WIRELESS & MOBILE

COMMUNICATIONS
Module Instructor
Engr. Khalid Rehman
Department of Electrical Engineering
CECOS University of I.T & Emerging
Sciences
Email: [email protected]

Lecture # 04
Engr. Khalid Rehman 1
Wireless and Mobile
Communication
Chapter 04
Mobile Radio Propagation:
Large Scale Path Loss

Engr. Khalid Rehman 2

 Lecture Outline
• Free space propagation model
• Basic propagation mechanisms
• Reflection
– Ground Reflection model
• Diffraction
– Fresnel Zones geometry
– Knife edge diffraction model
– Multiple knife edge diffraction
• Scattering
– Radar cross-section model
• Outdoor propagation models
– Okumura Model
– Hata Model Engr. Khalid Rehman 3
 Radio wave propagation
• Radio waves are
– Easy to generate
– Can travel long distances
– Can penetrate buildings
– They are both used for indoor and outdoor
communication
– They are omni-directional: can travel in all
directions
– They can be narrowly focused at high
frequencies (greater than 100MHz) using
parabolic antennas (like satellite dishes)

Engr. Khalid Rehman 4

 Radio wave propagation
– Properties of radio waves are frequency
dependent
• At low frequencies, they pass through
obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply
with distance from source
• At high frequencies, they tend to travel in
straight lines and bounce of obstacles (they
can also be absorbed by rain)
• They are subject to interference from other
radio wave sources

Engr. Khalid Rehman 5

 Radio wave propagation
• Wired channels are predictable while Radio
channels are random that make radio
channel modelling extremely difficult
• Propagation mechanism:
– Reflection, Diffraction, Scattering
• No direct LOS, (specially in urban environment)
• Radio waves travel along different paths of
varying lengths from transmitter to receiver,
reflecting from one building and another.
Engr. Khalid Rehman 6
 Radio wave propagation
• Interaction of these waves causes fading at
specific locations
• Signal strength decreases with increasing
distance from transmitter
• Propagation models focused on two
attributes for predicting signal strength
– Distance from transmitter
– Close spatial proximity at specific location

Engr. Khalid Rehman 7

Classification of propagation models
• Large scale propagation models
– Propagation models that predict the mean
signal strength for arbitrary transmitter
receiver distances are termed as large scale
propagation models
• Small scale propagation models
– Propagation models that describe the rapid
fluctuations of the received signal strength over
very short distances are called small-scale
fading models.
Engr. Khalid Rehman 8
 Classification of propagation models
-30
Received Power (dBm)

-40

-50

-60
This figure is just an illustration
to show the concept. It is not based on real
data.
-70
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
T-R Separation (meters)

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Typical Look

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 Free Space Propagation Model
• Predicts received signal strength when Transmitter
(T) and Receiver (R) have direct Line of Sight (LOS)
• Satellite & Microwave LOS radio links
• As with most large scale models, the free space model
predicts that the received power decays as a function
of T-R separation raised to some power (power law
function)

Engr. Khalid Rehman 11

 Free space propagation model
• The free space model predicts that received power
decays as a function of the T-R distance raised to
some power
• Friis free space equation
Pr(d) = (PtGtGrl2) / ((4p)2d2L)
– Pt is transmitted power
– Pr(d) is the received power at distance d from transmitter
– Gt is the transmitter antenna gain
– Gr is the receiver antenna gain
– d is T-R separation distance in meters
– L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L >= 1)
– l is wavelength in meters.

• Friis equation is valid only for

– For direct LOS only (example satellite)
– Distance d should be in the far-field of the transmitting antenna
Engr. Khalid Rehman 12
 Free space propagation model
• Antenna gain G is related to affective aperture Ae
(i.e. size of the antenna)
• G = 4pAe / l2
» Where l = c/f = 2pc / wc
» f is carrier frequency in Hertz
» wc is carrier frequency in radians per second
» c is speed of light in meters/sec

• The Friis free space equation shows that the

received power drops as the square of the T-
R distance (i.e. 20 dB/decade)

Engr. Khalid Rehman 13

 Units
• Pt and Pr must be in the same units [W, mW]
• Gt & Gr are dimensionless
• L is due to transmission line attenuation, filter &
antenna losses
• Friis shows that the received power falls off as the
square of d - 20 dB/decade

Engr. Khalid Rehman 14

 EIRP
• Isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates
power with unit gain uniformly in all directions -
reference antenna gain in wireless systems
• Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is defined
as
EIRP = PtGt
• Represents the maximum radiated power available
from the transmitter in the direction of antenna gain as
compared to an isotropic radiator

Engr. Khalