¡l ExeupLr,s

a plural noun and a neighboring adjec- des jours heureux
tive defining it [desurz($)rQ]
(happy days)
de -1,
srands arbres
[dcegrózarbra]
(tall trees)
a plural noun and its verb -\,esooirs ont fui
mes
' \,
Jmczcspwarzófqil
(my hopes have fled)
a plural noun and a prepo.itirrn intr,,- beaulyeux aux flammes douces
ducing its modifier [bozi Qzoflamaduscr]
(beautiful eyes with gentle flames)
a plural noun and a conjunction linking hommes et femmes
another plural noun to it [c m ct iYra m a]
(men and u'omen)
pronouns and their verbs (also in in- ils ont
version) ri-l; ól
(they have)
tout-\_,est
ftutel
(all is)
nous avons été
[nuXvoXte]
(we have been)
Ont-ils été?
toñtXtet
(Have they been?)
a direct object pronoun preceding its Je les ai vus.
\,
governing verb form [:crle zevy)
(I saw them.)
composite verb forms I1 est allé.
1-,/
[iletalel
(He went.)
89 Compulsory Liaisons

Arweys MexB e LrersoN BerwenN ExauprEs

Je veul étre ..

13ev QHefial
(I want to be)
r erbs and articles or predicate Je vois un\J_
enfant.
\-,i
adjectives [Scvwazcnofol
(I see a child.)
ils resten! agenouillés
lilrestaYaSanujel
(they remain kneeling)
r erbs and prepositions introducing il m'apprend ir jouer
modif,ers [ilmaprotí3uei
(he teaches me to play)
,. erbs and their adverbs que viennent encore
[kcvjenatdkcre]
(may there come still)
rnfinitives and closely linked words and pour laisseLarriver le soir
modifiers [pu rl (e) s erariv ela s war]
(to allow the evening's arrival)
réveE;:n paix
[reverdpe]
(to dream in peace)
. erbs and conjunctions that connect il chantait et buvait
others verbs of the same subject ti lJ óte tYb y v el
(he was singing and drinking)
:rticles and adjectives preceding the un homme
nouns they modify and with other [óvncmo]
related adjectives (a man)
des enfants
t¿&arol
(children)
un autre oetit éléve
lévno t rá p*Yi te lev e]
(another little pupil)
.Jlectives in certain expressions, and peti! á petit
u ith prepositions connecting tpef tapetil
modifiers (litrle by little)
pendug á ma ceinture
--.v
lpddy7amas6tyral
(hung on my belt)
90 LrersoN

Alwevs MerB a LrersoN BBTwBBN ExaupLgs

adjectives linked by conjunctions langoureu¿x et las
(singular and plural) 11ógurÉzelol
(languorous and weary)
petitq.ou grands
[pcetizugró]
(little or big)
an adverb and the adjective, participle, bie¡_entendu
or adverb it modifres lbjénótódyl
(of course)
beaucoup_aimé
[bokup(e)me]
(much loved)

an adverb preceding and modif.ving an pour bielfcrire

infinitive [purbjénekrira]
(to write well)
a preposition and its object sans amour
,t I r'--+-l' [sdzamur]
r,f,'6,, jciy* "
(.P¡^ c&tt,CItgl.l'+\| d' É' f (without love)
rt [ " I devan!;ru-,obstacle
ldcvdtGncpstakla]
(before an obstacle)
a conjunction and the subject pronoun quan{_il pleut
of the clause or verb [kótilplÉ]
(*hen it rains)
quan(_,est-il parti?
[kotetilparti]
(when did he leave?)

Phonetic Changes Due to Liaison

CONSONANTS

The letters d.,f, g, n, r, s, t, x, andz are those most subject to liaison.

Of those, only four, n, r, t, and z, remain the same phonetically as [n],
[r], [t], and [z] when in liaison. The remaining five change phonetically
when in liaison, as shown below:
e 1 Phonetic Changes Due to Liaison

IN LrelsoN
rrrr.R BEcou¡,s ExaNrprss

J ttl un gran{ arbre

-v.
Lcgrotarbrel
(a tall tree)

Iv] neuf--\,ans
-lnavol--
(nine years)
tkl sang impur
[sdk-ipyr]
(impure blood)

lz) les anges

[üd: e]
(the angels)

lz) dix ans

r¿lY ot
(ten years)

Remember that only a consonant that is normally silent and final is

subject to liaison and these phonetic changes. If the consonant is pro-
nounced (and final) normally, and regardless of whether followed by a
vowel-sound or not, it does not change phonetically (see Chapter 1).

\-OWELS

Only two vowel-sounds change when the consonant following them is in

laison. They are [o] and [ó], and occur almost exclusively in two words:
:rrrp [tro] and bon [bó]. Both open to [c], with denasalization occurring
;n the second case, before liaison:

trooheureuse bon anniversaire

tt.Yp(ll rBze) tb#aniverserel
(too happy) (happy birthdaY)

\ote that in final -er sounding as [e], the e retains its closed quality in
liaison:

réve¡en paix
[reverdpe]
(to dream in peace)
92 LIeIsoN

Special Words and Liaison

Donc
Sound the final c as [k] only if
1. foilowed within the line by a vowel-sound;
Mais oü doncjst I'amour?
[mezudókelamur]
(But where then is love?)
(Fianqailles pour rire, Poulenc-Vilmorin)
Oü donU les vents I'ont-ils chassée?
[u dó + le--+ v d-+ 1ó-+ ti--+ 1J a s e]
(Where then have the winds driven itl))
("Romance," Debussy-Bourget)
2. initial in line, for emphasis: 3. but never when final
Donc. ce sera par un ciair jour d'été. Frappe-moi donal
[dó k s(E-+ s ce ra-+ p aré - k I e* r J u---) rde te] [frapamwad ól
(So, it will be on a bright summer da1'.) (Strike me then!)
(La Bonne Chanson. Fauré-Verlaine) (Carmen, Bizet)

Soit

Sound the fin¿ri r as [t] only if

1. followed within the line by a vowel-sound:
Soi/ lui, soi! un autre.
[swalqiswuatónotre]
(Whether it be he or another.)
2. ñnal in line, and alone, for emphasis:

Soi!!
ls watl
(So be it!)

Mais
Sound the final s in liaison, whether followed by a comma or not, as a
general rule:
mais, en attendant maig, hélas Mais-\-/.il me fuit.
- \)_
lmeZónatñdól [m eYe lo s]
-
[mezllmGlr{ll
(but, while waiting) (but, alas .) (But it eludes me.)
9-1 Special Words and Liaison

E.rcept when liaison would obscure or weaken the text, especially in

Jrrect address:
Mai/,i6 mon bien-aimé, pour mieux sécher mes pleurs
[m e / o -+ m ó - b j ó -' n (e) + m e --' / p u -> r mj É - s e + J e -) m g --+ p I ce r]
(But, oh rny beloved, to better dry my tears)
(Samson et Dalilq, Saint-Saéns)

Chacun, Quelqu'un, Un (as pronoun), Eux

Do not make liaison on these pronouns:
Chacu/ á son goüt Quelqu'u/ entre'
lJakéasógul [kelkéótre]
(Each to his taste) (Someone is entering')
Plus d'utl aurait donné sa vie. ':

[ply- dé-+J-+re--+ dc-+ ne-+ s a--vi-.>c]

(More than one would have given his life.)
("Le Spectre de la Rose," Berlioz-Gautier)
Devant euf/il chante.
lde,vdtóliljétel
(Before them he sings.)

Puis

Liaison is generally recommended on this word, whether followed by a

romma or not, except between it and the word on:
Puiq,il s'épanche. Puil,/on se sépara'
tp.IúilsepoJal tpqiósceseparal
(Then, it overflows.) (Then, we separated.)

\-eux

{iways make liaison into this word »'hen appropriate:

les veux de groq yeux
fl.!r:Ol ldc,erYzjil
(the eyes) (big eyes)

But not into other words beginning with y:

un/yankee
léjókil
(a Yankee)
94 LrersoN

Interjections
Avoid liaison whenever possible between an interjection and a preceding
or following word:
Tu menf , Ah! Il meu(, hélas! Reviens,/ó nuit!
[tymo/ol [ilmar/e1os] [rcevjé/onqi]
(You lie, ah!) alasl) (Rerurn, oh nightl)
(He is dying,
But, a gently sounded consonant may be in liaison before an interjection
to separate two similar vowel-sounds:
Je dis.,hélas
[¡cedi(z)elos1
(I say, alas .)
Note parentheses around [z] to indicate lightness of attack.

Toujours
Liaison is made on this word onl¡ rihen it is followecl by another word
that it modifies or that modifies it. othenrise rhe r is normally linked up,
as in most words in -rs. the .s remaining silent:
Le flot est toujour5 amer.
[l a+ vi--+ e-+ t uY3 u- r za- m e r]
(Life is still biter.)
(Le Bestiaire, Poulenc-.Apollinaire t
Et nous étions liés pour tou-jours ainsi.
le -+ n u -) z e --+ t j ó --+ I i e
(And we were linked forer,er thus.)
- p u i. t u - 3n + r zé --+ s il

(C hansons de Bílitis, Debuss.v-Loui,s)

Il y a toujou¡flun silence extraordinaire.

[i -+ I i a -+ t u -+ 3 u + r si d --+ s e --+ k s t r a --, c -r r d i -+ n e --+ r a]
ce
-
(There is always an extraordinar¡, silence.)
- 1

(Pelléas et Mélisande, Debusslz-Maeterlinck)

Numbers, Numerical Words

Avoid liaison before and after the numerical pronouns un and une:
J'en voi3 un. ul deux les heure¡, une á une
ou
[: dv waó] [éu l] leze re/ y n ay n el
d
(I see one of them.) (one or two) (the hours, one by one)
,5 Special Words and Liaison

..',.rid liaison into the numbers huit (eight) and onze (eleven):

dang huit jours Tu auraf, onze ans demain.

[dóqisur] [t y c r a-+ ó -- > zd-->d a m é]
(in one week) (You will be eleven tomorrow.)
:¡-rt. in composite numbers, liaison is required into huit, but still not into
'::ei
quatre-vingf-onze dix-huit ving!-huit
[katrc véózel @Hqit1 ¡ve-t]it1
(ninety-one) (eighteen) (twenty-eight)
-r oid liaison after cent (one hundred), except when used as a numerical
,,J¡ ective:
cen/-un J'en ai cen/aussi. cent ans
[soce] [3óne-rsó-rosil ls dtél
(one hundred one) (I have one hundred of them, too.) (one hundred years)

: \ERCISES
: .,:ed on this discussion of liaison, and with the help of the translations
.rvided, decide where liaison should occur in the following examples
, -J give the reason why. Phoneticize all words. Then intone each example.

.Les hauts talons (the high heels)

l.Les autres ont entendu. (The others have heard.)
..Un an et une semaine (one year and a week)
l.Le vent a changé. (The wind has changed.)
-{. Nous avons espéré. (We have hoped.)
¡. Dors encore! (Sleep on!)
- En attendant (while waiting)
¡ I1 est mort inaperEu. (He died unnoticed.)
I Filles et gargons (girls and boys)
,. Six ans aprés (six years later)
. Aprés un an (after a year)
L Une nuit éternelle (an eternal night)
: Le joyeux et doux printemps arrive. (The joyous and sweet springtime
arrives.)
.-i. Chacun est entré. (Each one has entered.)
.5, Toujours heureux, toujours avec toi (always happy, always with you)
r. Il faut aimer, espérer; aimer et espérer toujours ! (One must love, hope;
love and hope forever!)
Hou to Phonoiiúiz,o nnd Propnrc
tlto Tott ol fi, sonq or Ariu

The Phoneticization and Intoning Procedures

1. Reconstruct the poem by copying it line for line. making sure to
leave l»'¿r spaces between each iine of verse. Remember that as a rule a
capital letter in the text, even when within the musical phrase. may indi-
cate a new line of poetry. In this way. line length, rhyme scheme, and
overall structure of the poem will be more evident. Skip extra lines be-
tween stanzas or verses. If possible, obtain a reliable edition of the poetry
of the text and compare this original version with your own.
2. Now underline vowel-sounds, circle semi-consonant sounds. mark
elisions and liaisons, and divide words syllabically.
3. Inserl the phoneticization directly above the individual line of verse,
using the rules and examples from this manual.
4. Directly beneath the line of verse, insert a word-by-word transla-
tion, rearranging to the best of your ability the one provided in your edi-
tion, the one provided in Pierre Bernac's The Interpretotion of French
.§ong, or your own. A sample line would appear thus:

. I L---->r b L -----+rl c --+l o+s f nl ¿ i ]

L' h g . b-,e -e s t m o I l-g au s,-rlnr,'r,

"@
The grass is soft for sleeping)
s u+l € +f r¿----->ll G,--->ll I i e ]
Sous les frais t-|.-l_e ulrl I il"
u r s

under the cool poplar tree's)

"Phidylé," H. Duparc-Leconte de Lisle
97
 98 How ro PnoNgrrcrzE AND Pnr,panr, rnp, T¡,xr op e SoNc on Anre

5. When this process has been completed, copy your phoneticization

into your score above the musical line, synchronizing carefully symbols
and notes, and insert the word-by-word translation beneath the text: :j

"Phidylé," H. Duparc-Leconte de Lisle

I I¿r b¿ 'tuC- I o §3 TflL l¿ fra ga pLi e
J - J -)

- w sq tes fro,a petl pti lers

L'herbe gs| mpl1,é rnmd9 ,soüs
( lie fiss tt-trjl¡* sueprn-g und,er blw c,ooL pof,l,a,rs )

6. Now, using your phoneticized and translated score, intone the pho-
neticization. Intoning involves singing legato. with a fully supported, w'ell
resonated sound on one note. preferabl¡ in the upper middle register of
the voice. Sit up straight or stand uhile doing so. givingthe intonation
all the energy you would give to actual singing. lntone the phoneticized
syllables of the text while strictl¡ observing the note-values assigned to
each syllable in the exact tempo in rihich the song or aria is to be even-
tually sung. The note used for intoning ma¡ be changed from phrase to
phrase to avoid fatigue or monoton¡. but not *ithin the phrase itself. If
the actual tempo is too fast fLrr accurate vocalization of the sounds at
flrst, it would be wise to start intoning at half the tempo, gradualiy accel-
erating it with each repetition t¡f the text until the actual tempo can be
realized. The tempo must not lluctuate u'ithin any one repetition of the
text, but should instead be kept uniform throughout. Not until you can
intone the text with ease and fluenc¡' in the correct tempo are you ready
to attempt the actual singing ol the text on the various pitches.
7. Then, sing through the song or aria on any given syllable (mi,la,
efc.), not on the text itself, giving careful attention to the accuracy of
pitches and rhythms. Pitch and rhythm must always be learned sepa-
rately from text and rhythm. Rh-v-'thm is the common denominator of the
two and is crucial to their synchronization.
8. Next, on the assigned pitches and rhythrns of the composition, sing
the vowel-sounds of the text, legato, excluding all the consonant-sounds.
Make the shift from vowel-sound to vowel-sound clearly and cleanly,
but without any interruption of the vocalic flow. At this point in your study,
analyze which vowel-sounds will need modification in the high and low
registers, and practice them accordingly, paying attention to vocal facility
and vocalic intelligibility. Then, line up the vowel-sounds by matching
'them as closely as possible while retaining their particular qualities. Ana-
lyze what they have in common and preserve this in the singing process.
Beware of pinching, over-rounding, and exaggerated nasalization. Do not

&-
99 The Interpretation of a French Song or Aria Text

allow a particular vowel to "stick out" except for expressive reasons,

and keep all vowel-sowds alive and resonant at all times. Make the
vowels fit and enhance your voice; vowel-sounds should be to the voice
what clothes are to the body.
9. Now, sing the whole phoneticization of the song or aria, vowel-
sounds, semi-consonants, and consonant-sounds alike, at a uniform dy-
namic level, on the given pitches and rhythms. Observe carefully the
principle of legato throughout by making the consonants rapid, late and
clear, andby prolonging the vowel-sounds as long as their assigned note-
values will permit. In staccato sections, articulate the consonants with
precision and lightness, always without shortening the duration of the
vowel-sounds. Remember that a vocal staccato is achieved by an ener-
getic but lightweight consonantal articulation, not by shortening the vowel-
sounds. Elongate the shorter syllables ofthe score and text to give them
sonority and to allow them to participate in the legato. If possible, record
your preparation on tape and listen to {t'critically, noting in your score
any improvements to be made. Now you are ready to think about ín-
terpretation.

The Interpretation of a French Song or Aris Text

Too many stop here in their study of "diction," assuming that once the
technical aspects have been mastered, their work in this area is done.
It has truly only begun, for correctly pronounced and vocalized words
are worthless if they do not express feelings, moods, ideas, and so on.
The singer must be able to convey effectively the content of his text to
his listeners.

SELECTION OF TIIE SONG OR ARIA

How many singers choose a composition before carefully considering
its text, simply because it "lies well," only to find after further reflection
that they (or their voice) cannot accept, interpret, or even understand
its text? If a selection seems vocally appropriate (and this should, of
course, be the initial consideration since interpretation is impossible if
the singer cannot "sing" the song or aria), then the singer should im-
mediately examine the text. A good translation must be obtained, not
one ofthose unrelated English paraphrases found beneath and often above
the original text in so many scores.
The singer must know the meaning and expressive intent of every word,
of every line, and of the overall text he is to sing. Indeed, a singer should
develop his literary sensitivity to the level of his vocal ability before con-
sidering public performance on any kind of professional level. The com-
100 How ro PnoNerrclzE AND PR¡peRr, rnn, TExr op e SoNc on Anra

plete vocal artist must cultivate and reflne this sensitivity to the word, to
poetry, and to literature in general. His job is manifold and somewhat
more encompassing than that of the instrumentalist. The singer is always
working through a text that in some way or another inspired the vocal
line and its texture. It is this inseparable relationship of the text and its
music that confronts the vccal artist at every moment, be it in opera,
oratorio, or art song. Practically without exception, all texts, whether
poetry, prose, or the dramatic lines of a libretto, existed in their own
right as literature before being set to music.
In evaluating a piece of vocal music, one of the first considerations
should be the composer's sense of prosodl,-or his ability to set the text
to music with respect to the verbal structure. rhythm, and mood. In art
song, where the text and its music are most inextricably linked, it is the
composer's reaction to and his subsequent musical realization of the
poem that determine the artistic quality of his composition. A composer
with a low poetic sensitivity may be quite capable of turning out a "sing-
able" song, and, indeed, a very "musical" one. But the more aware the
singer is of the text, the more problematic this song will be to "interpret,"
due to this discrepancy betu'een the uord and the music. This is not to
advise complete abstinence from all songs uith bad prosody. Most of
Berlioz, Bizet, Franck, and even some Fauré could be accused of this
shortcoming, not to mention more recent composers such as Milhaud
and Boulez, who seem to delight in the r¡bscuring of a text. Rather, an
awareness of weak prosod-v can guide the singer in his resultant inter-
pretation. He can avoid accenting unstressed sy,llables that fall on strong
beats or high notes, concentrate on clarif-ving what has been obscured
by the musical setting, and attempt to preserve the message and mood
of a line that has been assigned music unsuited to it. However, when
setting a text to music, the composer's awareness of prosody will facili-
tate the singer's interpretation, because the score and its details will
serve as hints rather than obstacles to that interpretation. If only all com-
posers had the literarl, perception coupled with the musical expertise of
Debussy, Ravel, or Poulencl But, in truth, they all do not, and it is a
singer's duty to discriminate between music that illuminates, illustrates,
and complements the poetry and music that distracts from, obscures, or
even obliterates it.

FLUENT RECITATION OF THE TRANSLATION

'Ihe singer must next set about mastering a fluent recitation of the trans-
lation, in his mother tongue, of the text. For those who speak French
fluently, a recitation of the translation may be unnecessary. This must
be thought of as a poetry reading or a dramatic recitation in which the
singer reads aloud the translation while mentally following and audibly
 . The interpretation of a French Song or Aria Text

-:,1ns the musical setting to which the text is married, as it were,

-r
' u lnto consideration pauses, dynamics, tempos, etc. The significance
' . . achieyement can be most appreciated when reading aloud the
.--: le\t set to different music by different composers. The poems are
-: :,rrrl€. but they have been set to music by men or women with dif-
-'tr:.: personalities and sets of reactions. A performer's reaction to the
- , :.ig should be equally differentiated, and must be reflected in his read-
---: rs rvell as in his finished performances. Declaim, murmur, tell,
-.:p€r. shout, project, but, above all, communicate and explain audibly
- : :reaning, moods, and content of the text. Get it into your blood as
,'..:r¡tic literature and it will "get into your voice." If you have chosen
. . rour voice will be able to take itl

]],1E\T RECITATION OF THE ORIGINAL TEXT IN FRENCH

- ..se singers whose French is fluent can catch up with us here' Now
-,,: the meaning, moods, and content of the text are clear, the poem
-,.. be recited aloud in French, with its musical setting always in mind,
.. .rel1 as the singer's personal reaction to the poetr-v. Assuming that all
-: pronunciation is correct, the objective here is erpressive and inter-
:-=tive recitation of literature in a foreign tongue. This is not always an
: ::\ t&Sk. Again, avoid parody of any kind. For some reason, non-French
..rple adopt a suggestive, almost lewd tone of voice whenever they utter
. .,. ord of French. A Viennese doctor once said, " What a sensual language
, ench is! Why, imagine, the word for'pig' is cochon!" One could per-
-.:FS argue that French poetry, more than any other, explores and pene-
:.:reS the subject of sensual experience and that the language itself with
. liquid-like legato flow and its rich endowment of voluptuous vowel-
. .lnds. such as the nasals, lends itself most successfully to the descrip-
,n of physical pleasure. Finel But not all song texts are limited to one
..,¡ject or mood. Some are narrative and are best delivered as one would
-:.rJ a story to a child. Others are violent and bitter, still others proud,
- rmble, innocent, prayerflul, despairing, and so on. S¿e the text for whot
,r. Let it speak to you so that it can speak through you. Do not allow
,:i lack of real experience to inhibit you in the expression of a text; use
. ..ur imagination and make others use theirs while listening to you. Be
,,1ple a\d direct and become the text and its poet. Only then will it be
rrurS. Only then will it be )'oa, not someone else.

RESEARCH ON THE TEXT

\lilays try to study a text separately from its musical setting and in its
-,riginal form, as it existed before being set to music. If it is verse, it is
'.er_v interesting and significant to know whether the composer left out
102 How ro PnoNeucrzE AND PRppeRe rnE T¡xr op a SoNc oR Anra

any stanzas or changed any of the words. This often sheds new light on
the text and upon the composer's appreciation of it. It is also important
to determine the original punctuation so often omitted in scores. Or, as
the case may be, punctuation may have been added to the original. What
appears as whimsical capitalization of unimportant words, may it be
stressed again, is usually due to the fact that the flrst word of each line
of verse is traditionally capitalized and that this practice is carried over
in the printing of a score.
In the case of opera, it is both helpful and fascinating to trace the
libretto back to its original source for clarification of plot, character,
and background, as well as to see what was added or omitted by the
librettists in their adaptations.
The texts of oratorios may appear dry and irrelevant to the twentieth-
century performer estranged from religious literature and history. A little
study can make the most obscure oratorio text come to life with the fire
that once inspired many a composer and his devout audience.

INTERPRETATION WHILE SI\GI\G

It is here that all previous preparation. hou er.er concentrated and thorough
it may have been, can be promptl) forgotten because of the added and most
significant element here: singing. Hori often it is that a singer can draw
an interpretative blank r,,'hen he starts to sing. The process. or possibly
duress, of singing ma,v take over his concentration and. at the same time,
stifle any possibility of true interpretarion.
The word "interpretation" is dangerousll, misunderstood and "misin-
terpreted." Too often, singers (ancl musicians in general) feel they owe it
to themselves artistically to impose their "interpretation" upon what is
given. They feel that in this uar the¡. "make it their own," placing upon
it a weighty, indelible sramp rhar obscures the outlines beneath. This ap-
proach to interpretation can be compared to the cook who spices his food
so highly that its natural taste is hidden. One's f,rst duty in interpreting
music is to observe ull that the composer requests in the realization of
his creation. Only after sincerely, attempting to do so can the singer per-
mit himself the luxury of making the slight adjustments necessary to
satisfy both his inspirations and limitations. The fear that such "blind
and unimaginative" fidelity might conceal one's own artistic identity is
a dangerous admission. Two artists can follow every indication in a score
and come out with two very personal statements, just as two fine cooks
can follow the same recipe and produce very different results. What counts
in both cases is the quality of the ingredients. True artistic individuality
refuses to be so easily hidden. But the artist who has the courage and in-
tegrity to observe faithfully every detail of a score is a rare one, and is
 I
.1 The Interpretation of a French Song or Aria Text

-: .rflly one who will penetrate fully into the mystery of the creation
-.:-'re him.
.r.tead of "dreaming up" an interpretation (or running to a coach for
-: before trying one himself), the singer rnüstuncover the interpretative
::¡nds that will be made upon him by the total composition, and con-
:-lently allow that these indications guide him in his technical confron-
., ¡n of the composition. Before singing a given note or phrase pianissimo
' ' ,t'tissimo, and lacking any explicit indication to do either in the score,
' : imperative to see what the text indicates. How often singers boom
-. r ociferously about the silence of a forest, or cheep blithely on about
-: j-aging of a torrent! Also, it often helps to determine the "space" of
'-: text and its setting. Is it oratorical (with a lot of space around it), or
- it intimate (enclosed in a small space)? Is this a betrayed lover venting
-.s w'ounded passion on all of nature, or is it a contented one cooing in
:.3 ear of his beloved? The same song or aria can demand spaciousness
,:d intimacy, especially in recitatives (see Chapter 6).
To study the singing of music before coming to general well-founded
: ¡nclusions about its interpretative demands is putting the cart before the
-
-'i-se. Vocal study, with public performance in mind. cannot effectively
-=gin until the interpretative itinerary has been mapped out. All the an-
.,,.ers are right there on the page, in the score and in the text. and, of
- rurse, in the singer's intelligent and responsible reaction to r¡'hat he sees

Ftrr most people, interpretation includes "expression." and singing

-. .t certainly should be "expressive." But expressive of x.'lua¡'l is the
rt here. Expression can be negative as well as positive. It is of great
- :L)rtance to know when and when not to "pour it on," what and what
: to express. Expression is notjust pathos-oriented. There is everything
i\press: joy, sorrow, boredom, enthusiasm, hope, despair, extro-
: iion, introversion, strife and peace-the list is as endless as human
- , .ng and experience. The best and most reliable rule should be sim-
: -:tr and honesty in one's confrontation of the text and its setting. One
,-id not read a grocery list the same way one would a love poem. Con-
- ' ances such as grimaces, false accents, irresponsTble crescendi and
',tinuendi (what Bernac calls "involuntary nuances"), "cute" or pom-
:.'ius gestures-all are substitutes for real inspiration, and effective, direct
-.,mmunication. Fancy inflections should be sparsely superimposed upon
.:rts and only after due reflection on the part ofthe singer. Thoughtless
:nbroideries, especially those that are not spontaneous, can often set an
-rderstanding audience to embarrassed tittering. Expression must be
^.r¡fleSt, sincerely felt, and, again, simple.It must be effectively projected
.,. ith healthy and appropriate vocal production and diction. The chain

:rust be unbroken, with no missing links.

104 How ro PnoNpucrzE AND Pnp,p,A.RE rsE Tp,xr or a SoNc oR ARrA

..FRENCH STYLE"

Ours is an era of "performance practice" and "style." Under these two

puristic (and not so pure) banners musical murder has been committed.
Much has been said about the "French style," yet it has never been suc-
cessfully defined. It seems to be an all-inclusive term that veils the whole
repertoire in an aura of impenetrable mystery. Of course there are a few
characteristic tendencies in the performance of French vocal music dis-
tinguishing it from the Italian, German. and other repertoires (see Bernac,
The Inferpretation of French Song, Chapter 3).
Portctmento is used sparingly in French vocal music, especially in the
realm of song, but it is certainly used. and at times is requested by the
composer ('"portando" or "portez Ia voix"). '\Nhen portamento is used,
there is one "stylistic" rule to remember: the syllable upon which the
portamento takes place must give ua\ to the following one as soon as
this syllable's note is reached at the end of the porf omento, unlike the
portamento in Italian where the o1d sl.llable is extended indefinitely into
the note of the new syllable. To be aioided are excessive, pointless ri-
tards, unnecessary sacrificing of the legato. involuntary (or thoughtless)
nuances, irresponsible tempo changes. and the like.
But can this not be recomntended in the performance of all music?
Preconceptions about such a mrsterious entit)'as "French style" might
better be dismissed in favor of a puritl and simplicity of approach, a
clarity and naturalness of diction. and an adherence to the score and to
the demands of the text. Add to that a pleasant. uell-produced voice, a
dash of sensitivity, intelligence. and good raste. Baste these constantly
with a little artistry! common sense. and Jife-giving energ!.. Something
truly beautiful may result.
 Applicfiüion of Diction,
Tlto
kohniquos üo 0üher Aspocüs
r f Singing

Recítative
-:r uS not announce gloomily that "the art of recitative is d-ving," but
",.her lament the neglect into which it has fallen. Some of the most directly
- nmunicative and moving vocal music is in the form of recitative. Cer-
,.:lv there is no need to justify it here; recitative is as old as singing itself.
r:r how often in performances, both with orchestra and in recital. and
- ,ruditions, the "recit" is cut with the excuse that it is "boring." A reci-
-:ir e sets the tone and provides the dramatic spark for the ensuing aria.
-..¡*ever, it may truly be dull if its meaning is unknown to the singer and
, nsequently unexpressed, or if performed metrically with little regard
' r- l'erbal inflection and dramatic change of pace.
Recitative is the closest the singer comes to actual theatrical declama-
-n. A prolonged recitative such as Donna Anna's in Act Iof Don Gio-
.:¡¡i could be compared to a Shakespearean soliloquy or a Racinian
.,i¿. In its broadest, most inclusive sense, recitative is the vocal decla-
.,Iion of a text set to music, following inflections, the changing tempo,
J the varying moods of speech. With few exceptions. recitative should,
- .\\ ever, be sung and delivered with vocal beauty, crisp diction, and
::ropriate expressivity. But how often it is merely "spoken," indeed
- :mbled or rattled off with impatience. Oddly enough, those singers who
- nstantly sing out of time deliver recitative "in rhythm," when the in-
-.,ie meter of any recitative is in the words themselves.
In a sense, any vocai music that is not governed by regular meter and
--erible rhythm may be considered a form of recitative. Of those who

. t:\
106 ApprrcauoN or DrcrroN TecHurqurs

may disagree with this statement it is hereby requested that for the mo-
ment and for the sake of understanding they suspend their judgment.
The oldest-known recitative styles of "modern" music, those of Gre-
gorian chant and of the earliest Italian opera, still serve as bases for much
recitative-style vocal writing today, notably in Pelléas et Mélisande,
Debussy's lyric drama. The earliest known operas-those of Caccini,
Peri and Monteverdi-were written in a style called monody, in which a
harmonically conceived vocal line followed the stress patterns and natural
rhythms of the word. Caccini called it "speaking in music"; Peri per-
ceived it as "imitation of a person speaking in song." Monteverdi pro-
vided a perfection of the style in his operaOrfeo (1607). The style described
above is recitaÍive.
The earliest French opera composers of the late seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries, best represented by Lully and Rameau, led a cru-
sade against the overwhelming Italian influence in vocal music all over
Europe at the time. They preferred a recitative style known as récitatif
mesuré, or "metered recitative," which may seem at first to be a slight
contradiction in terms. Here an underlying rhythmic structure was subject
to frequent changes in time signature and tempo relative to the demands
of the text. In fact, at first the French sought to confuse the Italian dis-
tinction between meterless recitative and the formal rhythm-based aria
by promoting the récitatif mesuré style, which in reality was simply an
adaptation of the Italian recitative style to the demands and character of
the French language. As a matter of fact, the recitativo secco prevalent
in Mozart and Rossini, with its dry, clipped, chattery delivery, never
really caught on in representative French opera ofthe late eighteenth and
early nineteenth centuries. Instead, right from the beginning of French
opera the recitative style was flowing, semi-metered, and above all sung
as opposed to parlando, yet was intimately related to the rhythm, inflec-
tions, and punctuations of the French language.
In the following examples of récitatif mesuré, the stressed syllables
have been underlined. Here, primary stress is marked by double under-
lines; secondary stress by a single underline. Note in the examplc from
Lully's Thésée how the syllables of primary and secondary stress gen-
erally fall on the strong beats of longer duration. Observe also the typical
anapestic rhythms (short-short-long), the most characteristic pattern of
French speech rhythm ("esf ici," "-trg étonnés," "il ne vous," "de ces
lieux." 'iá la seule victoirl l,)-p".rn"t ¿.Y. iui--a"1. Herejn nine bars of
récitatif mesuré oc.ur io"less than four cIánges of time signature. An
edited version is given ("to be sung") after the original ("as written"),
without time signatures but with consistent note-values that the singer
can use to break the rhythmic code, so to speak. Also, the recitative is
grouped into four sections, according to meaning and expression, with
iri: Recitative

--ggested breathing spots. Singers may note that a rest in recitative (as
- -,11 music) does not necessarily dictate or allow a breath. The rest after
¡"1:ri" is perhaps a means of suggesting an emphasis on "lui-méme,"
-: .'ir after "ící" no more than a "punctuating lift," but not one of
-,r --r. Fluctuations of tempo in recitative are determined by the
. . : On the third phrase of the recitative a slight accelerando is

- -:'.: ú. rhen a gentle ritard to bring the singer back to the lilting ríror-
.- ¡i ttre aria Reve«et, revenez", Amo«rs, r€ven€(.

:,sée (Prologue; 1675), J.-B. Lully

As wri tten:

- ¡,ezt frars l,u"t-r.itime esb i - 91t

"'*-"",
a'éLre á-Lon-
( llar¡ himset{ is lwre , cea;e uoLlf oLarm.

'te ,lor-rs d,é -

rleS. Est-il aur)--Qlu.o d^ML
rong
- aer
n don
I¡ trvere 'aanger ¡rorn, lw cutno|

d-
t_l a

ú - ire? lt e lr-s Fu - &u'rs de, e*.s Líeux f.or'iu-

chas-s
sl,oa Hebanishzs Üw Ourles front, bhase ch¡se:n' sítes.
!ou?

-'nes ln set-la \tc, -

,A ,'ticbrg lnire tL oer-met deLe suL - '¡re ,
ol,otw ües h¿ aLka him^sel.l h be
Jo Ftaed,.)
108 ApprrcerroN or DrcrroN TecnNrquos

Thésóe (Prologue; 1675), J.-8. Lully

To be sung (indications my ovn),

ls¿s lttrilbme dst 'i

9!, ,lu diétre é -ton-
ll.a.rs ltimseLr{ it h¿re , cea-s e"=l yoLr a'l,a-rm.

Est -ut qurL-oue don - ge: dnn' tL Ár. vo*s

Ia there' anl da.rtgi, Jrom t¡ltich, hz
,f*t,

1L -vre? I'" clrps-se fes iu- rew-é de ces Lteux lor -Lu
u,tte you? 1l¿ bantst,,u thz Surtes /rom, thzse choson"

,rr-es
- A La -sa-Le ic - Lotre tL per-met de k
,,1
s&L - ^,tre.
tffis,Xo yict¿ru 0,.Lanz d¿e,S U 0lL0r- !0u t) JoLLaD
tuLm

Throughout the execution of this and any other recit¿tive the watchword
is rubato, or what Caccini so aptly called the "noble neglect of the
rhythm." Once the sense of the text is understood and it is appropri-
ately grouped together, the singer's breath will dictate the tempo and
word-flow. It is signiflcant that Lully, born an Italian, studied elocution
with La Champmeslé, the great French comédienne of the Comédie-
frangaise. Before setting any text to music, Lully insisted that she de-
slaim it in the grand theatrical manner.
The following example from Rameau contains four changes of time
signature within ten bars. Note the similarity to characteristics observed
in the example of Lully. Note, too, that the step-wise writing is more
graceful and rhythmically varied. Whereas Lullian recitative tends to be
triadic, syllabic (one note per syllable), and fast-moving with the rapid
click of French utterance, Ramellian recitative is in the trte arioso style:
it is more melodic; some syllables are set to more than one note; and
there are occasional leaps, spaces, and appoggiaturas. More than sixty
. ,,9 Recitative

:,,:' elapSed between the two composers'active periods in opera, and

-- .,.:.' itself had undergone a certain evolution. But both Lully and Rameau
- - .ruced true récitatif mesuré, each in his orvn time, thus demonstrating
'. jurability of this approach to recitative. Another interesting innovation
- re Ramellian style as shown here is the changing of the stress, for

trristes appréts," Cast¡¡r et Pollux (1137), J.-P. Rameau

AS written : (N.B.: Embellishments given here as they appear in the Grovlez eclition
TféS Lertt are erroneouslthey should begin with the uppernote on the be:rt.)

Non. ie re \er- r&L que v$ ól,ar-tés- !u-

L-

No, I sltoLL see from rut) orL onlltJ] qour {un¿real brttlaru¿

- bres. N!4, @a )e-

n2 y3f- rat
/t/0, No , I sltadL seo

oLws oae
¡ vos cLa,r - tÁs ' fu W bres.-
jrom, rwa on only your JunzreaL brLlLtarae.

Tristes appréts," Castor et Pollux (1737), J.-P. Rameau

Tobe sung (indications rn) own) :

Tnbs terut
a.uzL

Non, TE vef-fo.l 0Lu.s- qug vos anr-tés- ¡u rÉ - bres

W, altal,l, su troTt noo on onLy yo*r JurwreaL b¡'tLl,t ArLce,

Non . "na'n. ie ne yef raí glul- yE vos

No, No, T s haLL see from ñl a" onty Your
nl,o1le

@§ fu- ¡"b - bres.-

Jun erea,L
'brrÍLince
110 Appr-rcer:IoN or DIcuoN TncnNlques

dramatic emphasis, on "Je ne verrai plus." Although the presence of the

orchestral accompaniment would demand the control of a conductor,
the rhythmic flow is resilient and subject to the fluctuations of dramaticl
declamation
Gluck, another foreigner on the French operatic scene and a truly inter-
national musician, introduced the French to the dramatic recitativo con-
citato style typical of the latter part of the eighteenth century in Europe.
In the following example from his French version of Orphée et Euridice
(1774), all the earmarks of the récitatif mesuré of earlier French opera
have been incorporated into a style that is turbulent, constantly changing
in tempo, volume, and range, but accompanied by an orchestral com-
mentary of harmonic progressions and harmonic rhythm, abrupt chordal
interpolations, and enthusiastic tremoli.

Orphée et Euridice (Act Itr; 1774), C. W. R. von Gluck

(Eur t cLice) 1rph.bo)

Cher é-ootx.rc rru;Ls i petrLe re- spLtct. B,otsu-re -@L1 ie ^'tats lavL fu-re
- .. . at-
(Aea,r 6po*6e,I car, hard\i breath,e.' - 6e aasut'd., f a¡.lL tuLt aLl
-1)

Alle

prer,Á.s . . .
td:: lats- ro?
ou.e J* s tes d,eux ¡ qum"d" ft- nt'
'Learn,.. ah,a,t am L antn$( Just gods Dh^en »tLL uau
J
 _1 Recitative

Lento

\i0\Ls rruonmorLv - re? _

EoLS d,onc m,es drrru.ers a - dl¿ut , eL 6otlvlE't15-toi d. LtL-rL -
"U
sffirií3? fig ce itte tlten mu
JJ
l,ut {areael,l,s , and rem¿rnber [urtclic¿,..

Nl.egro
(0rphée)

0ü sr¿is - je ?
Je
11É. 1-outs ré - st - ster b- ses :oLeurs.
()hzre att I? I cannat reaLst hzr tears .)

Tempo changes are characteristically indicated in Italian, while the

ime signature remains generally the same throughout. At times, the reci-
tative takes on a monotonous, chant-like character that adheres to a
rüythm less flexible than usual (as in Euridice's lines inthe Lento section).
Groupings and suggested breathing have again been inserted here to aid
in the textual flow and dramatic declamation. Remember: a rest does not
necessarily indicate a breath! Note the same anapestic formula prevalent
tlroughout, the falling of stressed syllables on longer notes and stronger
beats, and the rise and fall of the vocal line in adherence to the dramatic
sense and import. As in all French recitative, crispness and clear articu-
lation are de rigueur, andsinging, not speaking, is called for. But indis-
pensable here is a variety of vocal volume and color, something less
prevalent in earlier examples. Again, music itself had undergone a pro-
found change in the decades separating Rameau and Gluck. Note that
712 AppltcarroN or DrcrroN TrcnNrqurs

only a century separated Lully from the classical style. With Gluck, the
grandiose and pompous recitative style of opera seria was established
in France, announcing the recitative characteristic of French grand opera
in the nineteenth century best represented by Meyerbeer and Berlioz.
Recitative is certainly not confined to opera, nor is it always labeled
as recitative. It is essential to be able to detect the presence ofrecitative,
or a quasi-recitative, declaimed style. when it is not obviously presented
as such. The famous song "Absence" from Berlioz' Nuits d'été (c. l8a0)
must be released from the confines of meter and bar-lines if its total effect
is to be made. It is vocal declamation cushioned by orchestral accompani-
ment that presents little metrical restriction. its periodic melody demand-
ing a recitative-oriented approach. The opening bars of the orchestra
predict "verbatim" what is to be declaimed a moment later by the voice.
The fermatas eliminate any pulsation of rhl,thm and appropriately iso-
late the lonesome lament of the deserted lover who calls to his beloved
in the distance. The second "reviens" is prolonged by the firstfermata,
and the sixteenth-note rest that folloris is itself marked with afermata.
In contrast, the unstressed final -e of "bien-aimée" is without aferrnata
and should be released long betbre the diminrshing F-sharp major chord
in the orchestra. The rests follouing in the voice part, each one beat
marked by fermotas, separate this prelude from the ensuing, more rhyth-
mically regular section.

"Absence," lttuits d'été (1840). H. Berlioz-T. Gautier

ldagio )=44
mf-

Re-ür.eru,re- uGrá, ma bten at -w- el

GueL*rn, tt,y fu Lo tted, ;

) t l\li |
I )t). -L lJ
,

* *1\

The vowels must be closely matched to facilitate the execution of this

difficult passage. The [a] of the flrst syllable of "reviens" should be mixed
judiciously with the [é] of the second syllable. This should not be diff,cult
if nasality per se is kept to a minimum on the high F-sharp. Instead, as
I 1l Recitative

discussed previously in the section on [6], this nasal vowel should be

rich, "tall," and slightly rounded, especially in the upper register. The
sound should be one that could travel over the miles to the ears of the
beloved. The vowels of "ma bien-aimée (taé(e)ecl), all of which aie
frontal, can help guide the voice through this treacherous tessitura if
they are uniformly produced and placed. No nasal rasp on "bien," please.
The first two syllables of "aimée" may be vocalically harmonized
([(e)mea]) en route to the final [a] upon which a short diminuendo
occurs before release. Over-holding on this final syllable will betray both
the prosody and the musical setting (there is no fermafa on the final
F sharp!). The orchestra instead holds its F-sharp major chord past the
voice, completing the diminuendo. After the point d'orgue (grand pause)
the song continues on at its leisurely, mournful pace'

"Absence," Nuits d'óté (1840), H. Berlioz-T. Gautier

u- ne [Leur dv so - 1etL.-
1.on $ew- de nn ,lte-- esl
Comrv La !"r-
'l-tk¿ o ftoaT Jar fron tfve-aun, th.e floue r oÍ ny tiJe ¡.,,

- \==----

'm,é- e- LoLn" deton sotl- fL- - re \ler -at

cLosed, - 7ar lrom your ro§! srniLe !
ll4 ApplrcerroN or DrcuoN TncnNrques

The excerpt from "Absence" illustrates Berlioz' occasional lapses into

bad prosody. In the first phrase, "Comme une fleur loin du soleil" (to be
grouped together as one in spite ofthe punctuating rest), the highest and.
longest notes are not on the most important words or stressed syllablesl
In this instance the aware singer must improve upon the prosody by a
gentle emphasis on and elongation of the G-sharp of "fleur" and the
F-sharp of the second syllable of "soleil." The second phrase of the sec-
tion, consisting of a long arch from "la fleur" all the way to "vermeil,"
is punctuated by two "breathing rests." But these rests must not stop
the flow of sound and motion to the top of the arch on the word "loin."
The prosody is good, with the -ri of "sourire" and the final syllable of
"vermeil" receiving the strong beats and the longest note-values. In spite
of the presence of a time signature and the curve of the phrases, the vocal
writing is not melodically but textually and harmonically conceived. An
ebb-and-flow must preside over the declamation here, as if time stood
still. The steady movement of the vocal line will then be surrounded by
the immobile solitude of the lover.
Berlioz' admiration for Gluck's recitative style can be felt in the fol-
lowing eleven bars of "Absence," in which the tempo quickens and the
volume increases as the lover complains of his painful abandonment.

"Absence," Nuits d'été (1840), H. Berlioz-T. Gautier

Mn o,rll,hata

Entte nas ca¿l?s qtEL- Le dis - tarL- cel. TanL d'es- paleentre nosút-
(\ebt¡een 0", neaitt ah.a,L d,istenco! Sutlt spaoe betDeeru our
An ooco L?W?TLfuLO
115 Recitative

oeré! 0 sort L - @ett. 6 ü.tre ob - pq. - ¡o l

!
krsses.t 0frbLtter J{ate, oÍt cru¿L a,bsence !
A

0 orands d"é strs LrL-a PL- oeo'.

)tL oTeat
Ü
ttnaope
LL
qse d- desires ! )

- :he first phrase ofthis example, punctuated by a breath after "distance"

; r'oice wavers between two notes before launching into the second
::.:ese (con agitazione), gradually expanding into a wailing outburst on
-. *ords, "O grands désirs inapaisés." Not until this second phrase is
,-, metric pulse dictated by the accompaniment, which almost immedi-
'..i subsides to a standstill on the A-sharpT chord markedby afermata.
' . :his point, the initial "Reviens, ma bien-aimée" cited above is reiter-
'.j. and the song continues on in a similar manner-freely, ever-
- .,:ging, and in tnte declamato style.
116 ApplrcerroN or DrcrroN TrcnNrqur,s

Gounod, a master of recitative in his operas, uses the style with great
dramatic effect in "Il était un roi de Thulé" from Faust. The plaintive,
irrelevant narrative intoned by Marguerite is periodically interrupted by
recited outbursts that reveal what is really going on in her mind: her pre-
occupation with the young Faust. Then an extended recitative further
reveals to us the wonderings and delicate character of the heroine. It is
a recitative in the grand manner, constantly fluctuating, with significantly
interpolated orchestral commentary.

Faust (Act I; 1859), C. Gounod

( m¡: , sLouer ) (prettgn óLoüer)

1)t bou +uet... C'est deS'te-belrsans @- tE! ?tayre gar-

(' b .^.*. i",. .-'tt Steoct , probabT Poor boyi

mf,¡aster., pú agtLaLD l

991!l Quc vois ie Lá? D'oi c.e.

Tempo dz/,|-a cat"-zo te Ah,at d,oI"see Lh,ereTühere

-.
^J
I I7 Recitative

r p, sLíLL fast)

:, c he co$ret aeut tl" ^te nír? Je rüo-.e y Louc.Ler,

- .''. lh.Á" rtch- leaetbot cornz fron? I eare nót Lou. h tt

eL ?our-Wl loi ci 1"u cLel , ie crpLtt. .. S'¿ ie Uoq-

and, yet ... h¿rer¡ rlte l"r't: f thtnL!.. IJ [- t)ere to

nwmatnfumblzt ..Pot,r @? Jere fud, en1:onvrfu¡ten de ruLúe tuP-

^[ats!.
nn r^a *er,tbl.e: I . . l) h,y' I 81 operttrlg tL , L d,o rLo arDrLS) 1 JtlP
"@,1..^1
118 AppucerroN or DrcuoN Tr,cnNIeuss

de,bí-ioux t. est-ceítn rA-úe char-

qut.
55 nn t/ ¡f,ELs ! is tlt{.s a charmtnl

mamt QyL"nléhÍ,ou Lt, OL" 5L rc rctL- LC? Fles uetw ilonL ia'ma.t"¡
dreatrt, tsltr,clt d.ayLt: me. cr am'[ at»llce ? lty dyes h,arte ni,tter
-

ro non Lroppo

yL de rt- ch,es - se
seen, suclt üeo.LtfL I )
119 Recitative

( mp) ;a

tu! \,lot ct l¿s te - mertt, au {onl' ae'la c.os''et'te ,'bot- lln mi-
(llt! rLÍlLb d¿re,) at th¿ bottom ojtk'e yt el A

(¡f
, tt.íempo )

- bpe't. Clom me.ruL dé t"e po,s qLet - Le?

mirror I lloa can I noL be ntain? )

(r¿Lo"fd.) Atleg ret+,o

¡élwe pu aueL- Le ?
l2O AppucerroN on DrcrroN TrcnNrquos

All indications in parentheses have been inserted here and are not the
composer's. Just the opening phrase ("Un bouquet C'est de Siebel
sans doutel Pauvre gargon!") is enough to illustrate the resistance ofreci-
tative to strict meter and vocal monotony. Marguerite sees the bouquet
(surprise) she decides it must be from the adolescent Siebel who has
a cloying crush on her (end of surprise, slight disappointment) she
considers tenderly his pointless pursuit (musing compassion). Then she
sees the jewel box! She hesitates to open it, then decides it would do no
harm, does so, and sees the jewels. Enraptured, she pinches herself to
see if she is dreaming. Imagine an actress saying these lines. Say them
out loud in English and then in French. follorving the changing states of
mind within this simple, sensitive young woman. Then insert the appro-
priate inflection and timing into ¡,our singing of the text, always taking
into account the stressed syilables and their longer note-values while
resisting a metronomic deliver¡,. Do not scream out the high F-sharp on
"Ahl"-it is an "ah" of pleasant surprise. not one of terror. Touch upon
it lightly and connect it dramaticalll to rvhat follows. With a sense of
urgency in the declamation. Nfarguerite discovers the mirror (all in one
breath). A line of text repeated terbttittt is rarely to be uttered in the same
tempo and volume. The first "Comment n'étre pas coquette" may be
sung forte and relatively in tempo. but the second is charming if sung
more softly and slowly, r,uith ¿i surrendering portomento on the octave
(get to the first syllable of "n'étre" on the low E-natural!). Note that
when the formal aria (the "Jeu el Song" ) begins, a tempo marking is given
(Allegretto) and that the bass of the orchestra pulsates w,ith a decided
rhythm. Here, on the last tuo sllJabies of "coquette." the singer must
sing somewhat in time with the conductor. Her recitative is over and the
rhythmic rigidity of the aria has begun.
Although the recitatives in C¿lr¡i¡elr are not Bizet's but Guiraud's. it is
useful to discuss here Micaéla's recitative preceding her aria in Act III.
Typically, the recitative is provided u,ith no dy'namic indications or tempo
markings of any kind. How often a supposedly anxious Micaéla ventures
forth into the smugglers' den. onl_v to give an impression of utter calm
when she sings her recitative. The girl's timidity and fragility, her fearful
determination and desire for courage must all be present in these open-
ing bars.
I : I Recitative

Carmen (Act III; 1873-74), G. Bizet

(mjf,, dzkrrniud)
Lo, not, cLor.o)

C,est des i¡n-ire-ban-d,íers li ie- fuae - ry=L-re. 11" esL L -

(7ftís is tÍte smuggLer§' u6uo.t Itíde out . He is lr,ere,

{¡, ol,oDer )

ie Le ier-raL- [t te de - \)e1r que rrlLmpo s¿ sa

'shatl see him. And, bh¿ d.wty tfua| its mot/,-er tmc-sed

bdJ / -,+
J
_ _-/
./
-_--/

f¡,t

(-==-_--)

Sons trembl"er ietatcom-oL+ - iai

'Dlth,out, brembLlng, I sh,alL arcomplís/r tt.
 122 ApplrceuoN or DrcuoN TncnNrquns

The first phrase should be sung softly but agitato, with a certain dread
present in the voice. In one breath and in full voice, as ifto convince her-
self, Micaéla declares her intention to find Don José, and then decla-
mato, a little more deliberately and,forte, she repeats aloud her inten-
tion to bring him back to his mother (and in so doing perhaps win him for
herself-note that Micaéla may not be so selfless and dull as she may seem
to be on the surface). All indications in parentheses have been inserted
and are not the composer's. Her ensuing aria, so often discarded as beau-
tiful but dramatically misplaced and uninteresting, might then make more
sense in its portrayal of an essentially timid, homespun soul that must
assert itself before thieves and a siren-gypsy like Carmen.
Inhis Manon, Massenet revives the récítatif mesuré of Rameau, a con-
temporary of the Abbé Prévost who was the author of the eighteenth cen-
tury tale upon which Massenet's opera was based. Although the opera
Manon is undeniably late nineteenth-century, Massenet attempts to im-
bue it with the flavor of its eighteenth-cerrtury origins through the use of
dance rhythms, courtly themes, and, importantly, the stylized recitative.
Like other French operas of its time, Manon constantly vacillates be-
tween recitative and aria-two measures in time, then three that are free,
followed by four in time, two free, etc. Occasionally what is actually reci-
tative appears disguised as song in strict meter. A complete conversation
in récitatif mesuré style occurs in the first scene of Act III between the
Count and Manon, their verbal exchange bobbing up and down in the
rhythm and pacing of conversation over a minuet played and danced to
in the next room, a technique already explored by Mozart in his Don
Giovanni.
In the following excerpt from the Manon-DesGrieux duet in Act V,
not one indication has been inserted. They are a// Massenet's, and, what
is more, they work. It seems that from this period on, composers began
taking the same pains to include interpretative indications in recitative
passages as they had previously in strictly metered sections. Massenet's
dramatic sense is marvelous.

I
\Íanon (Act V; 1883), J. Massenet

Andonte (Monon)
( De¡
Grieur) f ml^ ra¡aduaL1"
l¡¡u'tinn ot

?ar!2tut Il, m'esL impos-

( lzo's
3o
! I ca.nnot . - .

6enra a.ccet.erare

D'a yan-apf ... üa-var"-ttL- 9e... Ie serl-s Le som-

3o on any Jurthzr... I /eeL v uwl

pp ( asíd,e, friglt tencd,)

n"etL quL me ir-

oa. L):n som-metL... s¿ru r¿?-
tatírtg m,e- Ólef . .. A sLeep aithnut aaaftert-
 124 ApprrcerroN or DrcuoN T¡,cuNreuss

(irud,¿r, in apite oJ lt eraeLJ ) Des GrLeux G»tlt, adm'attoru a,nd

nd,ó u,t1,?A,,lfl&65)

J'é-rÁaffLt ie su.c.- @-W-t Az-^tionsL ri», ¡tí,,, íi th r*tt iryt

I'n" sÚicaLíng! l'am giuíng-owt! ?et a fuLd, oJ yoursel¡t Here's thz. ntght-

M¿nan (0ofi,ínq hu eaes uú, Laoking aL tltt

skq ,'oLLh'a artu7t'e)
tto Oes Orieu.)
P'!'l*"+Á*o-ro

@-be'. C,uL l,a fe mt¿re é fui - Let. Ahr. 1,e ben:t ü'L - ra,ofrfil
,fol,l ! 7h¿rets tlu s tu ! Ah! thz beauti.t'uL dtamonl.! -/ou
"{1¡¡¡ fig=--'- --
cotLa loc¿ pp

Piü mooso
Des Grieux rSenr[l ,a Manon.
ttlt toiLlt

!0L5, ¡e SíLLS erL-CD,re L0- l1u-@nt.. Je

§ee,f ünL sti1L yain! 1oneon¿ is urnínq! kt's qo.t,/tanon ! T
?*' --) -

L-
 125 Recitative

Andanle
a dvin

t'ai LL Le bat-- s4,

la@ And t/',t¡ kiss

Des GrLe,"tl, (t:rt dzspatr)

c'esL uJ\ a- dieu ... 5]./-- Qfe - f

l'Jon íe rve ^teux, oa,s c-or
lL-

ts a Jinal. fareaeL{ ! Nol I uiLt not betleve tt'l

ra|,l.
PP ,ñ Andonte

i - r* t"- ¡@it - Kap-pd-Le tnL t. |lb.¡ t- ¿e

Listert t,o mz I Apmzmber'! -_- Is it ntt
rall.

á
126 Applrcerrou or DrcrroN TecnNrqurs

Note the graduation fromforte to mezzo forte to piano in Manon's "Par-

tons non . . . il m'est impossible," with the recommendations
"joyfully, gradually growing weaker" above the staff. Massenet typically
bids the orchestra nof to accelerate, for he wants the staggered mumblings
of the dying Manon to be relatively in time, as he wrote them, since only
then will they resemble free declamation. On a monotone Manon declares
that sleep is overcoming her. Then, in agonized accents, frrst piano, then
forte, she says her sleep will be eternal. She becomes short of breath
(short outbursts surrounded by gasping rests), is about to expire (quasi
parlando or half speaking, half singing), when DesGrieux exhorts her to
regain her senses and points out the evening star. Massenet indicates
stress in the text by inserting a line over the D-natural of "étoile" and a
fermata plus a stress line over Manon's "Ah!" Another stress with a
characteristic tenuto is requested on the second syllable of "encore."
An observance of such stresses indicated by Massenet himself renders
the delivery all the more poignant and expressive. They mustnot be over-
looked or ignored. Then, two bars of 9/8 in time (Andante) serve as a good
example of disguised recitative. Note the characteristic request by Mas-
senet to give equal stress to the ñrst three syllables of "C'est un adieu.
. ." Announcing Debussy and later composers, and aware of the need
for stylized, expressive deüvery of the recitative, Massenet leaves little
room for tinkering around with the execution of his semi-melodic, semi-
rhythmic recitative style.
Debussy, rivaled only by Hugo Wolf in the art of setting a text to music,
was perhaps, with the possible exceptions of Ravel and Poulenc, the most
literary of all French composers to date. In much of his early vocal writing,
traces of Gounod and Massenet are easily detected. Debussy utilized
Massenet's recitative style in his cantata L'Enfant prodigue, as can be
seen, for example, in Lia's famous recitative and aria. But, the refine-
ment of his own superlative sense of prosody and speech-melody can be
found in his opera Pelléas et Mélisande, as well as in the song cycle
Chansons de Bilitis.In the eighteenth century Jean-Jacques Rousseau
wrote that one day a Frenchman would produce a "recitative appropri-
ate to the simplicity and clarity of our language," and that it "should
proceed by very small intervals. The voice should neither rise nor de-
scend very much. There should be few sustained notes; no sudden bursts
and still less any shrieking; nothing that resembles song; and little in-
equality in the duration of the value of the notes . ' ' If one qualifies ' 'nothing
that resembles song" by inserting the word "conventional," this is a per-
fect description of the vocal writing in the Chansons de Bilitis , from which
an example is provided here:
127 Recitative

"La Cheyelure," Chansons de Bilitis (L897), C. Debussy-P. Louys

Tempo I, plus lent

Quanl"t1. eut
(l)lt en h,e Lt aá
Jinís

p mnLto espreuiuo

tl múdn*-ce-m.ervt ses n,¿i¡r¡ sur n"es é - W'Les , LbL

hz pub gertL'l,y lus h-a"nd,s lrL nLLl shnuLd'ers, a,nA h,e

m2. fe - qar - oa ütnt re - 90rd ór Let - dre, que je bor:

ütolced. al 'me sa tenlzrLy t tltat 'I louered,
 128 AppLIcerroN o¡. DrcrroN TncaNIquEs

Trés tenü

saí Les ueltx o--,tectlT1- {rísson.

*y 7u' aith a shiv'er.f

pp
TJ 'í:
ht__t-]-z =>

In the example below from pelléus et JÍélisonde, note the tightness of

the intervallic rise and fal1. the regularit-v with which stressed syllables
receive higher pitches and longer note values. the rhythmic variety and
its uncanny simplicity. the gradual acceleration of the delivery from
modéré fo ctnimé following the increasing urgency of pelléas' plea to be
allowed to travel to his sick friend's bedside. A mere recitation of these
words demonstrates Debussr"s sensitivitr to the innate melodic rise and
fall of his language, to its rh-vthm. stress. and erpressive flow.

Pellóas et Mélisande (Act I; 1892-1903). C. Debussv

ilod,é,ré
@eLLéas)

Grand-pé- re 1'at re-gw en mAme @ qte La l,etLre demon Eé - re

(Grann-fath,er, I receítted at Lhp- sa.rnz. ttmz 6 my broüh¿r,s [e*er-

I
:- Recitative

Aéme r¡¡"ouvt.

u-reatL-tre LeL-Lre'. U-nB Le.L-Lre ¿.e ,ron a - ruL lluicr¿L-L»... LL va mott-

aflbtlte,r LetLer; A {zbter Jrom. Jrleni llarce{Lus... h¿ i.s goln g

(Anít¡t"aLe tttz expression, ín thz recícatíye)

3

tit eb Ll" ¡n,ap-Wl - 1e... It dít qu'LL saLt, er,- oL- Le -¡ne¡,í
to dí,e end h¿. 6ur?LmD7ü mz.. . lle says hz ltnot¡s exa,cal,g tfve dal

Cf¿ SLen

AnL¡lr"ez t oujoura
_3-.----

iour iu l.a m,orl It rno díl que je ants ar-rL-ver e- \taflt

tÍLat dz.aLtL a¿Ll HE teLLs nw bhut I inn geb ehzre before
130 AppucerroN or DrcrroN 'IncHNreups

e-tLe s¿ ie veur. m¡is qdLL rL^'Lt L oas dz temr»b"

Lt does if i utafi' b&t LlwL tfwrá,'s ,n Trn* to bie.)

Ariannq (1608), C. Monteverdi

Al\i,, ch"e n¡n pur f ts-po7l - Ahr ú.e pti. d'aspe é

e
cf e,c.

Sof- do u-rrutL la-men-lL. 0 ner',,'bt,Otur -btroleú:t sommergete-Lo \OL deru-

_-rl Recitative

*' a Wff on, - de c.orre'tn orche e bo-Le -¡tee d*le mstLbra tn,m.on- d.e.

ple' te. 1-e ^'to -ro-- gL- nt yro Jon'de Clte PM-b, c-l¡,i ¡ clv. to.-

ne9 glo? se-re 'ftle che. clruLeg- gto ?

ee- -be
\=------.l

-- most three hundred years after Monteverdi's Arianna, recitative style

-.d completed its circle with Debussy's Pelléas. In the example given
 132 AppucerloN or DIcr¡oN TncHNIQues

from Arianna's lament, note how intervallic leaps rarely exceed four steps,
how stressed syllables receive longer and higher notes, and-something
Debussy himself pointed out in his own recitative style-how expressivei
silences punctuate the delivery of the text. Even the realization of the
accompanying chords sounds "Debussyan" in its tonal ambiguity and
textually oriented rhythm.
From the examples of recitative written by these two masters, Monte-
verdi and Debussy, it would seem to be the oldest and least changed style
of vocal delivery in existence. Was it but mere coincidence that Debussy
called himself "Claude de France," so much like Monteverdi's "Claudio
d'Italia"? The greatest difference between the recitative of the two was
in their rhythmic notation and in their use of interpretative indications.
Debussy wrote at a time when composers inserted explicit directions to
the performer that were simply taken for granted by the early Italian opera
masters.
In the twentieth century recitative, along with other vocal styles of
preceding centuries, has been steadily perpetuated. One of the greatest
composers for the voice of all time, Francis Poulenc, saw fit to write a
whole opera in recitative style-La Voix humaine. Unlike Debussy,
Poulenc used a more melodic and dramatic approach to recitative, with
a tighter sense of recitative rhythm, more in the Ramellian tradition of
récitatif mesufé. AIso, his particular brand of "arioso" recitative spans
a considerably greater vocal range than that of most of his predecessors.
In the following excerpt from Act II of the Dialogues des Carmélites,
Poulenc's recitative style can be easily identified. The evident character-
istics seen here are a keen sense of prosody coupled with a willingless
to use the extreme registers of the voice, an underlying, often metronomic,
rhythm with frequent changes in time signature.

Dialogues des Carmólites (Act ll; 1957), F. Poulenc

Lu Prletre ¡'¡

Je de st - re 01Le
t
\0u,5 a5-51.5 - Lbzd 1)en'Lre'tba
( I aa¡tL you Lo be PreóerLL af. tÍw ?n¿eLi.ng

¡
133 Recitative

PlarLe ( há,sitent)

Si voLre KÉ.vérence'toulaLt ti-U le per-tet -tre...

I{ your fix;)erenc.e alu(.d kinnly permtt..

La Prteure

\ 6us, maMére,et nDrL vl'n e.

\ou, mq nnther,and, rwL
Temgo a$ito"to J=tzo
0a¿

/J' tru britlant

134 ApplrceuoN op DrcuoN TecnNrques

For Poulenc, the word was all important, as was the human voice. When
setting a text to music, he delightfully declared that the union of word and
music would be, in his words, a "marriage of love and not one of con-
venience."

Diction in Coloratura Passages

Coloratura is simply florid writing for the voice. It demands vocal flexi-
bility, and it typically moves step-wise with leaps rarely exceeding afourth.
Coloratura serves many purposes. First and foremost, it is a means of
vocal display-virtuosity, agtTity, and range. It also ornaments what might
otherwise be plain, without charm or drama. Sometimes it conceals a
basic lack of musical interest and is an end in itself. Coloratura may create
an atmosphere of cheeriness and buoyancy, in which case it is called "lyric
coloraturao" or it may bring turbulence and even violence to an aria when
it is "dramatic" in nature.
Coloratura, from the standpoint of diction, is the exact opposite of reci-
tative. The word is no longer supreme here; vocal production and facil-
ity are. First of all, by necessity, some syllables of the text receive more
than one note, often several. The question must be asked: What atmo-
sphere is appropriate to the overall meaning and intended impact of the
coloratura passage? Indeed, all coloratura worth its dramatic salt has
some transcendent, added significance.
The specific word upon whicli the coloratura falls is usually less impor-
tant than the dramatic effect created by the coloratura. Furthermore, the
text of most coloratura is usually repeated again and again in the course
of the aria and is, alas more often than not, of inferior literary quality. At
times, coloratura is vocalized on single exclamatory words such as 'oAh,"
"Oh," etc.
But "diction" (ah! there's that word again!) has its place here. It might
be appropriate to restate the two purposes of good singing dictlon cited
earlier:
l. to facilitare the singing process by a mastery of the sounds to be sung,
and
2. to communicate the sounds, meanings, and overall message (or intent)
of the text in an intelligible, natural, and appropriately expressive way.
Diction must aid the singer intelligently in his execution of the coloratura,
not impede him. The singer's acquired awareness of the vowel-sounds
ofthe language and their vocal properties and functions can help him to
be a better singer of coloratura. Vocal comfort and vowel modification
will be the guiding principles to be followed in all coloratura execution.
I -15 Diction in Coloratura Passages

. -..modification must both facilitate the vocal execution of the passage,

. ell as create the appropriate vocal atmosphere.
.'.

ii the following excerpt for tenor from Scy//a et Glaucus by Leclair,

= trpical characteristics of coloratura are
evident: florid, mostly step-
:. \\riting that affords the singer a chance to display agility, breath-
- . rtro1. and range. In this example of lyric coloratura, love is exhorted
- enslave men's hearts and to reign over their souls. These are the closing
--::S of the air: the same text has been repeated four times here.

> ¡tlla et Glaucus (1746), J.-M. Leclair,l'ainé

Alleyo (u.n geu L¿g-)

L.) qL,LL f
z.) 0u'11.
t
f¿
L"l1---^--

grue, q4¡il" re
gne,Il.(iL re gfte, ) fé
---'. 4' oternpo

- gne sur v)s m.e5

- grue s¿r v0§ ??!e8

The word "régne" upon which the coloratura falls means "reign" and
contains the vowel-sound [e]. This is a vowel-sound favorable to the
overall atmosphere of such a pleasure-seeking passage of coloratura. It
is bright, high, and open. If for one reason or.another the singer finds it
difficult or unpleasant to sing the whole passage on [e], he must modify
the vowel-sound to one that will enable him to:
l. articulate the coloratura with ease and clarity;
2. resonate or place the voice with comfort and carrying power;
3. render the same atmosphere of pleasure and gaiety by maintaining the
bright and cheery character of [e]; and
4. approximate as closely as possible the word "régne" without failing
to accomplish any of the above.
And in that orderl
The point may be well-taken: it is the overall character of the text, not
of the individual word, that must be conveyed in a coloratura passqge.
f36 ApplrcelroN oF DrcuoN TrcnNrques

It would not be inappropriate for the singer to open the [c] to an [a] as he
ascends into the upper reaches of the passage. Some singers might prefer
the narrower, more focused vowel-sound [e] for the execution of this pas-
sage. This vowel modification should be effected gradually, not abruptly.
It may remain in the realm of a cross between [e] and [a] (or [e] and [e]),
or a mixture of the two. To illustrate, it would be far less feasible to use
an [e] or a [u] here, for they are darker, rounder, and less "joyous" in
nature and would alter and obscure the overall atmosphere. In this case,
modification would rob the passage of its flavor. In coloratura, it is the
flavor that counts.
At this point, the singer may be reminded that as long as it is done with
respect for both the musical phrase and the prosody of the text, syllables
and entire words may be repeated to facilitate the execution of coloratura.
This is often agood way to (1) replace a troublesome vowel with amore
favorable one at a specific point in the passage and (2) to insert an extra
breath in a phrase that is too taring to be done in one. An illustration of
how this may be done is shovun in the Leclair example above.
Coloratura and "fioritura" (musical embellishment of the vocal line)
are not always so easily liberated from the text. Vowel modification and
syllabic redistribution ma), not necessarily be the best or only means of
facilitating flexibility. Let us not forget the basic and simplest approach
to the consonants and the vor,,e1-sounds as already discussed here in
this manual. The consonants can delineate and project flexibility that
would otherwise be shapeless and lackluster. Uniformity of vocalic place-
ment will ease and focus production. thus giving the flowery passage of
"ñoritura," as shown below'. resonance and traveling power.

Les Pécheurs de Perles (Act I; 1861-63), G. Bizet

Allegretto ( tres l,ég er )

PP

Dar-s 1"e úeL sans ^!_Q1.- Le , Par-se - m6. ful Les,

( In tltz s/cy aLtlt-out cbul.s, 3úudl,ed t)LtlL §ta,rs 1

Aw sein de- La ruút^ 'lranspa

Transpa - rerLt, et púr
[n ülte bosorrt of ohe tuígÍLb )
L
Lransparert t Lrud [)urL )
In the above example from Act I of Bizet's P|cheurs de Perles, Léila
chirps away about the clear, star-studded night on a sparkling vocal line
 1-1 7 Vocal Staccato

: the tradition of Donizetti and Meyerbeer that reached its culmination

-:- Lakmé of Delibes. what could be a vocalise is set to a text that, al-
:rough suffering from occasional lapses into weak prosody, demands due
.:tention. care should be taken to make the consonants rapid, late, and
:-ear. ever-present and sharply deflned like the very stars in the trans-
:rrent sky. The vowels should be as uniformly placed as possible. Those
: ¡he first phrase ("Dans le ciel sans voile, parsemé d'étoiles") are easily
:.¡tched: [dceñaa/aceeaa]. They are all frontal. But beware of
', er-rounding
the [a] or over-closing the [e]. The [d] should not be
.-.mber or "nosey." However, in the following phrase, "Au sein de la
:uit Transparent et pur," the "fioritura" definitely obscures the text by
,: elongation of the unimportant words "au" and "de" and by the rhyth-
:rcally weak positions of the key-words "sein" and .,nuit.', These key
''..¡rds should be most clearly enunciated and given slight stresses in the
::'irase. It was no doubt for reasons of vocal comfort that Bizet did not
: ece the word "sein" on the high A-natural. But some singers might find
. .e [o] of "au" inhibiting on the rising scale and if so should consider
:ening it discreetly to an [c] verging on an [o]. There should be no accent
- l the first syllable of "transparent," here set on the strong beat of the
r.easure. The following rest merely discourages liaison and should not
-:errupt the vocal flow. Again, the question of the rest and its function
:..me into play here. Ambiguous rests abound in such flowery writing. The
: ghth rests after "Ie," -se- of "parsemé" and "transparent,, should not
::eak the flow of sound as interruptions, but merely punctuate as gentle
.:rs that lighten the fioritura, making it buoyant and,heady. Above all,
:-^rupt staccato on the preceding notes must be avoided at all cost.

Vocal Staccato
: the piano, a staccato is obtained by releasing the key immediately
'':er attack. when there are several staccati in succession, the pianist
.:st make sure there are little spaces between each of the notes.
in singing, to the contrary, when words are present a staccato is pro-
: -:ed by attack rather than by release. Of course, in passages of a colora-
-:3 nature that have no text and consequently no consonants, the stac-
.-,o iS effected by the breath and is not the subject ofdiscussion here.
\\hen there is a text, it is the crisp attack upon the consonants that will
-:ure the effect of staccato. Consonants are always rapid, late, and
, :ir in French. In staccato they should be rapid, late, and cru'sp. When

-,e5ussy requests a staccato delivery of the following passage from his

3reen," it is not by releasing the voice between syllables that this wilr
-; achieved-there is hardly enough time for that. Rather, the singer
-
f38 Appr-rcerroN or DrcrroN Tn,cn¡¡leues

must crisply articulate the bouncy consonants over a legato vocalic flow.
At first this may seem to be a contradiction, but without a legato there is
no voice! (And without voice, there is no sound.) Therefore, in the passage
below, the vowels should be sung legato as usual, and over this seamless
stream ofvocalized sound can be sprinkled neat, clean, crisp consonants.
The effect should be one of "chattiness."

"Green," Ariefres oublitíes (1888), C. Debussy-P. Verlaine

(Jogeusernent animá)

Que b ient du't-',o- ln y-tenL gtu'@ró" rym foruL ,

( thab tlw rnorninQ aind comea üo L& Won nLq brol)
EKoe.Loevá áy .('o tE v jE 3f,a sara.-rndfr6)"

The effect of staccato will be obtained without any reduction or inter-

ruption of voca\ prod,uctron and the carrying power of the voice shall be
doubly insured by a firm legato and extra-crisp articulation.

Vocalic Harmonization
In the singing ofthe French vocal repertoire, the practice ofvocalic har-
monization is utilized both for the sake of linguistic reñnement and of
ease of production. "Vocalic harmonization" is the rhyming of closely
related vowel-sounds in the same or neighboring words. In French singing
diction, only two vowel-sounds are harmonized with two others: [e] with
[e], and [ce] (or [e]) with [o].
In vocalic harmonization, it is the ¿¿nstress ed, open vowel-sound that
closes to rhyme with the follou,ing stressed, closed vowel, not vice versa.
Remember, it is the final vowel-sound of a word or word-group that is
stressed in French (except for final, unstressed -e, -es, -ent).In the dic-
tionary, the words áa i s e r and c h e v e ux ar e phoneticized as follows : [b e z e],
U a v il. But in singing, the first syllable of each word, which is unstressed
and open, is closed to rhyme with the final, stressed syllable, rendering
[b(e)ze] and [J @)vg]. Because these vocalically harmonized vowels
are unstressed and therefore short, they may fail to sound as closed as
a stressed closed vowel at the end of the word. For this reason-and as
a reminder that they have been transformed, it is a good idea to put their
phonetic symbols in parentheses, as shown above.
In the vocalic harmonization of [e] to [(e)], it is mainly the combination
-ai- (normally [e]) that closes to [(e)] when followed by a stressed [e]:
aimer (e)mel, laissez [(e)se], apaisé [ap(e) zel, etc. The only other
139 VocalicHarmonization

possibility of such vocalic harmonization is the closing of the [e] in such

>hort words as /es, tes, ces, and the like, when these are immediately fol-
rrr*'ed b! [e] in the following word: l¿s étoiles [l (e) z e t w a I a]. t¿s baisers
tte)b(e)zel, and so on.

"Lydia" (c. 1865), G. Fauré-Leconte de Lisle

Ltesllresl lel [(e)]lre)] [e]

l-ai-sse W-sqs,tes ba- §qs d,e- co-

Other examples of the vocalic harmonization of [e] to [(e)] are:

'Laissez-la s'apaiser de la bonne tempéte" (.Green, Verlaine), which is
originally:
I e -+ se -+ Ia -> s a --> p t -"> z e-+ d c -+ I a ---> b c -+ n c -+ t ó -+ p e t c]
uhen the unstressed -ai-'s are vocalically harmonized, becomes:
[ (e) + s e -+ I a -> s a -> p (e) z e --> dce --+ I a --+ b ¡ -- n c -+ t ó -+ p e t ce]
-
'Les délices comme un essaim sortent de toi (Iy¿1i4, Leconte de Lisle),
which is originally:
I e -+ d e --+ I i -> s ce -+ k o --> m é --+ n (e) -- sé -+ sc -+ r t ce ---> d a -+ t w a]

when the short word /es is vocalically harmonized, becomes:

ü (e) + d e --- I i -+ s ce -- k J -> m é -+ n (e) -- s6 -+ sc -+ r t c --+ d ce -+ t w al

When unstressed, short [c] or [a] is followed in the same word by

..tressed 16l, it may be vocalically harmonized as [(d)]. Here, the second
.r'llable of dangereuse, normally short [ce] or [e], may be rhymed vocali-
;ally with the stressed [d] following it:
'Elle est dangereuse, elle est belle," originally:
[e -+ I e -+ d ñ ---> S (r --'> r ñ ---> z a I e ---> I e -+ b e --> I ce]

becomes:

[e-+ le-+ d d-+ j (ó)--->r ó---> ze I e-'-> I e+ b e -+ I a]

(Carmen, Bizet Act III)
'J'avais tes cheveux comme un collier noir" (Chansc¡n de Bilítís, De-
bussy), which is originally:
[j a - v e -+ t e --> v 0 --+ k ¡ -> m é -+ k c + I j e -+ n w a r]
- -f ce
140 AppucerroN or DIcrIoN TncnNIQups

becomes:
[g a-+ v e--+t e--+.[ (fi)--->v g"'> k c-+ m ó-+ k c-+ lj e-+ n war]
These vocalically harmonized syllables must never be accented or
overly closed, and at times need only tend toward the closed sound of
the following stressed syllable. Again, it is a naturalness that must pre-
vail in the diction in order that it sound authentic and unmannered. Overly
zealous closing or a false emphasis of the unstressed syllable will merely
result in an obscuring of the text.
A Cntnlogtuc of Frcnch
Vocnl fropcrtoiro

Abbreviation Key
The following is a comprehensive but b.v no means exhaustive list of
French vocal repertoire.
S any soprano voice ercept very high, light
LS lyric soprano
LLS light lyric soprano (generally high tessitura and/or need for
light, floating production, possible flexibility)
cs coloratura soprano (flexibility and/or coloratura tessitura or
range)
DS dramatic soprano (heavier vocal writing ancl/or rich,
orchestral accompaniment)
\fS any mezzo-soprano
LMS lyric mezzo-soprano
DMS dramatic mezzo-soprano
T any tenor voice except very high, light
LT lyric tenor
LLT light lyric tenor (generally high tessitura and/or need for light,
floating production, possible flexibility)
DT dramatic tenor (heavier vocal writing and/or rich, orchestral
accompaniment)
B any baritone voice except high, light
FIB high lyric baritone ("lieder" baritone, with working range
from C below middle-C to A above, fromforte to
pi a ni s s i m o throughout)
DB dramatic baritone
BB, BS bass baritone, bass

1ll
142 A C¿.relocuE oF FnBNcn Vocer RspsnrolnB

AV all voices (may indicate small range avoiding extreme high or

low registers and/or possibility of transposition to any
comfortable key)
wv(P) women's voices (preferred)
MV(P) men's voices (preferred)
excHL except high, light voices
excLH except low. heavy voices
OK original key
WR wide range (where extremes of both registers may be used)
MR middle range (confined to staff, but not necessarily for all
voices)
HKP high key preferred (meaning transposed key)
MKP middle key preferred (meaning transposed key)
cpp command of high pianissimo. or floated head voice
flex flexibility (coloratura) required
DFR difficult French
dram(at) dramatic (at times)
SUS sustained, long lines
orch with orchestral accompaniment also
orchO with orchestral accompaniment only
cham with chamber ensemble accompaniment
MBSS may be sung separatel¡
MBST must be sung together
STP sung together preferred

Songs
This compilation of songs with pianistic, chamber, or orchestral collabo-
ration includes recommendations as to vocal suitability as well as indi-
cations of various technical demands and occasional linguistic difficulty.
Titles of groups or cycles of songs are italicized. Very often these were
not intended to be performed together at all, or were written for different
voices, in which case the underlined title is marked MBSS (see Abbrevi-
ation Key). On the other hand, some cycles or groups contain songs that
can stand alone in performance without the rest of the group, but are more
effective as a whole when all are sung together. These are marked STP.
Those cycles that must be performed in their entirety and without inter-
ruption, for poetic and musical reasons, are indicated by the initials MBST.
The singer should make it a general practice to sing songs in their
original keys and include this as a factor in his selection of repertoire.
Just because a song is printed in different keys does not condone its being
143 Songs

sung in a transposed key. Each vocal tessitura has its own color and power
to evoke an atmosphere. The composer usually chooses a certain tessi-
tura for a song because it offers a specific tonal climate and dictates a vocál
type and quality appropriate to its text. Also to be considered here is the
piano. A transposition can completely alter the tonal aura of an accom-
paniment and occasionally render its execution unnecessarily difficult
and at times almost impossible. Although it is considered a "breach of
contract" to transpose an operatic aria, songs are often shifted from key
to key without hesitation. This attitude, although vocally accommodating,
is artistically unsound, especially in certain areas of the French repertoire
where key color and vocal tessitura are crucial to a valid and esthetically
satisfying performance. As a general rule, the songs of Debussy and most
of those of Ravel and Poulenc suffer serious deformation when transposed.
Only in very rare cases is a transposed version preferable for vocal or
atmospheric reasons. This will be indicated below with the abbreviations
HKP and MKP.

CATALOGUE OF SONGS
All the songs listed below are to be performed with piano except when
otherwise indicated.

CoupossR Tlrrp
Auric, G. Les Joues en feu (AVexcHL, dram)
Trois poémes de Léon-Paul Fargue (MS, B)
Trois poémes de Max Jacob (S, MS, B)
Six poémes de Paul Eluard (MS, B, dram)
Huit poémes de Jean Cocteau (MS, B, BB)
Alphabet (Sept quatrains de Raymond Radiguet, AVexcLH, MR)
Trois Caprices (AVexcLH, MR)
Valse (from Mouvements du coeur) (MVexcHL, sus)

Bachelet, A. Chére nuit (S, T, orch, sus, Cpp)

Barber, S. Mélodies passugbres (5 songs, MBSS, HBP, AV)

Bemberg, H. A toi (AV)

I1 neige (AV)

Berger, J. Five Songs on Poems of Mary Stuart (STP, MS, cham: fl', vla., cello)
144 A Cer¿¡ocuE oF FnpNcn Vocal RBpBnrolRs

CouposBn Trrlr,
Berlioz, H. Mélodies irlandaises, Op. 2 (not all listed here, MBSS, orch)
Chant de bonheur (S, T, dram)
Elégie (T, dram)
Adieu, Bessy (T)
La belle voyageuse (MS, B, orch)
L'origine de la harpe (S, T)
Le coucher du soleil (S, T, dram)
Le chasseur danois (MVexcHL, orch)
La captive (MS, orch, cham: cello, pno.)
Le jeune pátre breton (T, HB, orch, cham: horn, pno.)
Zaide (S, T, orch and/or castanets)
Les l,luits d'été (MBSS, orch)
Villanelle (LT, LS)
Le Spectre de la rose (MS, S, WR)
Sur les lagunes (DS. S, DMS, B)
Absence (AVercLH. sus, Cpp)
Au cimetiére tAV. sus, Cpp)
L'ile inconnue lAVercHL)

Bizet, G. Adieur de l'hótesse arabe (WV, flex)

Chanson d arril l-\VercLH)
Ouvre ton coeur lT. S. fler at)
N'oublions pas (.{V)
Douce mer (AV. sus. fler at. Cpp)
Tarantelle tC, S)

Guitare (.AVr

Le matin (LS. LLS. LT, flex)

Vieille chanson (LS, LLS. LT. flex)
Réve de la bien-aimée (WV, dram/at, flex/at)
Vous ne priez pas (WV, dram/at)
Pastorale (AVexcl-H, flex)
La chanson du fou (AV)
Absence (AVexcHL, dram/at)
Aprés l'hiver (AVexcLH, sus)
La coccinelle (MVexcLH)
Chant d'amour (AVexcHL, dram/at)
L'esprit saint (AVexcHL, dram/at, sus)
Sonnet (AV, flex/at)

Boulanger, L. Psaume CXXIX, "Ils m'ont assez opprimé dés ma jeunesse" (B, dram, orch)
Clctiriéres dans le c'iel (13 songs, MBSS, S, LS, T, LT, HB, Cpp, dram/at)

Boulanger, N. Cantique (S, T, sus, Cpp)

1 15 Songs

Cotr¡posen TIrl¡,
Boulez, P. Improvisation No. I sur Mallarmé, "Une dentelle s'abolit" (S, WR, cham: harp, vibra-
phone, piano, celesta, Percussion)
Improvisation No. 2 sur Mallarmé, "Le Vierge, le vivace et le bel aujourd'hui," (S,
WR, cham: harp, bells, vibraphone, piano, celesta, percussion)

Britten, B. Les llluminations (9 songs, STP, S, T, HB, dram, string orch)

Caplet, A. La croix douloureuse (MS, B)

La mort des pauvres (MS, B)
La cloche félée (MS, B)
Priére normande (AVexcHL)
Nuit d'automne (AVexcHL)
Deux sonnels (LLS, LT, w/harP)
Viens, une flúte invisible (AVexcHL, w/fl.)
En regardant ces belles fleurs (S, T)
La part á Dieu (AVexcHL)
Le pain quotidien (S) (15 vocalises)
Trois fables de La Fontafue (HB, S)
Le corbeau et le renard
La cigale et Ia fourmi
Le loup et I'agneau
Le vieux coffret (Quatre poémes de Rémy de Gourmont) (MBSS, AVexcHL)
Songe
Berceuse
In una selva oscura
Forét
Cinq ballades franqaises de Paul Forr (MBSS, AVexcHL)
Cloche d'aube (Cpp)
La ronde (MS, B)
Notre chaumiére en Yvelines (WR)
Songe d'une nuit d'été
L'adieu en barque (MS, B, BB)
Le Miroir cle Jésus (MS, B, sus, dram/at, w/women's chorus, string orch. harp)

--habrier, E. L'ile heureuse (HBP, MS, WR, CPP)

Ballade des gros dindons (B, MS, BB' MR' Cpp)
Les cigales (AVexcHL)
Villanelle des petits canards (AVexcHL)
Pastorale des cochons roses (B, MS, BB)
Lied (AVexcHL, MR)
Romance de l'étoile (AVexcHL, WR' Cpp)
Chanson de Jeanne (MVexcHL, BB, BS, B)
146 A CerelocuE oF FnrNcn Vocel RppEntornB

CoN.rposen Trrr-p
Charpentier, G. Poémes chantés (MBSS, selected list here)
La petite frileuse (LS, LLS)
Priére (T, HB, S)
A une fille de Capri (AV)
Chanson d'automne (AVexcHl, sus)
La cloche félée (AV, sus)
Parfum exotique (AV, sus)
Complainte (S, MS, dram/at)
Les trois sorciéres (AVexcLH, flex/at)
Les chevaux de bois (S, T, HB, dram/at, sus, Cpp)
Allégorie (S, T, sus)
La musique (S. T. HB, sus, dram/at)
Sérénacie á Watteau ("Votre áme est un paysage choisi") (AVexcLH, sus, Cp:

Chausson, E. Nanny (AVercHL. dram)

Le charme (AV. \fR)
Les papillons (AVercLH, MR)
Sérénade italienne (AVexcLH, MR)
Hébé (AV. \fR)
I-e colibn (AV. su-s)
La cigale (S. T. dram)
Nocturne (-A.VercLH)
Les heures (\f S. B)
Cantique á 1'épouse (\{V. B. BB)
Dans 1a forét du charme et de l'enchantement (S' HB' WR)
La caravane (DS. DT)
Chanson perpétuelle (S. DS, DMS, cham: string qt., pno.)
Sérénade (S, T, sus. Cpp)
Serres chctutles (-5 songs, MBSS, AV, MR)
Poéme de I'amour et de la mer (3 songs, MBSS, orch, WR, S, MS' T' HB)
La fleur des eaux (sus)
La mort de l'amour (dram/at)
Le temps des lilas (AVexcHL, dram, MKP)
La chanson bien douce (AV, MR)
Le chevalier malheur (AV)
L'aveu (AVexcHL, sus)
Amour d'antan (AVexcLH)
Printemps triste (S, T, dram, sus)
Nos souvenirs (AV, MR)
Chansons de Shakespeare (4 songs, MBSS, B, BB, BS)
Les couronnes (AV)
Chanson d'Ophélia (WV, MR)
147 Songs

Cotr.tposen Tlrrs
Dallapiccola, L.

Debussy, C. Nuit d'étoiles (AV)

Beau soir (AVexcLH, HBP, sus, Cpp)
Fleur des blés (AVexcLH)
La belle au bois dorrnant (AV)
Voici que le printemps (AVexcLH, Cpp)
Pantomime (CS, LLS, flex)
Clair de lune [] (LS, LT, sus, Cpp)
Pierrot (CS, LLS, flex)
Apparition (S, WR, Cpp)
Mandoline (AVexcHL/LH, MR)
Cinq poémes de Charles Baudelair¿ (MBSS, SexcHL, HB, WR, Cpp)
Le balcon
Harmonie du soir
Le jet d'eau (orch)
Recueillement
La mort des amants
Ariettes oubliées (MBSS, LS, LT, WR)
C'est l'extase (WR, Cpp)
Il pleure dans mon coeur (Cpp)
L'ombre des arbres (sus, WR, CPP)
Chevaux de bois (MVPexcHL, DFR)
Green (Cpp, DFR)
Spleen (S, T, WR, dram/at)
Romance (AVexcLH, CpP)
Les cloches (AV)
Les angélus (AV)
La mer est plus belle (MVP, HB, T, Cpp, dram)
Le son du cor s'afflige (AYexcHL)
L'échelonnement des haies (AVexcLH, DFR)
FOtes galan ¿s 1(STP, originally to be sung in order below)
En sourdine (MR, CPP)
Fantoches (LS, LLS, LT, CPP, DFR)
Clair de lune [2] (LS, LT, WR, CPP)
Proses lyriques (STP, S, T, sus, dramlat, Cpp' DFR)
De réve
De gréve
De fleurs (dram)
De soir
Chansons de Bilitis (MBST, MSexcLH, DFR)
La flüte de Pan
l

148 A Ceruocug oF FneNcs Voce.l Repenrornp

Couposen Trrr¡,
La chevelure (dram/at)
Le tombeau des naiades
Deux Rondels de Charles d'Orléans (STP, AV, MR)
Le temps a laissié son manteau
Pour ce que Plaisance est morte
Le Promenoir des deux amanÍs (STP, MS, B)
Auprés de cette grotte sombre
Crois mon conseil. chére Climéne
Je tremble en voyant ton visage
Fétes galanles 11 (STP, MS, B, BB, BS)
Les ingénus
La faune
Colloque sentimental (DFR)
Trois Ballades cle Frangois Villon (STP, MV, HB, WR, orch, DFR)
Ballade de Villon á s'amie
Ballade que feict Villon á la requeste de sa mére
Ballade des femmes de Paris
Trois poéntes de Stéphctne Mallarm¿ (MBST, AVexcLH)
Soupir
Placet futile
Eventaii
Noél des enfants qui n'ont plus de maison (MR, SexcHL, MS, B, DFR)

Delage, M. Quotre poéntes hintlous (cham: 2ñ.. string qt., harp, HBP)

Delibes, L. Les filles de Cadix (CS. LLS)

Chant de l'Almée (CS)
Bonjour, Suzon (MVercLH)

D'Indy, V. Lied maritime (AV)

Madrigal dans le style ancien (AV)
Mirage (AV)

Donizetti, G. Le crépuscule (T)

La derniére nuit d'un novice (DS)
La mére et 1'enfant (DS)

Duparc, H. Chanson triste (LS, LT, Cpp, orch)

Extase (S, T, Cpp, sus)
Sérénade florentine (LS, LLS, LT, LLT, HB, sus)
Le manoir de Rosemonde (B, BB, BS, dram, MKP)
La vague et la cloche (BexcHL, BB, BS, dram)
I l9 Songs

Cor'rpossR TrrlB
Sérénade (AV, MR)
Testament (B, BB, BS, dram, orch)
Soupir (AVexcLH, sus, Cpp, MKP)
Le galop (8, BB, dram, WR)
Elégie (T, dram/at)
Lamento (MS, B, BB, sus, dram/at)
Au pays oü se fait la guerre (DMS, DS, WR)
Phidylé (T, S, orch, sus, dram/at)
Invitation au voyage (AVexcHL, sus, orch)
La vie antérieure (AVexcHL, dram, orch, MKP)

Dupont, G. Mandoline (AVexcLH)

Durey, L. Le Bestiaire (STP, B)

Enesco, G. Sept chansons tle Clémettf Marr¡t (MBSS, B, MS, DFR)

Falla. M. de Trr¡is mélc¡di¿s (MBSS. S. T. HB)

Les Coiombes
Chinoiserie (MVP)
Séguedille (WV)
Psyché (MS, cham: fl., harp, vln.. vla., cello)

r,-ré. G. Le papillon et la fleur (AVexcLH)

Barcarolle (LS, LT)
L'aurore (AV, MR, unpub.)
Mai (AV, MR)
Dans les ruines d'une abbaye (AV, MR)
Les matelots (AV)
Seulel (AV)
Sérénade toscane (AVexclH)
Chanson du pécheur (8, MS)
Lydia (AVexcLH, MR)
Chant d'automne (AVexcHL)
Réve d'amour (AV)
L'absent (AV)
Aubade (AV)
Tristesse (AVexcHL, dram/at, DFR)
Sylvie (MVPexcLH)
Aprés un réve (AVexcHL, sus, dram/at)
Hymne (AV)
Au bord de I'eau (AVexcLH, sus, MR)
La Rangon (AV)
150 A C¿.rarocuE oF FnBNcn Vocel RspenrornB

Cotr¿pOSBn Trrlr,
Ici-bas (AV, sus)
Nell (LS, LT, Cpp, sus)
Le Voyageur (AVexcHL, dram)
Automne (DMS, B, BB, BS, dram, sus)
Poéme d'un jour (STP, AVexcHL)
Rencontre (sus)
Toujours (dram)
Adieu (Cpp)
Les Berceaux (AVexcHL, dram/at, sus)
Notre amour (LS. LLS, LT, LLT, DFR)
Le Secret (AVexcLH, sus, Cpp)
Chanson d'amour (MVPexcLH)
La fée aux chansons (WVPexcLH, DFR)
Aurore (AVercLH. Cpp)
Fleur jetée (-A.VercHL, dram)
Le pa1's des rér,es (AVexcLH)
Les Roses d'Ispahan (AVexcLH, sus)
Noél (.d\r)
Nocturne (\fS. B)
Les Présents t.{VercLH)
Clair de lune t.\VercLH. MR)
Larmes tAVercHL. dram. sus)
Au cimetiire {AVe.rcHL. dram. sus')
Spleen (AVercLH. \fR. sus)
La Rose (S. T. sus)
Venise, C inc1 rné lodie s

Mandoline (AVexcLH. flert

En sourdine (AVercHL. I!'lR. sus)
Green (AVexcLH, DFR)
A Clyméne (AVercLH, sus)
C'est l'extase (AVexcLH. sus, Cpp)
En priére (AV, sus)
La Bonne Chansc¡n (MBSS. HBP. AV exclH, DFR, also cham:
string qt., pno., not recommended by composer)
Une sainte en son auréole (sus)
Puisque 1'aube grandit (DFR, WR)
La lune blanche luit dans les bois (sus, Cpp)
J'allais par des chemins perfides (DFR)
J'ai presque peur, en vérité (DFR)
Avant que tu ne t'en ailles (sus, dram)
Donc, ce sera par un clair jour d'été (WR)
N'est-ce pas? (sus)
L'hiver a cessé (WR, DFR)
:1 Songs

§{FOSER Trrrp
Le parfum impérissable (AV, MR, sus)
Arpége (AVexcLH, MR)
Prison (AVexcHL, dram/at, sus)
Dans la forét de septembre (AV, MR)
La fleur qui va sur l'eau (AV, MR)
Accompagnement (AV, MR)
Le plus doux chemin (AV)
Le ramier (AV)
Le don silencieux (AVexcHL, MR)
C'est la paix! (AV, MR)
Chanson (AV)
Vocalise (AVexcHL)
Soir (AV, MKP, sus)
La Chanson d'Eve (10 songs. MBSS. N'fS. sus)
Le Jardin c/os (8 songs, MBSS. NfS. B. IUR)
Mirages (4 songs. MBSS. lvf S. B. \'f R)
L'horizon chimérique (4 songs. STP. B. sus. Cpp)

: errari, G. Le miroir (AV. MR)

Fourdrain, F. Carnaval (AVexcHL)

Chanson norvégienne (WVexcHL)

Frangaix, J. L'adolescence clémentirze (5 songs, MBST, B)

Priére du soir (AVexcLH, w/guitare)
Chanson (LS, LT, w/guitare)
Huit anecdotes de Chamfort (B)
Cinq poémes de Charles d'Orléans (MS, B)
Trois épigrammes (S,T)
Scherzo impromptu (fromMouvements du Coeur (BB, BS)

Franck, C. S'il est un charmant gazon (AV)

Nocturne (AVexcHL)
La Procession (AVexcHL, orch)
Le mariage des roses (AV)
Lied (AV)
Souvenance (AV)
Mignonne (AV)
Aimer (AVexcHL, sus)
Ninon (AV)
Les cloches du soir (AV, sus)
152 A CerelocuE oF FReNcH Vocel RBpBRrornB

Corrpossn Trrlr,
Godard, B. Embarquez-vous ! (LT, flex)
Je ne veux pas d'autres choses (MS, B, sus, Cpp)
Contemplation (AVexcLH)
Fleur du vallon (MS, B)
Chanson du berger (MVexcLH)
Les adieux du berger (HB, B)
Qui donc vous a donné vos yeux? (HB, T)
Fleur d'exil (MV. MR)
La chanson des prés (AV, MR)
Chanson arabe (B, BB, BS, flex)
D'oü venez-vous'l (AVexclH)
Viens! (LT, MS. Cpp)
Fille á la blonde chevelure (HB, B)
Te souviens-tul (MS. dram/at)
Le banc de pierre (MS. sus, dram/at)
Guitare (AV. ll{R)
Le voyageur (HB. B. Cpp)

Gounod, C. Sérénade (AVercLH. flex. r,ln. obbligato optional)

L'absent (.AVercLH. sus )

Au rossignol (-{V)
Chanson du printemps tAVercLH)
Chanson de la glu (-{V. \,IVP)
Mignon (WVercHL)
Viens, les gazons sont verts (AVercLH)
Oü voulez-vous aller? (AVercLH. flexiat)
Ma belle amie est morte (MS. B. BB. BS. sus/dram)
Ce que je suis sans toi (AV)
Venise (AVexcLH, DFR)
O ma belle rebelle (AV, MVP)
Les deux pigeons (AVexcLH)
Medjé (AVexcHL, MVP)
Réponse de Medjé (S, MS, dram/at)
Le Temps des roses (AVexcLH)
La Vierge d'Athénes (AVexcLH)
Le vallon (MS, BB, BS, sus)
Les champs (AV)
Elle sait! (LT, HB)
Les cloches (T)
Blessures (T)
A Cécile (T)
Les lilas blancs (AVexcHL)
153 Songs

Corr.rposnn Tru-B
Priére du soir (MVP, T, HB) ..

Que ta volonté soit faite (AVexcHL, sus, dram/at)

L'ouvrier (T, HB, S, MS, dram)
La fleur du foyer (T, S, MS)
Le pays bienheureux (MS)
Chanson d'avril (S, T)
Heureux sera le jour (T, HB)
Si vous n'ouvrez pas votre fenétre (AVexcLH)
A toi, mon coeur (LT, HB)
Tombez, mes ailes! (WVexcLH)
L'áme d'un ange (MVexcLH, sus, flex/at)
Le lever (MV)
Chanson d'automne (AV, sus)
Aubade (MV, fle;dat)

Hahn, R. D'une prison (AVexcLH, sus)

Fétes galantes (HBP, AVexcHL, WR, Cpp)
Fumée (AV, Cpp)
Trois jours de vendange (AV)
Infidélité (AV)
Chansons grises (7 songs, MBSS, MS, HB, B, sus, Cpp)
Chanson d'automne
Tous deux
L'allée sans fin
En sourdine
L'heure exquise
'Paysage triste
La bonne chanson
Etudes latines (10 songs, AV, w/choral accpt.lat)
Les feuilles blessées (11 songs, MR, Cpp)
Offrande (AVexcHL, sus)
Paysage (MS, B, sus)
Quand je fus pris au pavillon (AVexcLH)
Si mes vers avaient des ailes (AVexcLH)
Le rossignol des lilas (S, T)
Mai (MR, AV, sus)
L'enamourée (AVexcHL, sus, WR)
La nuit (MS, B, BB, sus)
Les cygnes (AVexcHL, sus)
Dernier voeu (HB, MS, sus)
Nocturne (AVexcLH)
Je me souviens (AVexcHL/LH, sus)
154 A CerelocuE oF Fnr,¡lcs Vocel Rr,pBntornr,

Couposr,n Trrlp
La vie est belle (S, T)
Ndis (S, T)
La nymphe de la source (AV, MR)
Sous l'oranger (S, T, flex)

Herberigs, R. La Chanson d'Eve (11 songs, MBSS, S, WR)

Hively, W. Paysage méditerranéen (S, T)

Le dit du bergerot (LT. HB)
Sur les taffetas de bambou (LT. HB. flex)
Il pleut! il mouillel (S. T. HB. WR)
Chanson dans un jardin (S. T)

Honegger, A. Trois psuurt¡¿-i t\f BSS. HB. \'f S, dramiat)

Si-r poinu e-s dt' G. .\poLliirairc (MBSS)
A la 'Santé' (\lS. BB. BS)
Clotilde (S. T)
Automne (\f S. C. BB, BS)
Saltimbanques (AV)
L'adieu (AV)
Les cloches (l!{S, B)
Sir pointe s de Jean Cocteau (HB, MS)
Trois poitnes tle Paul Claudel (HBP, STP)
Petit c't¡urs tle tttr.¡rctle (5 songs, MBST, AVexcLH)
Deur chuttts d'Ariel (LT')
Quaf re chon.st¡n.\ pour voix graue (MBSS, MS, C, BB, BS)
Chanson (B. BB. MS, C, cham: fl. and stringtrio)
Troís poirrtt,.: tle.s Complaintes et dits de Paul Forr (MS, B)
Quatre poernes (1921) (MS, B)

Hüe, G. Chanson.¡ printaniéres (7 songs, MBSS, S, T)

J'ai pleuré en réve (T, B, MS, dram)
A des oiseaux (AV, Cpp)

Ibert, J. La Verdure dorée (4 songs, AV, MR)

Chansons de Don Quichotte (4 songs, STP, BB, BS, orch)
Quatre chants (192'1) (S, T)
Deux stiLes c¡rientées pour voix et flítte (cham, MVP, HB, T)
Chanson du rien (AVexcHL, cham: wind quintet or pno.)
Deux chansons de Melpoméne (extraits de Barbe-bleue, LLS, CS w/harpsichord)
Aria (S, T, flex, w/fl. and pno.) (also duo for two'"oices w piano1
155 Songs

CorrpospR TIrl¡,
Jolivet, A. Trois complaintes du soldat (MBST, B, orch)
Poémes intimes (5 songs, STP, B, MS, orch)
Troís chansons de ménestrel (MBSS, MVPexcLH)
Suite liturgique (8 sections,2 instrumental, S, T, w/Eng. horn, cello, harp, in Latin)

Jollas, B. Quatuor II (phonetic syllables, CS, LLS, cham: vln.. vla., celio)

Koechlin, C. Si tu le veux (AVexcLH)

A toi! (AVexcLH)
Le thé (AV, MR)
Chansons de Bilitis (5 songs, MBSS, S, MS, WR, dram/at)

Lalo, E. Guitare (AVexcLH)

Oh, quand je dors!(T)
Amis, vive, vive l'orgiel (T)
L'esclave (S, MS, sus)
Souvenir (AV)
Dieu qui sourit et qui donne (LLS, LT, Cpp)
L'aube nait (S, T)
Puisqu'ici-bas toute áme (S. T)
Ballade á la lune (AVexcHL)
Aubade (HB)
Marine (MS, B, sus)
Humoresque (T, HB, flex/at)

Leguerney, J. Vingt poémes de la Pléiade (MBSS, AV)

First Set (S, T)
Je vous envoie
Geniévres hérissés
Je me lamente
Bel aubépin
Au sommeil
Si mille oeillets
Second S¿¡ (B, MS)
Ah! Bel-Accueil
A sa máitresse (Sérénade)
A son page
Third Set (MS, B)
Ma douce jouvence est passée
Ode anacréontique
156 A CerelocuE oF FnBNcn Vocel Rr,pBnroIne,

CouposBR Tru-B

Je fuis les pas

La fontaine d'Héléne
Le jour pousse la nuit
Fourth Ser (DS)
Invocation
Un voile obscur
Comme un qui s'est Perdu
Fifth Set (LS, T)
Chanson triste
A la Fontaine Bellerie
Villanelle
Le Carnat'a1 (Trois poémes de Saint-Amant, STP, BB, BS, DFR)
La Sr¡litude (4 songs, STP, BB, BS, sus)

Leoncavallo, P. Madame, avisez--v (LT, LHB)

C'est le renouveau. ma Suzon (LT, LHB)
Si c'est d'aimer (LT, LHB)

Liszt, F. Oh, quand je dors: (MVP, T, HB, S, Cpp, sus, orch)

Elégie (S, T)
S'il est un charmanf gazon (AV, MR)
La tombe et la rose (MS, C, BB, BS)
Le vieur vagabond (BB, BS, dram, sus)
Jeanne d'Arc au búcher (S, MS, dram)
Comment. disaient'ils (AVexcLH, Cpp)
Enfant, si j'étais roi (T)
Tristesse (J'ai perdu ma force et ma vie) (BB, BS, MS, sus, dram/at)
Il m'aimait tantl (DS. MS, dram/at)
Martin, F. Trois chants de l¡troél (STP, HB, MS, cham: fl., pno')
Quatre sonnets de Cassandre (MBST, B, MS, cham: fl., vla., cello)

Massenet, J. Poéme d'avril (8 songs, MBSS, 2 entirely spoken, AVexcLH, incl. "Que l'heure es:
doncbréve. . .")
Poéme d'hiver (4 songs, STP, MS, B, BB)
Poi:me d'octobre (5 songs, STP, MS, B, BB)
Pobme pastoral (6 songs, duo for WVexcLH and LT, flexlaf, w/3-voice women !
chorus, orch, incl. "CréPuscule")
Poéme du souvenir (5 songs, STP, T, sus)
Poéme d'un soir (3 songs, STP, MS, B)
Pobme d'amour (6 songs, duo for HB/T and S/MS, MBST, incl. "Ouvre tes yeu\
bleus")
 1 57 Songs

- (l\ÍPOSER Trrl¡
Pobnte tles fleurs (3 songs, WV)
Elégie (AV)
Nuits d'Espagne (AV)
Ninon (T)

'.i:ssiaen, O. Trois mélodies (STP, S, MS, HB)

Pourquoi?
Le sourire
Le fiancée perdue (dram/at)
Chants de terre et de ciel (6 songs, MBSS, DS)
Poimes pour mi (9 songs, MBSS, S, MS, T)

',lilhaud, D. Chants populaire.s hébraiques (6 songs, MBSS, S, HB. B. \fR. tir¿rm ¿it)
Catalogue de: fleurs (7 songs, MtsST, MS, B)
Chansons de Ronsard (4 songs, MBSS, CS, LLS, LT. orch. DFRr
Poimes jurfs (18 songs, MBSS, AVexcHL)
Trois chansons tle troubadour (HB. STp)
Cltansons de négresse (3 songs. STp, tv{S) (string qt.)
Chttnts de nti.¡ire (4 songs. B. N.f S)
Adieu (AV. MR. c¿lntata r,,.rcham: fl .. vla., harp)
cctntaf e de I'enfuttt et tle ltt tnire Íecifed poems, string qt., and pno, or r¡rch. 3 parts)
R?ves (6 songs. STP, LS. LT, WR. flex/ar)
Quatre poitnes tle Cutulle (T. MBST, flex, Cpp, w/vln. onlv)
Hymne de Sion (B, dram)
Le Voyage d'été (15 songs, STp, MS, B)
Trois poimes (MS, B)
Petites légendes (MS, B)
L'amour chante (S, T)
Sept poétnes de lu c:L¡nnaissant,e de I'est (MBSS, B, MS, dram/at)
Quatre pobrnes de P. Clauclei (STP, B)
Trois poérnes de Lu<:ile de Cháteaubriant (MS. B, Cpp)
Trois poémes cle J. Supervielle (3 songs, MBST, MS, C, B, BB)
Denr poimes tl'cuttour (S, T)
Cinq c'hctnso¿s (MS, B)
Qucttre pcténtes tle Léo Lcttil (MS, B, STp)
Les soirées tle Pétrograrl (12 songs, HB, S, MS)
:ll : Tristes.ses (23 songs, suite for B and pno.)
Chansons bas (8 songs, MBST, MS, B, BB, BS)
Deux petits r¡irs (MS, B)
T'rai.s poimes cle Jean Coctectu (MS, B)
Psaume 129 (B, orch or two pnos.)
Poéme (MS, B)
 158 A C.lrelocuE oF FRBNcn Vocel Reppnrolnr'

Coupossn Tru-B
Les Quatre Eléments (CS, LT)
Fontaines et sources (LS, T)
Vocalise (CS)
(BB' BS)
Sufiu¿" nocturne (from Mouvements du Coeur)

Moret, E. Souslecíelclel'Islam(12songsontextsofJ'LahorandA'Renaud'S'T'MS'HB'
..epilude" for piano) (incl. "Nélumbo")
cpp, with p."tro",'i inteÁdes, and
Sérénade florentine (S)
Sérénade mélancolique (MS'
B)
Dans les fleurs (T)
(MS' B)
Dans ton coeur dort un clair de lune
Tendresse (AV)
i;o.gr" de mon áme résonne (T' DS' MS)
Oh! la nuit d'avril (S, T)
Frissons de fleurs (AV)
Réve (AV)
L'heure inoubliabie (MS, B)
A vous. ombre légére (AV)
Heures mortes (AV)
Entends mon áme qui Pleure (AV)
Devant le ciel d'été (AV)

Mélotiies sttr tles poimes cle P' Eluard (3 songs' MS' B)

Nigg, T.

Paladilhe, E. Psyché (-{\¡. sus )

Pierné, G. En barque tAV)

Sérénade lAVercLH)
i¡* bnllnrtu frangaises cle Paul Forl (MBSS' MS' B)

MBST' HB' Cpp' cham:2 vlns'' vla''

Poulenc, F. Le Besriaire (ou Cortbge d'Orphée)(6 songs'
cello, fl., clar', bsn')
(cham: vln'' tpt'' tromb'' bass drum' triangle)
Cr¡cardes (3 songs, STP, S, LT' Cpp)
Poémes de Ronsard (5 songs, MS' B)
-Chansons
gaillardes (8 songs' MBSS' MV' HB' DFR)
Vocalise (AV)
Airs chantés (4 songs, MBSS)
Air romantique (AVexcHL, MR' DFR)
Air chamPétre (AVexcLH, WR, CPP)
Air grave (AVexcHL, dram/at, sus)
Air vif (AVexcLH, DFR, flex)
Epitaphe (MS, B, BB)
Il Dame cle Mctnte Carlo (S) (cham)

¡'_
 159 Songs

Couposr.R Trrlp
Trois poimes de Louise Lalanne (MBSS, WV, LS, LLS, DFR)
Quatre pobmes de G. Apollinaire (STP, MVP, B, BB, DFR)
Cinq poémes de Max Jacob (STP, WV, LS, LMS, DFR)
Huit chansons polonaises (AV, in Polish w/Fr' translation)
Cinq poémes de Paul Eluard (STP, AVexcHL)
A sa guitare (AVexcLH, sus)
Teljour telle nuit (9 songs, MBST, HBP, MR, available in two keys, DFR, sus, dram/at)
Trois poémes cle Louise de Vilmorin (MBST, WV. LS. L\fS. WR' DFR, Cpp)
Deux poémes de G. Apollinaire (MBSS, AV, DFR)
Dans le jardin d'Anna
Allons plus vite
M iroir s b ritlctnt s (MBSS)
Tu vois le feu du soir (HBP, WR, sus)
Je nommerai ton front (MS, B, dram/at)
Le porrrait (AV. MR. DFR)
La grenouillére (AVexcHL. Cpp)
Priez pour paix (AV. MR, sus, available in two keys)
Ce doux petit visage (LS, LT. Cpp)
Bleuet (MVP, T, HB, dram/at, WR)
Fionqctilles pctur rire (6 songs. MBSS, WV)
La dame d'André (SexcLH. LMS. MR)
Dans l'herbe (S, sus, dram/at)
I1 vole (S, WR, DFR)
Mon cadavre est doux comme un gant (SexcHL, sus)
Violon (SexcHL, sus)
Fleurs (SexcLH, sus)
Banalités (5 songs, MBSS, MR)
Chanson d'Orkenise (MVP, HB)
Hótel (MVP, HB, Cpp)
Fagnes de Wallonie (AVexcHL, DFR)
r la.. Voyage á Paris (AVexcLH, Cpp)
Sanglots (AVexcLH, sus, Cpp, dram/at)
¡le ) Chctnsons vilLageoises (6 songs, MBSS, MV, B, HB, DFR, orch)
Chanson du clair tamis (DFR)
Les gars qui vont á la féte (WR, AVexcHL)
C'est le joli printemps (Cpp, AVexcLH, HBP)
Le mendiant (AVexcHl, sus, dram/flex/at)
Chanson de la fille frivole (DFR, AVexcLH, HBP)
Le retour du sergent (DFR, WR)
Métamorphoses (3 songs, MBSS, HB, T, MS)
Reine des mouettes (AVexcLH, DFR)
C'est ainsi que tu es (AVexcHL, MR)
Paganini (AVexcLH, DFR)
160 A CerelocuE oF FnrNcn Vocal ReppnrornB

CouposBn Trrlr,
Deux poémes de L. Aragon (MBSS)
C. (LS, LT, Cpp, sus)
Fétes galantes (AVexcHL, MR, Cpp, DFR)
Montparnasse (AVexcLH, HBP, sus)
Hyde Park (AV)
Le Pont (AV, DFR)
Un poéme (AV)
Paul et Virginie (AV)
Mais mourir (AV)
Hymne (MV, BB, BS)
Trois chansons de Garcia Lorca (STP, AVexcHL)
Le disparu (MVP. B, BB)
Main dominée par le coeur (AVexcLH)
Calligramntes (7 songs, MBST, AVexcHL, HBP)
Mazurka (BB. BS, sus) (from Mouvements du Coeur)
La Frai'cheur et le feu (.7 songs, MBST, MS, B, dram/at, DFR)
Le Trav'ctil du peintre (7 songs, STP, MS, B, dram/at)
Parisiana (2 songs. AV)
Rosemonde (AVexcLH, HBP)
Deur méloclíes (1956) (AVexcHL)
Dernier poéme llf VexcHL)
Une chanson de porcelaine (AVexcHL)
La courte paille 17 songs. STP, WV, S, LMS)
Le Bal ntasqué (suite for B. HB w,cham orch)
Rapsodíe regre (suite for B. HB wicham orch)

Rameau" .1.-P. Solo Cantatas (STB)

Ravel, M. Sainte (AVexcLH, sus)

Deux épigrammes tle Clément Marr¡f (STP, AvexcLH, HBP)
Manteau de fleurs (AV)
Shéhérazade (3 songs, STP, WV, orch, DFR)
Asie (S, MS, dram/at)
La flüte enchantée (S, LMS)
L' indifférent (AVexcHL)
Histoires naturelles (5 songs, STP, MR, AVexcHL/LH, DFR, HBP, LMS)
Cinq mélodies populaires grecques (STP, MVP [excNo.4], HBP, MS, orch)
Chants populaires (4 songs in Sp., Fr.,Ital., Yiddish, AV, MR)
Trois pobmes de S. Mallarmé (MBST, MS, B, cham:picc., fl., clar., b'clar., string qt.,
pno.)
Deux mélr¡dies hébralques (AV, MR, dramlat, orch, in Hebr., Yiddish)
Ronsard á son áme (AVexcLH)
 r61 Songs

CorrposBn TIrrp
Chansons madécasses (3 songs, MBST, SexcHL, MS, HB, cham: fl., cello, pno.,
dram/at, DFR)
Réves (AV)
Don Quichotte á Dulcináe (3 songs, MBST, B, WR, orch)
Le Noél des jouets (AVexcLH)
Les grands vents venus d'outre-mer (AV)
Sur I'herbe (AV)
Vocalise en forme de habanera (AV)
Rhené-Baton Idylle morte (MS, B, sus, dram/at)
Les heures d'été (6 songs, MBSS, HB, MS, dram/at, sus)
Testament (B, sus, dram/at)
Pour celles qui restent (7 songs, MBSS, AVexcLH)
Chansons pour Marycinthe (6 songs, MBSS, B, BB, BS)
La mort des amañt§ (S, MS, T, sus, dram/at)
Réve gris (MS, T, dram, sus)
Chansons. bretonnes (8 songs, MR)
Chansons douces (12 songs, MBSS, MS, B, sus)
R ivier, J. Huit poémes d'Apollinaire (STP, AVexcLH)
Automne (AV)
Clotilde (AVexcLH, WR, Cpp)
L'adieu (AV)
Aubade (AV, WR, dram/at)
Le départ (AVexcLH, WR, Cpp)
Linda (AVexcLH, Cpp)
Saltimbanques (AVexcLH)
.Les cloches (S)
Ropartz, G. La mer (AV, sus)
Priére (B, sus, dram/at, orch)
Berceuse (MS, BB)
Quatre pobmes (STP, MS, C, BB)
Veilles du départ (5 songs, STP, MS, C, BB, BS)
Poéme d'adieu (HB, T, sus)
Chanson d'automne (MS, BB, sus, dram/at)
En mai (MS, BB, BS, sus)
Tout le long de la nuit (MS, B, sus)
Chanson de Bord (MS, B, BB, dram)
Le temps des saintes (MS, BB, BS, sus)
q'... Il pleut (B, sus, dram/at, Cpp)
Prés d'un ruisseau (MS, B, sus)
R.orem, N. Poémes pour la paix (6 songs, AVexcHL, HB, MS, dramlat, string orch)
162 A CerelocuE oF FnBNcn Vocel RppenrorRe

CoIuposr,R Trrls
Rosenthal, M. Chansons de Bleu (12 songs, AVexcLH)
Ronsardises (5 songs, AVexcLH)

Roussel, A. Le jardin mouillé (AVexcHL/LH)

Flammes (T, DS)
A un jeune gentilhomme (S, CPP)
Amoureux séParés (AVexcLH)
Réponse d'une éPouse sage (S)
Le bachelier de Salamanque (AVexcHL)
Sarabande (HB)
Coeur en Péril (T' HB)
Jazz dans la nuit (S. T, HB' DFR, WR)
Lieht (Av)
L'heure du retour (S. MS)
Deux poémes cle Ronsanl (LS, LT' HB'
wifl' only)
Deur poimes chinois (AVexcLH)
Le départ (AVexclH)
Voeu (MS, B)
Madrigal lYrique (MVexcLH)
Adieux (MS, S. HB. T. dram/at)
Invocation (AV )
Nuit d'automne (AVexcHL/LH)
Odelette (S, MS)
La menace (MS, B, orch)

Le bonheur est chose légére tLS' CS' vln optnl"

pno')
Saint-Saéns, C.
L'attente (S, MS)
La cloche (AV)
Aimons-nous (S, T, sus, dram/at)
Vocalise (CS)
Chanson triste (MS, B, BB, BS)
Danse macabre (B, BB, BS, DFR, orch)
Air du rossignol (CS)
Une flüte invisible (AVexcLH, fl', pno')
Le pas d'armes du roi Jean (BB, BS, orch)
La cigale et la fourmi (AV, MR)
La fiancée du timbalier (orch)
Primavera (S, T)
Clair de lune (AV, MR)
Extase (MS, B)
Peut-étre (S, T)
Pourquoi rester seulette? (CS)
163 Songs

Coprposr,n Trrr-B
Le rossignol (S. T)
Guitare (AV)
Guitares et mandolines (S, T, flex)

Satie, E. Trois mélodies (1916) (S, MS, HB, STP)

La Statue de Bronze (AV exc HL)
Daphénéo (MR, DFR)
Le Chapelier (WR, DFR)
Je te veux (AVexcHL)
Tendrement (AVexcHL)
Trois mélodi¿s (1886) (LS. LLS. LT)
Les Anges
Elégie
Sylvie
La Diva de 1'Empire (A\¡ercHL)
Ludions (5 songs. NfBST. -\\'e.rcl-H. DFR)
Trois poimes tl'utttour (\fS. B. BB. BS)

Sauguet, H. La Vol'ante (scene for LS and cham orch in 3 parts, DFR)

Sir sonnets cle Louise Iabá (\fBSS. LS. WR, Cpp)
Cirqtte (5 songs. LS. T)
Les pénítents ett ntailktts roses (5 songs. STP. AVexcLH, WR)
Visions irtJernctles (6 songs, STP. BB, BS)
Quatre méloclies sur des poémes de Schiller (MBSS, AVexcLH)
Mouvements du coeur (extraits) (BB, BS)
Prélude: Une forét surgit des flots
Postlude: Dans les campagnes de Pologne (dram)

Sévérac, de, D. Le ciel est pardessus le toit (S, T, sus)

Temps de neige (T, sus)
Un réve (MS, sus)
A I'aube dans la montagne (S, T, dram/at, sus)
Philis (T)
Chanson de Jacques (T, sus)
Chanson de la nuit durable (T, HB, sus)
Chanson pour le petit cheval (T, HB)
Les hiboux (S, MS, HB, sus, CPP)
Ma poupée chérie (WV)
Aubade (MV)
Chant de Noél (AV)

Thomas, A. Le soir (AVexcLH)

 164 A CererocuE oF FnENcH Vocel RspBRrornB

CoNaposen TrrLs
Vellones, P. Cinq épitapl¡es (MS, B)

Villa-Lobos, H. L'oiseau (MS, B)

Les méres (MS, B)
Fleur fanée (AV)

Wagner, R. Les adieux de Marie Stuart (WV, MR)

Attente (MS, SexcHL)
Dors, mon enfant (WVexcLH, MR)
Mignonne (HB, T)
Tout n'est qu'images fugitives (AVexcHL)
Les deux grenadiers (8, BB, dram)

Arias
An attempt has been made here to cate-eorize representative arias from
the French operatic repertoire accordin-s to generall-v accepted vocal clas-
sifications and subdivisions. These lists are intended to serve as a direc-
tive guide that will suggest repertoire to the singer. who. in turn. should
follow it with relative flexibility. Within an1, musical environment, great
discrepancies exist in operatic classification. not to mention those from
country to country or from era to era. For this reason, several arias may
be found under different classif,cations. Because of their greater number
and variety, a more detailed breakdown is provided for the soprano,
mezzo-soprano, and tenor repertoires. For opposite reasons, the baritone
repertoire is listed intact with delineation from within, and the bass-
baritone and bass classif,cations have been grouped together with dis-
tinctions made where appropriate.
Composer, opera, and title of recitative (R) and/or aria (A) are provided.
In some cases where the term "aria" is inappropriate (e.g., Debussy),
excerpts are indicated that might be useful for auditions or performance.
An effort has been made to include repertoire from the earliest French
opera (Lully) up to the present (Poulenc), but there have by necessity
been several omissions.
The abbreviations are the same as those used for the section on the
song repertoire.

L
165 Arias

CATALOGUE Otr' ARIAS

Coloratura Soprano
For coloratura soprano with maximum flexibility.

CoN.rpossn Opn,na TrrrE (REctrarIve eNn/on Arua)

Adam, A. Le Postillon de LongiLrnteau R/A: Je vais donc le revoir
Any (for interpolation) Variations on: "Ah, vous dirai-je, maman"
(with flute)

Auber, D. Le Domino noir f R: Je suis sauvée enfin

Il, ei,t quelle nuit!
La Muette de Portici iR: Plaisirs du rang supréme
lA: O moment enchanteurl
Fra Diavolo iR: Ne craignez rien. Milord
I t: Quei bonheur. je respire

Bizet, G. Les P?cheurs tle perLes fR: Dieu Brahma (sus)

lA: Dans le ciel sans voile
Campra, A. Les Festes vénitíennes Air de l'Amour: Venez, venez, f,éres beautés

David, F. Le Perle clu Brésil A: Charmant oiseau

Delibes, L. Lukmé A: Air des clochettes: Oü va la jeune Indoue

Donizetti, G. La Fille du Régiment A: Chacun le sait

R: C'en est donc fait
{ A: Par le rang et par 1'opulence (sus)

Gounod, C. Mireille R: Le ciel rayonne, I'oiseau chante!

t A: O légére hirondelle
R: Trahir Vincent!
t A: Mon coeur ne peut changer
Philémon et Baucis R: Il
a perdu ma trace
t A: O riante nature
Roméo et Juliette R: Dieu! quel frisson court dans mes veines'l
{ A: Ah, je veux vivre dans ce réve

Grétry, A. Zémire et Azor A: La Fauvette avec ses Petits

Les deux avares A: PIus de dépit, plus de tristesse (sus/at)
Anac: r é c¡ n c h e z, P o I :- cr ut e A: Eprise d'un feu téméraire (dram/at)

lt
166 A Cer.qlocuE oF Fnnxcn Voc¿'l RppentorRB

ColrposBn OpBne Trrrr, (RecIrerIvB eNo/on AnIe)

Hérold, L. Le Pré aux clercs A: A la fleur du bel áge
A: Jours de mon enfance (WR, dram/at)

Massé, V. Les Noces de Jeannette A: L'air du rossignol: Au bord du chemin

Massenet, J. Werther IR: Frére. voyezl

IR: Ou gai soleil plein de flamme
Cendrillon A: Ah, douce enfant-ah, fugitives chimére:

Meyerbeer, G. Dinorah A: Ombre légére

Le Prophéte A: Mon coeur s'élance et palpite (sus/at)
L'Etoile du Nord IR: C'est bien lui
[,q, Lu, la, la, air chéri lwith 2 flutes)
Mondonville, J. Titon et I'Aurore A: Ariette de l'Aurore: Yenez, venez sous ce
riant feuillage

Monsigny, P. A. Les At eux indiscrets A: Un jeune coeur nous offre l'image du

papillon

Offenbach, J. Les C onre.s d' HoJfmctnn A: Air d'Olympia: Les oiseaux dans la
charmille

Rameau, J.-P. Hippokte eÍ Aricíe A: Rossignols amoureux (sus/at)

Ravel, M. L'Enfant et les Sortiliges A: Air du feu: Arriére! Je réchauffe les bons

Rimsky-Korsakov, N. Le Coq d'or A: Hymne au soleil (sus/at)

Thomas, A. Hamlet Scéne et air d'Ophélie: Mais quelle est cette

belle et jeune demoiselle-A vos jeux, amis
Mignon IR: Oui, pour ce soir
IR: Je suis Titania, la blonde
A: J'avais fait un plus doux réve (alternate)
Note: See also, lyric soprano with some coloratura flexibility and range.
 167 Arias

Lyric Coloratura
For lyric soprano with some coloratura flexibility and range.

corr.rposBn opBne Trrr-8, (Rrclrerlv¡ eroioR ARte)

Adam, A. Le Postillon de Longjumeau A: Mon petit mari

Any (for interpolation) Variations on: "Ah. vous dirai-je. maman" (w. fl.)

Auber, D. Fra Diavolo JR: Ne craignez rien. Milord

IA: Quel bonheur. je respire
La Muette de Portici f R: Plaisirs du rang supréme
IA: O moment enchanteur
Barthe, A. La Fiancée d'Ab¡'dos A: O nuit, qui me couvre (Cpp. susl

Bizet, G. Les Pécheurs de perles fR: O Dieu Brahma (sus)

[A: Dans le ciel sans voile
IR: Me voilá seule dans la nuit
[A: Comme autrefois (sus)

Boieldieu, A. La dame blanche A: Enfin je vous revois

Chabrier, E. Gwendoline A: Blonde aux yeux de pervenche (from duet. Act I,

cpp)

Donizetti, G. La Fille du Régiment A: Chacun le sait

'n5
A: Il faut partir (sus)
JR: C'en est donc fait
IA: Par le rang et par l'opulence (sus)
tte
amis Gounod, C. Mireille f
R: Le ciel rayonne. l'oiseau chante!
IA: O legére hirondelle
fR: Trahir Vincent!
te) [A: Mon coeur ne peut changer
Philémon et Baucis lR: tt a perdu ma trace
Ie: O riante nature
Roméo et Juliette IR: Dieu! quel frisson court dans mes veines']
In' nn. je veux vivre dans ce réve
lR: Depuis hier je cherche en vain
(sus
\R, Qr. fais-tu. blanche tourterelle )

Grétry, A. Les deux avares A: Plus de dépit, plus de tristesse

Anacréon chez Poly crate A: Eprise d'un feu téméraire

168 A CererocuE oF FnBNcH Vocer RBpBnrorRB

Corrposr,R OpBna TIrrs (RncrrerrvB eNo/on Anre)

Halévy, J. La Fée aux roses A: En dormant (WR)
Hérold, L. Le Pré aux clercs A: A la fleur du bel áge
A: Jours de mon enfance (WR, dram/at)

Massenet, J. Esclarmonde A: Esprits de 1'Air

A: Ahl Roland-Chaque nuit, cher amant
A: Oh, Roland, tu m'as trahi-Regarde-les, ces yeux
(dramiat)
Manon iR: Suis-je gentille ainsi?
ll: Obéissons quand leur voix appelle
A: Fabliau: Oui, dans les bois et dans la plaine
(alternate)
Thails i R: Ah. je suis seule
IA: Dis-moi que.ie suis belle (sus, dram/at)
Cendrillon A: Enfln, je suis ici
Meyerbeer, G. L'Africaine A: J'espére, j'espére-Adieu, mon doux rivage
(Cpp, sus)
A: Sur mes genoux, fils du soleil (dram/at)
Les Huguenots fR' Nobles seigneurs, salut!
IA: Une dame noble et sage (sus/at)
A: O beau pays de la Touraine (sus/at)
R: Je suis seule chez moi
A: Parmi les pleurs (sus)
Robert le tliable A: En vain j'espére-Idole de ma vie
Le Prophite A: Mon coeur s'élance et palpite

Offenbach, J. SeeLyric Soprano (with mini-

mum fleribilit-v. top high C)

Poulenc, F. Les .Vatttelles Jt' Tirásias A: Non! monsieur mon mari! (sus/at)

Rameau, J.-P. Hippobte et Aricie Rossignols amoureux (sus/at)

R: Oü suis-je?
A: Quels doux concerts!
Thomas, A. Hamlet A: Sa main depuis hier n'a pas touché ma main (sus)
Scéne et air d'Ophélie: Mais quelle est cette belle et
jeune demoiselle-A vos jeux, amis!
Migruon fR: Me voilá seule
[A: Je connais un pauvre enfant
Psyché A: Ah! si j'avais jusqu'á ce soir
169 Arias

Lyric Soprano
For lyric soprano with minimum flexibility, top high C.

CoNrpossn OpEne Trrlr, (RrcIrerIvr aN»/on Anta)

Auber, D. Manon Lescaut A: C'est l'histoire amoureuse

Bizet, G. Carmen f R: C'est des contrebandiers le refuge ordinaire

Ie: ¡e dis que rien ne m'épouvante (dram/at)
Les Pécheurs de perles J
R: Me voilá seule dans Ia nuit
IA: Comme autrefois
La jolie fille de Perth A: Je n'en dirai rien

Charpentier, G. Louise A: Depuis le jour (Cpp. dramlat)

Debussy, C. L' Enfant prodigue (cantata) I R: L'année en vain chasse l'annéc

lR: R chaque saison ramenée
Pelléas et Mélisande Ohl cette pierre est lourde (Act IV)

Delibes, L. Lakmé j R: Les fleurs me paraissent plus belles

I A: Pourquoi dans les grands bois
A: Sous le ciel tout étoilé

Desmarets, H Vénus et Adonis Air de Vénus: Qu'un triste éloignement ¡¡s¡/at)

Destouches, A. Les Eléments Air d'Emilie: Brillez dans ces beaux lieux (flexiat)

Godard, B. Le Tasse A: Il m'est doux de revoir la place (drarr"*at)

Gounod, C. Faust IR: Je voudrais bien savoir

IA: ll était un roi de Thulé
IR: O Dieul que de bijouxl
IR, ent¡. ris de me voir si belle en ce miroir(fleriat)
Mireille A: La Chanson de Magali: La brise est douce et
parfumée
A: Le jour se léve
A: Heureux petit berger
I R: Voici la vaste Plaine
IR: En marche. en marche
Philémon et Baucis A: Ah! si je redevenais bellel
A: Philémon m'aimerait encore!
Le Tribut de Zamora A: Ce Sarrasin disait (from duet, Act I)
170 A CerelocuE oF FnBNcr¡ Vocel RBpBnrornp

CorrposeR OpBne TrrrB (RrcrrerrvB eN¡/on Anra)

Grétry, A. Anacréo n che z Poly crate A: Eprise d'un feq téméraire (flex, dram/at)

Halévy, J. La Juive A: Il va venir (dram/at)

Hérold, L. Le Pré aux clercs A: Oui, Marguerite, en qui j'espére (dram/at)

A: Souvenir de jeune áge

Lully, J.-B. Thésée A: Revenez, reYeÍtez, amours

Alceste A: Le héros que j'attends

Massenet, J. Manc¡n A: Je suis encore tout étourdie

[R: Allons, il le faut
tA: Adieu, notre petite table
A: Voyons, Manon, plus de chiméres
Le Cid f R: De cet affreux combat
IA: Pleurez, pleurez, mes yeux (dram/at)
That's f R: Ah!je suis seule
IA: Dis-moi que je suis belle (dram/at)
R: Je ne veux rien garder
A: L'amour est une vertu rare
Esclarmctnde R: D'une longue torpeur
A: Hélas! en retrouvant la vie (Cpp)
A: Roland, tu m'as trahi-Regarde-les, ces yeux
(dram/at)

Meyerbeer, G. Les HugLtenof s R: Nobles seigneurs, salut!

A: Une dame noble et sage (flex/at)
R: Je suis seule chez moi
A: Parmi les pleurs (dram/at, "Falcon")
Robert le diable A: Robert, toi que j'aime
A: Va! dit-elle

Offenbach, J. Les Conf es d'Hoffmann A: Elle a fui, la tourterelle (dram/at)

La Périchole A: Tu n'es pas beau, tu n'es pas riche
A: La Griserie: Ah! quel diner que je viens de faire!
A: O mon cher amant (La lettre de la Périchole , two
keys)
A: Ah! que les hommes sont bétes!
La vie parisienne A: Autrefois plus d'un amant
Pomme d'Api A: J'en prendrai un, deux, trois
17l Arias

Corrpospn OpBne Trrre (RrcrrerrvB eNo/oR Anra)

Madame l'Archiduc Couplets de I'Alphabet
Le Voyage dans la lune A: Monde charmant
La Fille du Tambourin Major Couplets du Petit Frangais

Poulenc, F. La Voix humaine No. 55: Je sais bien que je n'ai plus aucune chance
á attendre (to No. 58)
No. 6l: Hier soir, j'ai voulu prendre un comprimé
pour dormir (to No. 65)
Les Mamelles de Tirésias A: Non! monsieur mon mari I

Ravel, M. L'heure espagnole Scene XVII: Oh! le pitoyable aventure

Saint-Saéns, C. Etienne Marcel A: O beaux réves évanouis (Cpp)
172 A CererocuE oF FnsNcs Vocu RBppnrornB

Soprano (Dramatic or "Spinto")

Flexibility where indicated.

Colrposr,n Opr,ne Trrue (Rncrrerrve eNo/on Anre)

Berlioz, H. La Damnation de Faust D'amour I'ardente flamme
Béatrice et Bénédict A: Je vais le voir (flex)
[R: Dieu, que viens-je d'entendre
tAt Il rn'"n souvient (flex)
Les Troyens d Carthage Monologue de Didon: Ah, je vais mourir
[R: Nous avons vu finir
[A: Chers Tyriens (flex/at)

Catel, C. S. Sémiramis [R: J'avais cru que ces dieux

tA, Soo. l'effort d'unbras invisible

Charpentier, G. Louise A: Depuis le jour (Cpp)

Debussy, C. L' Enfant prodigue kantata) IR: L'année en vain chasse I'année
|.e: e chaque saison ramenée (Cpp)

Dukas, P. Ariane et Barbe bleue A: O mes clairs diamants

Gluck, C. von Alceste A: Divinités du Styx

fR: Dérobez-moi vos pleurs
tA: Ah, malgré moi, mon faible coeur
fR: Oü suis-je?
tA: Non, ce n'est point un sacrifice!
Iphigénie en Taurdie A: O malheureuse Iphigénie
A: O toi, qui prolongeas mes jours
lR: Non, cet affreux devoir
[e' f" t'implore et je tremble
Orphée et Euridice [R: Qu'entends-je?
tA' Arnour, viens rendre á mon áme (flex)
A: J'ai perdu mon Euridice

Godard, B. Le Tasse A: Il m'est doux de revoir la place

Gounod, C. Faust [R: Je voudrais bien savoir

[e: tl était
un roi de Thulé
R: O Dieu! que de bijoux!
17 3 Arias

Col,rposgR Opp,na Tru-B (Recrrerrvp eNo/on Arua)

A: Ah!je ris dp me voir si belle en ce miroir
(flex/at) (ariá lighter than role)
A: Il ne revient pas (omitted in performance)
La Reine de Saba IR, Me voilá seule
le' Plus grand dans son obscurité
Philémon et Baur:is A: Ahl sije redevenais bellel
Pol¡eucte A: A Vesta portez vos offrandes

Grétry, A. Anacré on chez Polvcrote A: Eprise d'un feu téméraire (flex) (Cpp)

Halévy, J. La Juive A: ll va venir r " Falcon" )

Lalo, E. Le Roi d'Ys fR' De tous cótés j'aperEois dans la plaine

[e: Lorsque je t'ai vu soudain
A: Vainement j'ai parlé de 1'absence

Massé, V. Paul et Virginie Scéne et air: Bruits lointains-Quelle sérénité

dans les cieux (flex)

-\fassenet, J. Hérodiade A: Charmes des jours passés

fR: Celui dont la parole efface toutes peines
[A: Il est doux. il est bon
La lVayorraise IR: Une dot! et comhien?
IR: Rtr, mariez donc son coeur
Le Cid IR: De cet affreux combat
lA: Pleurez. pleurez. mes yeux
A: Plus de tourments et plus de peine (Cpp)
Marie Magdeleine f R: Aux pieds de l'innocent
lA: o bien-aimé
Esclarmonde A: Comme il tient ma pensée
f R: D'une longue torpeur
[A: Hélas! en retrouvant la vie et la pensée
Sapho fR: Ces gens queje connais
lA: Pendant un an je fus ta femme
Thais /R: Ahlje suis seule
IA: Dis-moi que je suis belle
(«: Je ne veux rien garder
[A: L'amour est une vertu rare
Le Roi de Lahore f R: J'ai fui la chambre nuptiale
[A: De ma douleur que la mort me délivre (sus,
dram/at)
174 A Cer¡rocuE oF Fn¡'NcH Voc¡.r Repr,nroIRp

Meyerbeer, G. L'Africaine A: D'ici je vois la mer immense

A: Sur mes gendux, fils du soleil (flex)
Les Huguenots [n: Je suis seule chez moi
IA: Parmi les pleurs ("Falcon")
Robert le diable A: Robert, toi que j'aime (flex/at)
A: En vain j'espére-Idole de ma vie (flex,
"Falcon")

Offenbach, J. Les Contes d'Hoffmann A: Elle a fui, la tourterelle

La Belle Héléne A: Invocation á Vénus
A: Amours divins, ardentes flammes!
A: Couplets: Lá! vrai, je ne suis pas coupable
La Grande- D u c'h e s s e tl e Gé rt.t l.s t e i tt A: Dites-lui (sus)
[R: Vous aimez le danger
lA, Ah, que j'aime les militaires (DFR)
Poulenc, F. La Voír hutttrtitte No. 55: Je sais bien que je n'ai plus aucune
chance á attendre (to No. 58)
No. 61: Hier soir, j'ai voulu prendre un
comprimé pour dormir (to No. 65)

Rameau, J.-P. Castor et Pollux A: Tristes appréts, Pales flambeaux

Híppohte et Arície lR. Quelle plainte en ces lieux m'appelle?
IA: Qu'ai-je fait! Quels remords!
 Sqmno
ftd other demands where indicated.

Oprne Trrrs (Rncrrerrve eNo/on Anle)

Si j'étais roi A: De vos nobles ai'eux (flex, high)

Fra Diavolo A: Voyez sur cette roche

fR: Ne craignez rien
[A: Quel bonheur, je respire (flex, WR)
Le Domino noir A: Aragonaise: La belle Inés (flex/at)

Iphigénie A: Seuls confidents de mes peines secrétes

(sus)

. - _..i. C. Pelléas et Mélisande Oh cette pierre est lourde (Act IV)

- :e¡ti. G. La fille du Régiment A: Pour une femme de mon nom (flex)

C. Faust A: Faites-lui mes aveux

Mireille A: Le jour se léve (sus, Cpp)
Roméo ef Juliette
fR: Depuis hier je cherche en vain
[A: que fais-tu, blanche tourterelle (sus, flex,
hieh)

]v, J Amadis A: Amour, que veux-tu de moi? (sus/at)

ssé, V. Galathée A: Sa couleur est blonde (flex)
A: Air de la lyre: Fleur parfumée (flex, high)
Paul et Virginie A: Dans le bois á ma voix tout s'éveille (flex)
A: Parmi les lianes (Chanson du tigre) (flex,
dram/at)

'"lassenet. J. Don Quichotte A: Alza!-Quand la femme a vingt ans (flex)

Don César de Bazan A: Dors, ami
Le Roi de Lahore fR: Repose, 6 belle amoureuse
[A: Ferme tes yeux, 6 belle maitresse (sus, flex,
dram/at)

''le¡"erbeer, G. Les Huguenots [R: Nobles seigneurs, salut!

[Ar Ur" dame noble et sage (sus, flex, available
in two keys: B flat and G major)
A: Non, non, vous n'avez jamais, je gage (flex,
interpolated)
 176 A CerelocuE oF FnnNcn Vocel RBpBnrortn

Trrrr, (RecIre.rrvB eNo/on Arue)

CouposBR Opr,n,q.

Offenbach, J. Le Périchole A: Tu n'es Pas beau, tu n'es Pas riche

A: O mon cher amát (Lettre de la Périchole)
A: Ah! que les hommes sont bétes!
A: La Gáserie: Ah! quel diner que je viens de
faire
La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein A: Dites-lui (sus)
lR: Vous aimez le danger
tn, en, que j'aime les militaires (flex, DFR)
Chanson de Fortunio A: Chanson de Fortunio

Saint-Saéns, C. Ascanio A: La Chanson de Scozzone

A: Connais-tu le PaYs (sus)

Thomas, A. Mignttn
IR: Me voilá seule
ler ¡" connais un pauvre enfant (flex, high)
lR: C'est moi, j'ai tout brisé
te, U" voici dans son boudoir IDFR)

L.
177 Arias

Mezzo-soprano
Dramatic and other demands where indicated.

CouposBn OpEne Trrrr, (Rncrrerrvr ervo/on Anla)

Berlioz, H. Les Troyens a Carthctge Monologue de Didon: Ah, je vais mourir (sus, dram)
Béatrice et Bénédict IR: Dieu. que viens-je d'entendre?
[A: Il rn'en souvient 1flex, sust
Lo Damnafion de Faust A: D'amour l'ardente flamme (sus. dram/at)

Bizet, G. Carmen A: Habanera: L'amour est un oiseau rebelle (sus)

A: Séguedille: Prés des remparts de Séville (DFR/at)
fR: Carreau! Pique!
Ie, nn vain pour éviter (sus)
Diamileh A: Sans doute l'heure est prochaine (sus)

Charpentier, M. A. Médée fn' Que d'horreurs!

[e' Ne les épargnons pas (sus, dram/at)
A: Quel prix de mon amour (sus)

Debussy, C. Pellécts et Mélisande Voici ce qu'il écrit á son frére Pelléas (Act I)

Gluck, C. von Alce ste A: Divinités du Styx (dram)

Orphée et Euriclice fR: Qu'entends-je?
lA: Amour, viens rendre á mon áme (flexl
A: J'ai perdu mon Euridice (sus)

Gounod, C. Cinq-Mars f R: Par quel trouble profond

I A: Nuit resplendissante (sus)
Sapho fR: Oü suis-je?
IA: O ma lyre immortelle (sus. dramratl
Ode: Héro sur la tour-Viens dans les bras (WR.
flex, dram)

Halévy, J. Charles VI A: Humble fille des champs (sus, dramrat. low)

La Reine de Chypre A: Le gondolier dans sa pauvre nacelle (scena: sus.
dram/at)

Hérold, L. Le Pré aux clercs A: Jours de mon enfance (flex, high)

Lalo, E. Le Roi d'Ys f R: De tous cótés j'aperEois dans la plaine

I A: Lorsque je t'ai vu soudain (dram.)
178 A Car¡rocuE oF FnsNcn Vocer RBpr,nrorRB

Coprposr,n Opr,ne Tr:rrB (RrcrrerrvB aN»/on Ante)

Massé, V. Paul et Virginie A: Parmi les lianes,(Chanson du tigre) (dram/at)

Massenet, J. Don César de Bazan A: Dors, ami (sus, flex/at)

Hérodiade A: Hérode! ne me refuse pas!
JR: Celui dont la parole efface toutes peines
[A: Il est doux, il est bon (dram, high/a0
Le Roi de Lahore fR: Repose, 6 belle amoureuse
[A: Ferme tes yeux, 6 belle maitresse (sus, dram/at,
flex, WR)
Don Quichotte A: Alza!-Quand la femme a vingt ans (flex)
Le Cid f R: De cet affreux combat
[A: Pleurez, pleurez, mes yeux (original version)
Werther A: Werther, qui m'aurait dit la place (sus, dram/at)
A: Va! laisse couler mes latmes (sus, dram/at)

Meyerbeer, G. Le Prophite A: Ah! mon fils (sus, dram/at)

A: Donnez, donnez (dram/at)
[R: Qui je suis? moi!
[e' ¡e suis hélas, la pauvre femme (flex, dram/at)
[R: O Prétres du Baal
le' O toi qui m'abandonne (flex, dram, WR)
Offenbach, J. La Grande-Duchesse de A: Dites-lui (sus)
Gérolstein fR: Vous aimez le danger
[A: Ah, que j'aime les militaires (DFR)
La Belle Héléne A: Invocation á Vénus
A: Amours divins, ardentes flammes!
A: Couplets: Lá, vrai, je ne suis pas coupable

Rameau, J.-P. Dardanus A: O jour affreux! (sus)

Hippolyte et Aricie A: O disgráce cruelle (sus)

Saint-Saéns, C. Samson et Dalila JR: Samson. recherchant ma présence

[A: Amour, viens aider á ma flamme (sus, dram,
flex/at)
A: Mon coeur s'ouvre á ta voix (sus, dram/at)
A: Printemps qui commence (sus)

Tchaikovsky, P. Pique-Dame (Queen of A: O, jeunes filles! (originally in Russian; sus

Spades) dram/at)
Jeanne d'Arc [R: Oui, Dieu le veut
[A: Adieu, foréts (originally in Russian; sus, dram)
179 Arias

CouposBn OpBne Trrr-B (Recrreuvn eNo/on AnIe)

Thomas, A. Hamlet f R: toi partir!

[A: Dans son regard plus sombre (sus, flex, dram/at)
Mignon A: Connais-tu le pays (sus)
Psyché lR: Salut! Divinités des chamPs
Ie, O nymphes! en ces lieux (sus, flex/at)
[R: Non, ne la suivons Pas
tA: Sommeil, ami des dieux (sus)
180 A C.q.relocuE oF Fnn¡¡cH Vocel ReppnroInB

Light Lyric Tenor

Flexibility, range, and other demands where indicated.

Corr,rposBn TIrlr, (Recrrerrvs eNo/on Anra)

Auber, D. La Muette de Portici A: Du pauvre seul ami fldéle (high, Cpp)
Fra Diavolo A: Agnés la jouvencelle (flex)
f R: ¡'ai revu nos amis
[e: ¡e vois marcher sous nos banniéres (scene;
flex)
A: Pour toujours, disait-elle (sus)

Berlioz, H. Les Troyens á Carthage Air du poéte:

IR: A I'ordre de la Reine, j'obéis
IR: O blonde Cérés (flex)
Bécttríce et Bénédict A: Ah!je vais l'aimer (dram/at)

Bizet, G. Lcs Péc hcur\ Ll¿ perles I R: A cette voix

ta: ¡e crois entendre encore (high, sus, Cpp)
Djamílelt A: J'aime I'amour

Boieldieu, A. La dante blanche A: Viens, gentille dame (flex, WR)

Bourgeois, L. T. Les Amours déguisés A: Paisible nuit, suspendez votre cours (sus,
flex/at)

Bouvard et Bertin Cassandre A: Ruisseau dont le bruit charmant (sus, flexlat)

Campra, A. Les Festes vénifiennes A: Naissez, brillantes fleurs (flex)

Donizetti, G. La Fille du Régíment A: Ah, mes amis, quel jour de féte! (Pour mon
áme, quel destin) (high)
A: Pour me rapprocher de Marie (sus)

Gluck, C. von Armide A: Plus j'observe ces lieux (sus)

A: Ah! si la liberté doit m'étre ravie
Godard, B. Jocelyn lR: Cachés dans cet asile
te, On. ne t'éveille pas encor (Cpp, sus)

Gounod, C. Polyeucte A: Nymphes attentives (sus, Cpp)

Sapho A: O jours heureux (sus, high)
Roméo et Juliette fR: L'amour!l'amour!
[A: Ah, léve-toi, soleil (sus, Cpp)
181 Arias

Coupos¡,n Opr,ne Tru-B (RecIreuv¡, eN»ion AnIe)

Grétry, A. Le Jugement de Midas A: Certain coucou, certain hibou (flex)
Zémire et Azor A: Du moment qu'on aime (flex)

Hérold, L. Le Pré aux clercs A: O ma tendre amie (flex, high)

Lalo, E. Le Roi d'Ys A: Vainement, ma bien-aimée (CPP)

Leclair, J. Scylla et Glaucus A: Chantez, chantez l'amour (flex, Cpp)

Lully, J.-B. Armide A: Plus j'observe ces lieux (sus)

Le Sicilien ,A.: Pauvres amants, quelle erreur (sus, flex)
Amadis A: Bois épais

Massenet, J. Manon f R: Instant charmant

I'A: Pn fermant les yeux (sus, Cpp)
Le Jongleur cle \-otre'Dttttte f R: Mais, renoncer
l.A: Liberté! c'est elle

Meyerbeer, G. Les Huguertctts IR: Ahl quel spectacle enchanteur

I.t, plu. blanche que la blanche hermine (viola
d'amore obbligato, flex, CPP)
Robert le diuble A: Oü me cacher-O ma mére, ombre si tendre
(interpolated; sus, flex, CPP)

Offenbach, J. Les Conf e .s d'HoJfmann A: Jour et nuit je me mets en quatre

La tie parisiertne A: En adossant mon uniforme
Madatne l'Archiduc A: Un p'tit bonhomme' pas plus haut qu'9a
La Fille tlu Tantbour Major A: Tout en tirant mon aiguille
La Belle Héléne A: Et tout d'abord, 6 vile multitude (high)
A: Le Jugement de Páris: Au mont Ida (high,
"bouffe")

Rameau, J.-P. Les F?tes cl'Hébé A: Tu veux avoir la préférence (sus, flex)
Castor et Pollux A: Séjour de 1'éternelle paix (sus)

Rousseau, J.-J. Le Devin tlu village A: Je vais revoir ma charmante maitresse (sus.
flex, Cpp)

Thomas, A. Mignon A: Elle ne croyait pas (sus)

A: Adieu, Mignon! (sus)
A: Oui, je veux par le monde (flex/at)

Note: See also Tenor.

182 A CererocuE oF FnBNcn Vocer RBpBnrornp

Tenor
Dramatic demands, flexibility, and range where indicated.

CouposBn OpBna Trrr-B (RrcrrauvB eNo/on Anll)

Adam, A. Si j'étais roi A: Elle est princesse (sus, dram/at)
A: J'ignore son nom (sus)
Le Postillon de Longjumeau A: Mes amis, écoutez I'histoire (sus)
A.: Romance du Postillon (flex, high)

Auber, D. La Muette de Portic'i A: O toi, jeune victime (flex, dram/at, high)

[R: Spectacle affreux
ter O Dieu, toi qui m'as destiné-Du pauvre seul
ami fidéle (flex, sus, high)

Berlioz, H. La Damnation de Faust A: Merci, doux crépuscule (Cpp)

A: Nature immense (sus)
Béatrice et Bénédict A: Ah!je vais I'aimer (flex/at)
Les Tro¡'ens á Carthage fR: Inutiles regrets
[e: enl quand viendra l'instant (dram, WR)
Bizet, G. Carmen A: La fleur que tu m'avais jetée (Cpp, sus, dram/at)
La jolie fille de Perth A: A la voix d'un amant fidéle (sus, flexlat)
Les P7cheurs de perles fR: A cette voix
[A: Je crois entendre en core (sus, Cpp, high)
Boieldieu, A. La dame blanche A: Viens, gentille dame (flex)

Bruneau, A. L'Attoque du moulin fR: Le jour tombe

tAr Adieu, forét profonde (sus)
Bourgeois, L. T. Les amours déguisés A: Paisible nuit, suspendez votre cours (sus, flex)

Charpentier, G. Louise A: Dans la cité lointaine (sus)

Julien A: Hélas! ai-je compris?

Cherubini, M. L. Les Abencérages A: Suspendez á ces murs (sus)

Dalayrac, N. Gulistan A: Cent esclaves ornaient ce superbe festin (sus,

flex, high)

Debussy, C. L' Enfant pro digue (c antata) f R: Ces airs joyeux

[a: O temps á jamais effacé (sus)
 183 Arias

CouposBn OpeRA Tru-B (RpcrreuvB eNo/on Arue)

Pelléas et Mélisande On dirait que t4 voix a passé sur la mer au
printemps (WR, Cpp, sus, "baryton-martin")

Delibes, L. Lakmé A: Fantaisie aux divins mensonges (sus, Cpp)

A: Lakmé, dans la forét profonde (sus)

Donizetti, G. La Fille du Régiment A: Pour me rapprocher de Marie

A: Ah, mes amis, quel jour de fbte-
Pour mon áme, quel destin (high)

Gluck, C. von Alceste fR: O moment délicieux

IA: Bannis la cruauté et les alarmes (flex)
lR: Vivre sans toi
[A: Alceste, au nom des dieux (sus)
Armide A: Plus j'observe ces lieux (sus)
[R: Enfin il est dans ma puissance
[A, nh, quelle cruauté de lui ravir le jour
A: Ah, si la liberté me doit étre ravie
A: Le perfide Renaud me fuit (dram/at)
Iphigénie en Tauride [R: Quel langage accablant
te: Unis dés la plus tendre enfance (sus)

Godard, B. Jocelyn fR: Cachés dans cet asile

[e: errl ne t'éveille pas encor (Cpp, sus)

Gounod, C. Faust [R: Quel trouble inconnu me pénétre

[A: Salut! demeure chaste et pure (sus, high)
La Reine de Seba [R: Faiblesse de la race humaine
tA: Inspirez-moi (sus, dram/at)
A: Comme la naissante aurore (usually cut)
Mireille A: Anges du paradis (sus)
Polyeucte A: Source délicieuse (sus, dram/at)
Roméo et Juliette IR: L'amour! l'amour!
tA: Ah, léve-toi, soleil (sus, CPP)

Halévy, J. La Juive A: Rachel, quand du Seigneur (dramiat)

Hérold, L. Le Pré aux clercs A: O ma tendre amie (flex)

'i
Massenet, J. Hérodiade IR: Ne pouvant réprimer
[A: Adieu donc, vains objets (sus, dram/at)
Le Cid f R: Ah! tout est bien fini
le: O souverain, 6 juge, 6 pére (sus, dram/at)
184 A C¡rerocuE oF FnBNcn Voc¡.1 R¡,pBnrornr,

CorrposBn Opr,ne TrrlB (RecrrauvB eNo/on AnIe)

Manon IR: Instant charmant
IA: gn fermant les yeuxlsus. Cpp)
f R: le suis seul enfin
Ie: etlt fiyez, douce image (dram/at)
Werther IR: Un autre est son époux
IA: J'aurais sur ma poitrine (sus)
f R: Oui! ce qu'elle m'ordonne
IA: Lorsque I'enfant revient d'un voyage (sus)
f R: Je ne sais si
je veille
Ia: O nature pleine de gráce (sus)
IR: Traduire! Ah! bien souvent mon réve
IA: Pourquoi me réveiller (sus, dram/at)
Le Roi de Lahore f R: Voix qui me remplissez
LA: O Sita bien-aimée! (sus, dram/at)

Méhul, E. Jos eph fn' Vainement, Pharaon

le: Champs paternels

Messager, A Fortunio A: Chanson de Fortunio (sus)

A: La maison grise (sus)

Meyerbeer, G. L'Afric'uirte f R: Pays merveilleux

Ie: O paradis (sus, dram/at)
Les Huguettttts IR: Aux armes, mes amis!
l.l: A la lueur de leurs torches funébres (sus, dram
at. high)
f n: ,ttrl quel spectacle enchanteur
l.q, Plus blanche que la blanche hermine (flex,
Cpp, viola d'amore obbligato)
Robert le tliable A: Oü me cacher-ó ma mére, ombre si tendre
(sus, flex, Cpp, interpolated)

Offenbach, J. Les Contes d'Hoffman IR: Allonsl courage et confiance

Ie, en, vivre deux
Saint-Saéns, C. Samson et Dulila Entrée de Samson: L'as-tu donc oublié? (Act I;
sus, dram/at)

Thomas, A. Hamlet A: Pour mon pays (sus)

Mignon A: Elle ne croyait pas (sus)
A: Adieu, Mignon! (sus)
A: Oui, je veux par le monde (flex/at)
185 Arias

Baritone
See indication for dramatic demands, range, and flexibility.

Couposnn Opnna Trrlr, (Reclrarrvs aNo/on Ante)

-\dam, A. Si j'étais roi A: Dans le sommeil (sus, high)

Berlioz, H. La Damnation de FausÍ A: Une puce gentille

A: Voici des roses (sus)

Bizet, G. Les Pécheurs de perles lR: L'orage s'est calmé

Ie: o Nadir, tendre ami (sus)
Carmen A: Votre toast (dram/at)

Campra, A. Les Festes vénitiennes A: Rassurez votre coeur timide (flex)

Charpentier, G. Louise fR: Les pauvres gens

ln: Voir naitre un enfant (sus. dram/at)
Dauvergne, A. Les Troqueurs [R: J'ai cru faire un bon coup
It: Sa nonchalance serait mon tourment (flex/at)

Debussy, C. L' Enfant prodi gue (cantata) A: Faites silence! Ecoutez tous! (sus)
Pellécts et Mélisande Une grande innocence (Act IV; dram/at)
On dirait que ta voix a passé sur la mer au
printemps (WR, Cpp, sus, "baryton-martin")

Gluck, C. von Alceste f R: Ru pouvoir de la mort

IA: C'est en vain, que l'enfer
f R: Tes destins sont remplis
Ie: o¿ja la mort s'appréte

Gounod, C. Foust A: Avant de quitter ces lieux (sus. OK. E flat;

often transposed to D flat)
Mireille A: Si les filles d'Arles (flex/at)
Rontéo et Juliette A: Mab, la reine des mensonges (flexiat)

Grétry, A. Anacréon chez Polycrate A: O fortune ennemie! (sus)

Richard Coeur de Lion A: O Richard, 6 mon roi (flex, dram)

Lully, J.-B. Atnadis A: Dans un piége fatal (sus)

f86 A C¡.relocuE oF FnsNcn Vocer RBpenrone

Couposr,n OpBne TrrrE (RecrrerrvB eNo/on Anle)

Massenet, J. Hérodiade [R: eUe a fui le palais
[A: Salomé, Salorñé (sus, dram/at)
[R: Ce breuvage pourrait me donner un tel réve
[A: Vision fugitive (sus, dram/at)
Le Jongleur de Notre Dame A: Légende de la Sauge (sus)
Manon A: Regardez-moi bien dans les yeux (sus/at, Cpp)
A: Choisir! Et pourquoi! (flex, sus/at)
Werther IR: Elle m'aime, elle pense á moi
IA: Quelle priére de reconnaissance (sus)
A: Au bonheur dont mon áme est pleine (sus)
Le Roí de Lahore [R: Aux troupes du Sultan
[A: Promesse de mon avenir (sus, high)
Thai's A: En vain j'ai flagellé ma chair (sus, dram/at)
A: Voilá donc la terrible cité (dram, sus)

Méhul, E. S trqt o nic e

[R: Sur le sort de son fils
[A: O des amants déité tutélaire (sus)

Meyerbeer, G. L'Africaine A: Adamastor, roi des vagues profondes (flex)

A: Fille des rois (sus, dram/at)
Le Pardon de Ploérntel A: Ah, mon remords te venge (sus, dram/at, high)

Mondonville, J. Titon et I'Aurore A: Sur les páles humains (flex)

Montéclair, M. de Jephté A: Quel funeste appareil! (sus)

Offenbach, J. Les Contes d'Hoffntann A: Scintille, diamant (sus, WR)

La Grande Duchesse de A: Piff, paff, pouff
Gérolstein
La Périchole A: Couplets de I'Incognito
A: Conduisez-le, bons courtisans (Ronde des
Maris Ré)

Philidor, A. D. Ernelinde A: Né dans un camp parmi les armes (sus, flex/at)

Rameau, J.-P. Castor et Pollux A: Nature, amour, qui partagez mon coeur (sus)
Ravel, M. L'Enfant et les Sortiléges A: Ding, ding, ding, ding
Rossini, G. Le Siége de Corinthe fR: Qu'á ma voix la victoire s'arréte
[A: La gloire et la fortune (flex)
Guillaume Tell A: Sois immobile (sus)
187 Arias

Corrposr,n Opr,na TrrrB (RpcrrerrvB eNo/on Anre)

Saint-Saéns, C. Henri VIII A: Qui donc co¡nmande quand il aime (dram, sus)

Thomas, A. Hamlet A: Comme une pále fleur (sus, dram/at)

A: O vin, dissipe ma tristesse (flelat)
fR: J'ai pu frapper le misérable
|rA: Etre ou ne pas étre (dram)
188 A Cerelocup oF FnBNcu Vocu RBpBnrornB

Bass-baritone (BB)
Bass (B§)

For both voices unless specified BB or BS; flexibility and other demands
where indicated.

Corr.rposn,n Opsn¡. TIrlr, (RncrrarrvB aNo/on Anre)

Adam, A. Le Chalet IR: Arrétons-nous ici
lA: Vallons de l'Helvétie (flex: BB)

Berlioz, H. La Domncttion de Fau.;t A: Certain rat, dans une cuisine (flex/at; BS)
A: Une puce gentille (flex/at; BB)
A: Voici des roses (sus; BB)

Bizet, G. La jolie fille de Perrlt A: Quand la flamme de l'amour (flex/at)

David, F. Herculanunt A: Je crois au Dieu (sus)

Debussy, C. Pellécts et MéliscLnde Je n'en dis rien (Act I)

Attention, il faut parler á voix basse, maintenant (Act V i

Delibes, L. Lakmé .\: l-akmé, ton doux regard se voile (sus)

Gluck, C. von Iphigénie en Tcturide f R; Le ciel. par d'éclatants miracles

i¡: »e noirs pressentiments (dram; BB)
Alceste I R: Tes de.tins ronr remplis !

I {: De¡a la mort s'appréte thigh: BB)

Gounod, C. Faust A: Vous qui faites l'endormie (flex, WR)

A: Le veau d'or (flex/at, DFR)
A: O nuit. étends sur eux ton ombre (sus)
A: Souviens-toi du passé
La Reine de Saba f R: Oui. depuis quatre
jours
[A: Sous les pieds d'une femme (sus, flex; BS; available in
two keys, E and F major)
Philémon et Baucis A: Au bruit des lourds marteaux d'airain (flex)
A: Que les songes heureux (sus, low; BS)
Roméo et Juliette A: Buvez donc ce breuvage-C'est lá qu'aprés un jour
(sus; BS)
A: Allons!jeunes gens!

Halévy, J. La Juive A: Si la rigueur (sus; BS)

A: Vous qui du Dieu vivant (sus; BS)
 189 Arias

CouposBn OpBRa Trrle (Rnctreuvn aNo/on AnIa)

Lully, J.-B. Alceste A: ll faut passer tót ou tard (WR)
Thésée A: Que rien ne trouble ici Vénus (sus, flex)

Massenet, J. Hérctdiade A: Astres étincellants (dram, sus)

Manon JR: Les grands mots que voilá
lA: Epouse quelque brave fille tsus. hight
Don Quichotte A: Seigneur, regois mon áme (BB)

Meyerbeer, G. Le Pardon de Plo'ármel f R: En chasse!

IR: Le.jour est levé 1flext
Le Prophite A: Aussi nombreux que les étoiles (flex)
Robert le diable JR: Voici donc les déhris
IA: Nonnes qui reposez (dram)
A: Je t'ai trompé (dram/at)
Les Huguenots A: Piff, paff (flex)
L'Etoile du Nord f R: Pour [uir son souvenir
lR: Ojours heureux (flex)

Offenbach, J. Les Contes d'Hoffinunn A: Scintille. diamant (transposed key, D major BB)

Rameau, J.-P. Hippoly'te et Aricíe iR: Ahl qu'on daigne du moins

l.l: Puisque Pluton est inflexible
Dortlctnus IR: Voici les tristes lieux
lA: Nfonst.e affreux (sus; BS)
JR: Tout l'arenir est présent á mes yeux
lA: Suspends ta brillante carriére, soleil (BS)

Rossini, G. Robert Bruc'e IR: Le roi sommeille

Ie: Que ton áme si noble tfler: BBI
Thomas, A. Hamlet fR: C'est en vain
[a: le t'implore. ó mon frére (sus, dram/at, WR; BS)
Mignon A: De son coeur j'ai calmé la fiévre
Le Cald A: Air du Tambourin Major (flex)

lr
Appcndir

Index of Vowel-letters, Single und in Combinution

This index to vowel-letters is intended to serve as a handy reference to
the fifteen French vowel-sounds and their spellings. as well as a con-
venient means of review.

Before making use of this index a few things should be explained:

1. All the vowel-letters, including y, are listed either singly (a, e, i, o,
u , y) or in combination (e.g. , ai, au, aie , eau , etc.) in alphabetical order.
2. Then, according to whether the letter or letters are in initial, medial,
or final positions, their phonetic equivalents (with exceptions and refer-
ences) are provided, followed by examples.
3. The phonetic equivalents given indicate all the possibilities that a
single vowel-letter or vowel-letter combination can have. But, a single
listed vowel-letter is followed by phonetic equivalents only for that letter
when alone in the syllable and not when in combination with any other
vowel-letter and not when appearing next to any other vowel-letter in
the same word, whether in the same syllable or not. Also, any combina-
tion must be looked up under its first letter. Thus, combination aie will
appear inihe a section, but not in the i or e sections.
4. All single letters and combinations are listed first without and then
with accent-marks and/or diaeresis, in the order',', ^, ". Thus,
á will be listed after a, ai after ai, and so on.
5. Occasionally, a combination will appear here that was not mentioned

191

r
192 Appr,Norx

previously in the study of the individual vowel-sounds because it was

simply too rare or unimportant to merit the space until now.
6. Foreign words are frequently used as examples or are referred tq
as exceptions to remind the English-speaking singer of the French proJ
nunciation of non-French words that do appear in the French repertoire
and which must appropriately receive their French pronunciation.
7. When more than one phonetic equivalent is given side-by-side
([j a), tj o]), this is usually due to the varying effect of the following con-
sonant- or vowel-letter in the word(s) in question, or to some other sim-
ilar factor already treated in previous sections. In this case, a reference
is usually given; if not, reference may be made directly to the section on
the vowel-sounds in question.
8. Finally, as concerns the three semi-consonant sounds, musical no-
tation could transform any [q] into [y], any [w] into [u] and any Ul into
[i] if the letter or letters that normally result in a semi-consonant sound
receive a separate note.

Lrrrnn(s) Wnr,N Is Exarrpr-ps

initial or medial Ia] il a. 4pril, balcon, chat
except:
o when nasal (remember the rule) [ó] an. dans
o when followed by silent. final -s [o] pas, lilas
except in verb endings Ia] tu as, tu irqs
o in some isolated words. and in Iq] sqble, sabre, paille, cadgvre, 4h,
some suffixes (see lol) espace, damner, j¿dis, hélas !, las I

o followed by -.s.r- Io] passer, classe

except in a few words Ia] bassin, chasser
fina1 Ia] gala, aqoka
a in any position Ia] á, la-bas, voilá
a in any position Io] áme, cháteau
except in verb endings -ámes, or Ia] nous donnimes
-átes
aa in a few words [aa] Galaad
áa in a few words Io] Gráal
193 Index of Vowel-letters, Single and in Combination

Le rrrn(s) Wsr,N Is Exa¡,rples

initial Ie] ¿egypan
medial Ie] M¿r:terlinck
except
o when nasal tñl Caen
ae in any position [a el aérien
',á in any position Azael
[ae]
except when nasal tdl Saint-Saéns

al in any position t-t

tc I aile, fuire, mais, mai
except:
o in words beginning/ais- (from Ice] nous falsons, faisable
faire)
o when nasal tél pain, faim
¡ when followed by -ll- or final -/ lail tail travailler, bét4il
(check dictionary for [a] or Io]) tqjl paille, caille
o when final in verb forms Ie] j'ai, je serai
o in some isolated words and lel g¿1, quai, aigu, aiguille
derivatives
¡ in vocalic harmonization follori ed Ire )J aimer, laisser
bv [e]
o in a few' w,ords when folloued br [re)l plaisir, maison
[z] plus a closed vowel-sound

a1 medial before J1- to jl báiller

al in any position Ie] maitre

except in vocalic harmonization l(e)l enchainer

ai in any position la il harr, naif

aia rare [aj a] nalade

aie medial or final Ie] baie, tu essaies. ils étaient

aie medial Iaj 6l palc.n
or
[aje] p¿¡§nne
final tuil die !

alo medial (rare) [aj c] baionnette

aieu initial or medial [aj a] aíeul

(see pp. 41,44) or
lajól aieux
194 AppeNorx

LrrrEn(s) Wnr,N Is Exalrprss

initial or medial [a c] aorte
(see pp. 35,36) or
[a oJ ch49_s
or
lal paonner
except when nasal tol paon
or
[a ó1 pharaon
final la ol cacao
aou, aoü in any position [u] sqoql, aoút
except in name Raoul , c'uoutchouc la ul Raoul, caoutchouc
aoua in word ac¡uat. [a ll'a] aoual
au in any position Io] au, automne, cause, faux
except
o when folloued br r Ic] aurore, laurier
o in two isolated uords [¡] mggvais(e), P¿gl
ay medial Ie i] pays, paysage
final Ie] Souzay: l,t _.-

aya in all positions Icja] il peyg

LtJ ql ayant, payant

except in bayadire. ntú\'u [aj a] bayadére, maya
aye initial [te rj e] ?t9z
medial [(e )j e] pqyer
or
lcl ty payes
or
[aje] Lafayette
flnal [e] Laye
except abba-t. e [e i] abbaye
ayie medial [eije] vous essayiez
ayio initial [aj o] Ayio Costanndino
medial teijól nous payions

tej ól ayons
lej ó1, [ej c] rayon, rayonner
or
[aj c] mayonnaise
r95 Index of Vowel-letters, Single and in Combination

Lrrron(s) Wrl¡N Is ExettpLBs

initial and followed by a silent Ie] 9t, th
consonant
except when nasal tol 9n
initial and followed by a double Ic] elle, qrrer
consonant
except:
o in eff-, ess- t(e)l effet, gssor
o in enn-, emm- tól ennui, gmmener
o in ennemi Ic] ennemi
initial and followed by two or more Ie] gst, Qscale, gsclave
different consonants
except when nasal IÓ] entier, gmporter
medial and followed by single, final Ie] ces, ngt
fer, avec
followed by silent -d, Ie] pied, je m'assigds, aller, nez, clqf
-ds, -r, -2, and in isolated words
final in svllable and not followed b)¡ [ce] dgvoir, rgvgnir, envelopper,
doublc conscnant prgmier
exc.ept in vocaiic harmonization t(d)l chqveux, ngveu
when followed by [d]
medial and followed bv double con- Ie] bglle, faiblgsse
sonant
except:
in dess- [(e)] dgssein
or
Ice] dgssus, dgssous
in ress- [a] ressembler, rgssentir
or
[e] rgssuciter
medial and followed by two or more [e] rester, offgrts
different consonants
ex(:ept:
o in desc'- t(e)l dgscendre
o when nasal tól sentir, rgmplir
f,na! (t.. pp. a6-53) [ce] lc, lunc
or
Ie]
except in some foreign words and Ie] Dg Profundis, AvQ
expressions (usually Latin)
in any position Ie] été, périr
or
t(e)l dussé-je
f 96 APPE,NoIx

Lrrron(s) Wsr,N Is ExRn¿pr-r,s

e in any position, usually medial Ie] mére, fiivre

e in any position to I vous Qtes, fenQtre
Lrt
é medial Ie] Noé1, Azaél
final in -gaá silent ([y]) cigué
éa medial [e a] béatitude
except when nasal [e ó] géant
eai medial or final [e] geai(s)

eau in any position Io] eau, beallté

eau medial or final [e o] fléau(x)
ee medial le e1 déesse
final (sec pp. 46-53) [e], [e cr] re§
or
[e a]
ei medial Ie] rgine, abeille
exce pl :
o when nasal tól plein
o in final -ei1 soleil couchant
(sec p. 65)
iril
()l'
Leil so.nmeftter.rel
el medial or final ie il obéir. obéi
eí medial [retij Leilah
eo medial, after g [¡] Georges
tól mangggns
in word Deo [(e)ol Deo
eo initial or medial [e c] éolien
except when nasal [e ó] Léon
final [e o] Théo
eo medial, after g Io] gg0l"
eoi medial [wa] s'asseoir

eu initial or medial, and followed by a lól deux, eux, bleus, émeut

silent consonant
except:
o in any form of the verb avoir tyl il eut, j'ai eu
o when nasal tél á jeun
L97 Index of Vowel-letters, Single and in Combination

Lerrnn(s) Wur,N Is Exeurpr-Es

initial or medial, and followed by a [a] fleur, jeune

pronounced consonant
except:
. in any form ofthe verb avoir and tvl ils eurent, gageure
in gageure
o when followed by final -se, -ser, ló) curieuse, creuser, meute, neutre
-te , lre
o in vocalic harmonization. fol- t(ó)l heureux
lowed bv tÉl
final tól fsq, jeu

eu initial and in form of verb ayoir tvl il eüt

medial, in word jeitner 16l jeüner

eue medial or final in form of verb avoir tvl celles qu'il a eues

eui medial and in -euil or in -euill-, toil deuil

(see p. 65) or
i<rjl ce deu.iGst sans raison
fe¡¡llle
ey in any position [e] Leguerngy
eya medial (usuall1, nasal) tejól s'asseyant
eyai medial [eje] je m'asseyais
eyaie medial [e¡e] ils s'asseyaient
eye medial [(e)j e] grasseyer
final [e i] que je m'asseye
eyie medial leijel vous vous asseyiez
eyio medial teijól nous nous assgylons
eyo medial tejól nous nous asseyons
i in any position til il, lilas, cd
excepf when nasal tel vin, limpide
I in any position til ile, ci-git
ia, ia initial tj ol iambique
medial (see p. 65) tj al piano, diamant
except when preceded by a conso- [i a] criard
nant plus / or r, or in forms of rire or
ti dl oubliant, riant
final [i a] Lia
tl

198 AppBN»rx

Lprrpn(s) Wnr,N ExarrpLss

in name Messiaen tj ol Mgssiaen
in words of Latin origin Iie] Mísericorrtiae
rar medial (see p. 65) tj el niais, liaison
final tj el j'étudiai
except when preceded by a conso- [i e] je priai
nant pius / or r [ie] je priais
1e medial and stressed tj el hjer, p§re
.Í¿ or
tj el pieds, premier
except:
¡ when nasal tj él bign, il vient
o when preceded by a consonant [i e] p@r, oublier
plus / or r or
tiál client
or
til tu cries, j'oublierai
o in final -ient of third person plural til ils rient
verb forms
final tit cérémonle
(see pp. 46-53) or
[ia] [ia] vie
le medial or final (see p. 65t tj el p!§té, amitié
except when preceded b1 a conso- [i e] j'ai prié
nant plus / or r
le medial (see p. 65) tj el bQre
except when preceded b-v a conso- [ie] priére
nant plus / or r
leu medial, and followed by a silent con- uo) pieux, délicieux
sonant or -se (see p.65) or
ti Él curieuse, DesGrlggx
except when followed by pro- tj al rieur
nounced consonant other than or
final -s¿ or -/e [i a] prl§gr
f,nal ri Él dieu
üo medial tij ól nous étudllsns
io initial (see p.65) tj cl ionisation
except when nasal tj ól ion
medial (see p. 65) tj cl fioriture, violon
 I

199 Index of Vowel-letters, Single and in Combination

Lerren(s) Wu¡,N Is ExeupLr,s

except:
o when nasal tj ól émotion
o when preceded by consonant plus [i c1 triolet
/orr
r when both of the above apply ti ól oublions
final [i o] trio
iou initial tj ul iouler
o initial and medial Ic] or, robe
except:
o when nasal tól hqn
o when followed by lz) Io] rose, supposer
o when followed by -tion Io] émotion
o in some exceptional words [o] odeur, qbus, fosse, gnome, grosse,
vgmir
final Io] Roméq
in any position [o] Qter, hQtel
except in hópital [¡] h§pital
oa initial Io a] oasis
medial [¡l toast
final [¡ a] boa
(E initial or medial [e] Oedipe, Phoebe
except in tttoelle [u a] moelle
oé medial or final [¡ e] goémon, hisse hoé
oé medial l¡ el poéte

oé medial [rl'o] poéle

oe medial Ic c] Noél
i-
tri initial or medial, followed by -/ or -11- lcl rril
tcejl c-..illc'.

initial or medial [a] oegvre, (b)trul

except when followed by silent final t0l nmud. des (b)cxuls
consonant(s)
o1 in any position (see [aJ, [oJ) Iw a] oiseau, devoir
(sce pp. 32-34) or
[wo] croire, bois
except when nasal [w el point
ole in any position, usually final [w a] oie, j'emploie
except in name Boieltlieu [cj e] Boieldieu
200 Appr,Norx

Lerrnn(s) Wne.N Is Ex¿,tr.tpr-es

medial [u] boom

[c c] zodogie
final [c o] zoo
ou in any position Iu] ou, rqgcouler
oü in any position [u] oü
oü medial Iu] goüter
oua initial or medial (sce p. 66) [wa] ouate, gouache
except when preceded by a conso- [u a] cloua(nt)
nant plus / or r or
[u o]

oual initial [w e] ouais!

medial (see p. 66) [w e] je louais
except when preceded by a conso- [u e] il clquait
nant plus / or r
final [u e] je jouai

oue initial or medial (see p, óó) [we] ouest, mQUstte

or
[w e] [u e] lor¡er
except when preceded bv a conso- [u e] [u e] clqggr, preussse
nant plus / or r
flnal [u (c)J joue
oue medial [u e] [w e] jsÉs
final [u e] [ti'e] naué

oui in any position (see p. 66) [u i] oui, jqu:ir

except:
o when nasal [u'e] bédsuin
o when preceded by a consonant [u i] ébloulr
plus / or r
o when followed by -ll-, -l tujl greneuille, Ansuilh
oule final (see p. 66) lw i (ce)l enfauig

oy in archaic spellings [wa] Roy, foy

oya initial or medial lwaj al rey4, veyage
except when nasal lw aj ól oyant
final [w aj a] il employa
or
[cj a] Goya
 2Ol Index of Vowel-letters, Single and in Combination

Le rlr' n(s) WseN Is Exavlpr-Bs

oye initial or medial [w aj e] fgy..
or
[wa(re)] tu employes
except when nasal [w aj é] moyen
oyou in any position [w aj u] voyou
urü in any position tyl gnique, tu, dü, murmurer
except:
o when nasal tél un, parfum
o in final -utn or -¿zá in words of Ic] maximgm, rhum, minimum, album
or
foreign origin [al club, pub
o in w<¡rds of Latin origin [u] De Profgndis
ua medial (see p. 64) [q a] suave
except:
o when nasal tq ól Juan-1es-Pins
o after g or q Ial quatorze
or
[w a] aquarelle, quatuor, alguazil
or
[ó] quand
final Ir'a] il tua
ual medial (scc- p. 61) [q c] sanctuaire
e-\cept after g or r7 lel laquais
final (sec p. 64) [-v e] [qe] je tuai
ue medial (see p 64) [q e] muet
or
Iy e] remu9r
except:
¡ when preceded by a consonant [y e] cruel
plus / or r, or in final -uer or
[y e] tuer
o after g or q (see [c], [e] [e]) Ic] querelle, séguedille
or
Ie] guerre, guelle
or
[e] narsuer. remarouer
or
o when nasal tdl séquence
ue final (after g and q) lyl cigué
 202 AppBNorx

Lorran(s) WHSN Is ExeupLps

ue flnal (see p.64)
ly el, [rl e] tué :j
ue medial (see p. 64)
[q e] désuéte
uee final (see p.64)
[y e], [q e] nuée
uei medial, before -//-. -/ tail cueillir
(see p. 65) i
[e'] orgueil
ueu medial (see [ce], [ol) [q ce] sueur
(see p. 64)
or
lttó) luxueux
except when preceded by g or 17 (see LÓ) gueux
tel, tdl) or
Ia] langgeut
ueue medial or final, after q tól queue
ui medial or final (see p. 6.1) tq il lulre, lui
except:
o when nasal jsn
tq él
o after g or q
til guide, qui
or
Ié] gqlndé, séquin
ule medial [i e] banqqQr
final (see p. ó4)
tq i(ce)l pluie
or
[qia]
uo medial and after q [¡] quotidien
medial in a few other r,,ords [q ¡] quatuor
final Il'o] dqq
uoi medial or final and after ¿r Iw a] quoique, qr¡o;l
uya medial or final ij a] fuyard, il essuya
[q
exc ept:
o when nasal tqijol fuyant
o when preceded by a consonant tvi ól bruyant
plus / or r
uyau final [qijo] tuyau
uye medial or final tqijel appgyer
tqi(a)l elles s'essuyent
v in any position til il y a, lyre, dandy
except when nasal t6l thym, syncope

L--
203 Index of Vowel-letters, Single and in Combination

Lerrrn(s) Wnr,N Is Exeupr-Bs

ya in any position Lial ryk
except when nasal Liél !¿nkee
yaou in word yaourt [j auJ yaourt
ye in a few foreign words tj el yen

yeu initial or medial and followed by u61 yeux, balayzuse

silent consonant or -,§e
except when followed by pro- tj al balayeur
nounced consonant
yo in word yodler tj cl ysdler
you in any position tj ul yougoslave
 204 AppBNorx

Index of Consonant-letters, Single and in Combination

Below, the consonants are listed alphabetically, singly, doubly and in
combination. under each is described its phonetic function in initial,
medial and final positions, when single and when double, as well as its
phonetic function in combination with other consonant-letters. All com-
binations are listed alphabetically under the first consonant-letter of the
combination. Thus, to find out how letter c sounds in combination sc, it
would be necessary to look under sc, and not under c. Under each single
letter listing, however, significant phonetic changes are given when this
letter is in combination with another consonant-letter.

LErrrn(s) Wnp,N Is ExeN¿pres

b, bb in any position tbl bas, abbesse, club, sno!, pub
except:
o before s and / tpl alsent, oltenir
o when final after nasal vow'el silent plomp
bl- initial or medial tb ll bleu, tableau
-bn- medial [b n] abnégation
br- initial or medial [b r] brun, alriter
bs final silent Douffi, plompl
or
tbl clu!g
-bst- medial Lpstj abstenir, obstacle
-bstr- medial [pstr] abstrait
-bt- medial [p t] o!¡qenir
-bv- medial [b v] obvenir
c initial or medial, and followed by a, o, tkl carré, corps, lacune, nacré
¿/, or consonant (see ci)
except in two words tel segond, anegdote
initial or medial, and followed by e,i, Is] gegi, fagile, gygne
ory
final in most worcis. often mono- tkl lag, seg, chiq, parc, bouq, beq, clig!,
syllabic clac!, truc, saE, flic, traffic, fric,
décliq, traq
and in most proper nouns tkl Poulenq, Bernac, Duparq
in a few less common words silent escrof , por$,, taba(,, caoutchoup,
estomaf

\-
 'tli _..:,.
i- - -l _.) )11;ri-.e lie I'r. Single and in Comf,i¡,r¡;on

Lrrrsn(s) Wneu
Is ExetrpLrs
initial or medial, before a,
o. or u lsl ga, regu, fransais, fagon
medial and before o, o, u,
or tkl zrccablé, accord, accuser,
consonant accroc
medial and before e i
-cch-
ancl
[ks] accent, accident
medial
-cd-
tkl Bacchus
medial
tg di anecdote
ch in any position, in most words
ln any position, in most words ll] chose, cacher, biche, chercher
of lkl choeur. ci;ist, cb;i;,;;;;r""
Italian or Greek origin
-ck final
tkl bifteck
cl initial or medial
Ik Il clirnat, débácle
cn- medial
lk nl acné
-cq- medial
tkl grecque, acquérir
CS medial
final [k sl tocsin
tkl IagÉ
or
silent escropF
ct medial, in most riortls
medial and folloue d by, [k t] octobre
_iott
final Ik s] action
[k t1 correct, direct
silent respel/, aspeÉ|, insrinll, exa(.|
or
-ctr- exact [k tl
medial
[kt11 octroyer
-cts final
tk tl direct/
0r
silent aspellg
d, dd initial or medial
final, usually tdl {ent, i{ée, addition
except in some rare words, silent pied, froid.
mostly ldl sud, I-e Cid, Alfre{, yniold
foreign in origin
and in liaison
-dj-
itl quand il pleut
medial
td sl adjoint
-dm- medial
[d m] admettre
dr initial or medial
ld rl droit, foudroyer
-
206 AppBNorx

Lerrnn(s) WHeN Is Exen¿pl¡,s

-ds final silent piedí, jg m'assiedl
-dv- medial [d v] advenir
f, ff initial or medial tfl f,n, affection
f,nal, usually tfl oeuf, neuf, if, soif, chef
except:
o in some isolated words s ilent clef, cerÍ, nerf, chef-d'oeuvre
o in liaison Iv] neu{rheures
-ffl- medial tf ll affliger
-ffr- medial If r] effroyable
fl initial or medial tf ll fluide, gifler
fr initial or medial If r] front, balafre
-fs flnal tfl ifl, veufÉ
or
silent clefC, oeufl, boeufl
initial or medial. and before d . o , u, or tel égal, agonie, bague, gros
consonant
initial or medial and before e. i. or y tsl gémir, agile, Egyptienne
final, usualll, silent sang, long
excepf:
o in a few words of foreign origin tel grog
o in liaison ikl sangimPur
o0- medial and before e
5b [g s] suggestion
medial and before a consonant tel aggraver
gh initial or medial tel ghetto, Enghien
-gn- medial. usually t¡l digne, agneau
except in a few words [g n] staqnant, gnome, Magnificat,
itrcognito
gr initial and medial [g r] grand, aigre
-gs final, in a few words tel grogf, legd
except after a nasal vowel silent long$, poingg
-gt final silent doigl
h in any position silent l'llomme, [éros, Ispa]lan, Athanaél
except in some words of strong thl [air, la honte, la [aine, Na[andove
emotion or in some foreign words
in any position t:l je, rejouir, Taj Mahal
 -'l

207 Index of Consonant-letters, Single and in Combination

Lrrrnn(s) WneN Is Ex¡.trrpr¡,s

k in any position tkl kqfmesse, agoka, yak

I initial or medial ttl la, culte, lilas
final tll ciet il, parasot sol, bal, tilleul, fatal
avril cit fiI("thread"), Péril, vol
poil, col, viril
except in a few words silent gentil, sourcil, cu/, saoul, persil,'
grésil fusil
in final -ail, -eil, or -euil:
o when followed by vowel-sound Lil Ce deuGst .

o when followed consonant-sound or soleil couchant, corail léger

ir
final in line
-lb- medial tl bl album, albátre

lc medial and final tlkl algool, talg

td medial and final tl dl baldaquin, Yniokl

-lg- medial il el algue

-lh- medial rjl gentGmme

-lm- medial üml Saint-El¡te

-ll- medial. after an1' letter but i til hallier, belle

medial. and after i rjl fllle, abeille, travai![er, feuillage
excepf:
o in initial i//- tl 1l illusion
o in isolated words t1l ville, mille, tranquille, pupille, Séville

-ln- medial In] kelnerine

or
In] Meaulues

-lp- medial [1p] Alp.".

-lpt- medial tl rl sct¡lÉter

-ls- medial [1 s] malsain

or
llz) Alsace
final u bal/, tilleu§, fi§ ("thread[s]")
or
silent gentil/, pou/l
or
Is] fi,[s ("son," "sons")

-1r- medial il tl ¿ltier, bas4[tique

 AppBNorx

Lerren(s) WuBN Exeupr-r,s

-lz- medial llz) Alzat.

m initial or medial. and before a vowel- Im] mais, admettre, humilité, áme
letter
final silent fair/r, parfufl,thyql
except in a few words of foreign origin Im] minimum, maximum, rhum,
Jérusalem, album, boom

mb medial tbl nir¡{be, bafrbou

-mb(s) final silent plor¡ib(l)
-ml- medial [ml] Hamlet
-mm- medial Im] femme, somme
except in inifial intm- [m m] immense
-mn- medial [n.l autor¡lue, dar/Uer
e.Y(cpt in a fer¡ words [mn] omnipotent, amnistie, omnibus,
amnésie

-mp- medial tpl irTiportant, er¡lpétrer

-mp(s) final silent char¡lp, terfif,É

-mpr- medial [p r] er¡lprunter

-mpt- medial Itl pror¡1/¡e

()r
Lp tl sor¡iptueux

-mpts final silent prorfp/($)

lnS medial Isl Sarf,¡on

final silent parfurfll
n initial or medial and before a vowel- In] nuage, fiqesse, reine, unique, sanot,
letter iuutile
final silent bofl, pleiyt, u/
except in some words of foreign origin In] Beethoven, amen, Carmen,
Schwertlein
medial:
before e, i, y Is] scieyige, NadEy
before 0)o,u tkl elcore
-nc(s) final silent ba/9(É)
-nch- medial rJl haflche

!.-
 2ü9 Index of Consonant-letters, Single and in Combination

Lr, rrln(s) Wsr,N Is Ex¿,l.tpr-r,s

-ncl- medial ll
tk idctiné
-ncr- medial [k r] e{cre
-nct- medial [k r] sa{ctuaire
-nct(s) flnal silent instilrglg
-nd- medial bafldeau
tdl
-nd(s) final silent fodd$)
-ndr- medial [d r] foúdriére
-nf- medial tfl elfin
-ng- medial and followed by a 1 o, or u tel la¡tgue, friyigant, talgo
medial and followed by e, i, ory tsl maylgeons, a{gine, Lolgy
-ng(s) medial A{gqoka
[d s]
final silent pollúí
-ngt- medial lof,S[emps, vi{g[!éme
trl
-ngt(s) final silent quatre-vilfifl, quatre-viÉgf-dix
except in w'ord r.liugt before another trl vi/91-quatre
number from l1 to 19
-nh- medial boufieur, ig]lumain
In]
-nn- medial Lnl do¡ger, anuée
excepf in initial ii¡rz In n] innombrable
-nq- medial tkl cidquante
final tkl cidft
except when followed by a consonant silent cidd cents
-nr- medial Ir] e{¡ouer
-ns- medial, and foilowed by vowel-sound Is] dadqer
except in trans- lz) tra{satlantique
final silent liefl
except in some foreign names Is] Rube/q
-nst- medial Is t] ifstant
-nt- medial trl efltier, pe{[e
final silent conteyil
-ntr- medial [t r] e{!rer
-

210 APPENoTx

Lprren(s) WHBIr Is Exaupr-Bs

-nts flnal silent der$F
-nv- medial Iv] edyoi
-nx- medial [k s] adxieux
-nz- medial lzl ef,1yme
p initial or medial tpl pas, opéra
final silent loup, coup, trop, beaucou¡l
except, rarely tpl cap, julep
ph initial or medial tfl phi!, séraphin
-phr- medial [f r] Aphrodite
pl- initial [p l] plaire
pn- initial [p n] Pleu
-ppc) medial or final tpl appeler, Lipp
pr initial or medial [p r] pré, ápre
ps initial [p s] Psyché
flnal silent coup/
-ptc) medial [p t] crypte
final, and in word sept and derivatives lrl se¡1!, septiéme
q in any position Lkl que. coquet, cinq, coq
except in word cinq when follow'ed b.v silent ciÉl cents
consonant
-qs final tkl cogÉ

r initial or medial Ir] Iuse, palule

ex(epf in words of strong emolion [r r] brülel, atfteux
flnal Ir] che¡, pou¡, hiel amour, sur, mourir,
mer, fie¡, ("proud"), Esthel, hivel
Jupite¡, Auber, cuille¡, pal
except in most words of more than silent portel, familiel, métie¡, coche/
one syllable ending in -er or -ier
-rb- medial [r b] herbe
-rbr- medial [rbr] atbfe
rc medial and followed by a , o, or u [r k] balsarolle, Heqqule
medial and followed by e, i, ory [r s] parce que, Narcisse
final [rk] arc, Duparc
 I
2tt Index of Consonant-letters, Single and in Combination

Lprrnn(s) WHBr.r Is Exaupr-Bs

-rch- medial tr"ll marcher
-rcs final [r k] pary/
-rct- medial [rkt] arctique
rd medial [r d] ardent
rd(s) final lrl notd, milotd, botdl
-rf(s) final Irl nerf(l), cell(l)
-rg- medial [r g] orgue
rh-, -rrh- inrtial or medial lrl ¡hapsodie. cata¡¡i1e
-rr- medial Ir] serrer, pie¡1e
except:
o in initial irr- [r r] irrémédiable
o in words of strong emotion [r r] te¡rible, horrible
o in the present conditionai tense of [r r] je mou¡¡ais
some verb forms
-rs(, medial [r s] personne, version
final t,'] vell. premie,fÍ
or silent
rt medial [r t] pe¡Le, apporler
ñnal [r] arl, sor/
-rts final [r] forll
-rv- medial [r v] parvenir
S initial [s] silence, qanté, Salomé, §aint-Saéns
medial. and between two vowel- lz) roqe, dégert, baiger, iriqer
I etters
except in a few compound words Is] vraiqemblable, susurrer
medial. and preceded or followed by lsl jaqmin, verser
a consonant-letter
except in trans- and derivatives, and tranqatlantique, Alqace
a few words
ñnal silent lel genfi, sanf , plu/, tou$ les oÉ (pl.),
la$ (."weary"), repo¡
except: lzl sans amour
o in liaison Is] lys,Y".,q ("sense"), moeurs, our§,
'
o in several words cassis, prospectuE, angéluE, bi§,
hélag,las! ("alas"), os (sing.), jadis,
tous (pron.), filg ("son," "sons"),
sus, oasis, marg, bicepg
 212 Appr,Norx

LrrrEn(s) WsBN Is Exeprprps

o in several proper nouns lsl Thaig, Reir-n§, Rubeng, Méphi-
(see pp. 214-215\ stophéleg, Pairg (Roméo et
Juliette), Saint-Saéns, Cérés,
Adonis, Baucis, Barabbas, Brutus,
Cadmus, Crésus, Dami§, Tirci§,
Daphnig, Dukag, Eros, Juan Gris,
Herméq, Lassus, Médicis,
Mercédés, Marg, Moralé§,
De Profundis, Moréa§, Tirésias,
Vénus, Walpurgig, Ys, Zeu§

initial or medial, and before a , o, oÍ tt [s k] scandale, ggolaire, qulpter, escale

initial or medial, and before e or i lsl ggéne, conscience, asqenseur

sch in any position Ll-l schisme, haschich

except in a few words [s k] scherzo, schizophrénie
-scl- medial ls kll esglave
sh in any position t,l"l ghah, haschish
SM in any position ls ml smoking, jaglqin
SN initial [s n] snob
medial In] AUiéres
sp in any position Is p] sport, espérer
-sq- initial and medial [s k] square, puisque
.SS- medial passer, deggert
lsl
St in any podition Is t] Elyle, est ("east"), ouest, festin
except in esl (étre) silent ell ("is")
-sthm- medial Is m] asfinLs, is/Ime

t initial trl f,áche, tour

medial ttl befu, déIail, coton, ci!é
except in suffixes -tion, -tience, or Is] nalion, patience, v§nitien, hailienne
+ien(t)(ne) before Ul
medial in the following suffixes: -fie, trl so[ie, amilié, enfier, cocotiers,
-tié, -tier, -tiers, -tiére , -tiéme, cimeliére, huitiéme, chrétien,
-stion, sometimes -tien(t) queslion, entrelien(t)
final silent ef, effe/,, ral, il frru(, canol, elle du,l,
Alberl, Hamlel

\-
 Index of Consonant-letters, and in Combination

¡rrrn(s) WnrN Is ExewptBs

except in the following words (note trl bul, bruI,, dol, tacl, I'es! ("east"),
that in numeral huit is silent when l'oues(; sep!, hui!, fail ('fact"),
followed by consonant) correct, direc!, ch rl!, zul!, soi!!,
toast, Ernesl, Chris! (but not in
Jésus-Chri//;, TybalL
':. in any position ttl Lblédtr e, lutfl , go!fiique
- .:l- medial tt ll atüIéte
medial It ll Allas
.:i1- medial [t m] atmosphére
'.a
initial or [t r] trois, a[¡oce
: initial [t s] tsar
final silent je mell
e xc ept plural of word ending in [t] [r] bul/
-tt- medial trl attaquer, sottise
Y in any position Iv] yoeu, ayenue

-vr- medial [v r] ayfil

w in words of Germanic origin [v] Y[agner, Wallonie
in words o[ English origrn Iw] week-end, urhisky
except in the follou'ing Iv] Watteau, wagon
initial or medial lk sl Iylophone, extréme, fixe
except:
¡ in initial ¿.r"- foliowed bv vowel- lezl exil, example, exlaler
letter or ft
o in isolated rvords lezl Xerxés, [gz ers e s], Xavier
o in -riéme lzl sixiéme
o in soixunÍc. and second x of Is] soixante, Xerxés
Xer.ris
final silent voi¡t, fauf, deu¡t
except:
o in liaison lz1 deux amis
-. \-l
o in numbers 6 and 10 (silent when [s] dtx, stx
followed by consonant) silent di¡t livres, si/ tableaux
Out [z] in liaison) lzl dix ans. six -V
enfants
-\J
o in isolated words [k s] Béatrix, sphinx, index
214 Appr,NoIx

Lprren(s) WHeN Is Exeuplr,s

initial or medial lzl géle, A7aél
final silent ne/,, atle/.
except in some words and many lzl Boule¿, Berlioz, ga4
proper nouns or
lsl Biarritz

Pronanciation of Proper l,{ouns Pertaining to the Repertoire

Abencérages [ab ó s e r a3 (e)] Cadix [kadiks] Degas [degq]
Achéron [akeró] Cadmus [kadmys] Delibes [dalib(e)]
Adonis [adcnis] Cain [k a ó] De Profundis ld ep r cfu n di sl
Aix [e k s] Camille [kamij] Desnos [des no s] [des ncs]
Albert [alber] Caplet [kaple] Djinns [dSin]
Alsace [alzas] Carmen [karme n] Don José ld,óSozel
Amsterdam [amsterdam] Cenci [tJ e n tJ i] [s e s i] Don Juan [dóSqd]
Anouilh [anuj] Cérés [seres] Don Quichotte [d ó kiJ c t(e)]
Antéchrist [dtekrist] Ceylan [se1ó] Dufay [d yf e]
Apollinaire [a p c I i n e r(e)] Chabrier [Jabrie] Dukas [dykos] [ d y k a ]
Atlas [atlos] Charlotte [Jarlct] Dulcinée [dylsine.¡
Auric [c r i k] ' Charon [karó] Dumas [dymol
Charybde [karibd(a)J Duparc [dypark]
Bacchante [bakñt(e)] Chausson [Josó]
Bacchus [bakys] Chloé [kl¡e] Eiffel [efel]
Baucis [bosis] Christ [krist] Elisabeth [elizabet]
Baudelaire [b od (a) ler(a)] . Cinq-Mars [semars] Eluard [elqar]
Béatrix [beatriks] Charpentier [J ar p o tj e] Endor [ddcr]
Bemberg [bEberg] Claudel [klode l] Erinnyes [e ri ni]
Bensérade [b ó s erad (e)] Claudius [klodjys] Ernest [ernest]
Berlioz [berljoz] Connecticut [k c n e k t i k l, t] Eros [eros] [ercs]
Bernac [bernak] Cornouailles [kcrn w oj (a)] Escamillo [eskamijo]
Bestiaire [b e s tj er (e)] Couperin [kuper6] Eulalie [Élali]
Bilitis [bilitis] Courte Paille [kurt ep qj (a)] Eurydice [dridis(e)]
Bízet [bizel Crespin [krespé] Fauré [fcre]
Boieldieu tb cj eldj Él Crésus [krezys] Faust [fcst] [fost]
Boulanger [buldse]
Franck [f ró k]
Boulez [bulez] Damis [damis]
Frasquita [fraskita]
Bourget [b u rS c] Dancaire [dókair(a)]
Britannicus [b ri tan i k y s] Daphnis [d af n i s] Galaad [galaad]
Brummel [brymel] De Brétigny [d eb reti¡ i] García-Lorca lg ar s j al c r k al
Brutus [brytys] Debussy [dabysi] Gautier [g o tj e]
 : I 5 Pronunciation of Proper Nouns Pertaining to the Repertoire

Gérolstein [g e rc Is taj n] Lillas Pastia [1 iIospas tj a] Sainte-Menehould

[3erclsten] Louis Iwis] [sétemeneu]
Gil Blas [:ilblos] Saint-Esprit [s 6 t e s p ri]
Gounod [guno] Mab [mab] Saint-Saéns [s é sd s]
Graal [grol] Macbeth [makbe t] Salomé [salcme]
Gris (Juan) [g r i s] Maeterlinck [m ete rl é k] Samson [sds6]
Magnificat [m agn i fi k at] Sancho lsdJol
Hahn [o n] Marcellus [marselys] Shéhérazade [J e e r az a d (e)]
Hamlet [amle] Marguerite [m ar g ce r i t (e)] Shakespeare [J e k s p i r (e)]
Hébé [e b e] Médicis [medisis] Shylock [Jailck]
Hermés [ermes] Mercédés [me rsedes] Siam [sjam]
Hoffmann [¡fman] Messiaen [m (e) s j ó] Siebel [sj eb el]
Honegger [cneger] Nficaéla [mikaela] Sindbad [sindbad]
süe [y] Michel [miJe1] Sophie [s cfi]
Hugo [y g o] Michel-Ange [mi k el o3 (e)] Styx [s ti k s]
Milhaud [mij o] Syrinx [s i r6 k s]
Ibert [i b er] Mireille [m i r ej (a)]
Iphigénie [ifiSeni] Moralés [m ¡ ral e s] Thais [t ai s]
Isaac [i zaak] Moréas [mcreos] Tirésias [tirezjos]
Iseut [i z d] Mossoul [mosul] Tircis [tirsis]
Ispahan [ispaq] Tybalt [tibalt]
Israél [i srael] Offenbach [cfenbak]
Olympia [c I ó pj a] Valentin [valóté]
Jacob [gakcb] Vanlerberghe [v dl erb erg (e)]
Janequin [5an(e)ke] Paladilhe [p a 1a d ij (e)] Ventadour [vdtadur]
Janus [3anys] Pelléas [p tel l1 e o s] Vénus [venys]
Jason [gozó] Pans (city) [p a r i] Verhaeren [veraren]
Jean [s ó] Paris (Gounod) [paris] Verlaine [verlen(e)]
Jeanne d'Arc [3 o n (a) d a rk] Páris (antiq.) [p ori s] Versailles [v er s oj (e)]
Jeanneton [Son(a)tó] Périchole [p e ri k cl(e)] Vilmorin [vilmcréJ
Jéhovah [je¡va] Perth [pert] Villon [vij ó]
Jésus [3ezy] Pétrarque [p e t r ar k (a)]
Jésus-Christ [S e z y kri] Phaéton [faetóJ Wallonie [valcni]
Judas [Sydo] Phoenix [feniks] Walpurgis [v alp yr5 i s]
Juliette [g y lj e t] Pollux [pclyks] Watteau [vato]
Poulenc [p u l5 k] Werther [verter]
Klee [k I e] Prunier [prynje]
Klopstock [klcpstck]
Willis [vilis]
Psyché [psiJe]
Koechlin tk eJ 1él Pulcinella [p u I tJ i n e I I a] Xavier [gzavj e]
Xerxés [gzerses]
Lahor Iacr] Roméo [rcmeo]
Lassus Iosys] Ronsard [rósar] Yniold [injcld]
Laura Ll aur al Rofhschild [rctI ildl Ys [i sJ
Laure Icr(a)]
Lesbos [] t s b os] [.les b asJ Sabaoth [sabact] Zeus [dz/s]
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Bernac, P. The Interpretation of French,song' New York: Praeger, 1970; New
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G. Schirmer. 1970.
Ernst and Levy. Le.fratrgais. Book II. Third Edition. New York: Holt, Rinehart
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L,wert, A. The French Languuge. London: Faber and Faber, 1933.
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Grammont, M. La Pr¡tnonr:itt'tic¡tt franqaise, Traité pratiq¿¿¿. Paris: Delagrave,
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Grant. E. French Poetr,t oJ-the Nineteenth Centurl'' New York: Macmillan' 1932'
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\l¿irtinon. P. Comment on pronortce le frangais. Paris: Larousse, 1913.
\itze. W., ancl Wilkins, E. A Handbottk of French Phonetics. New York: Henry
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i)11l
Pevrollaz. N{., and Bara de Tovar, M.-L. Manuel de Phonétique et de diction
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:1-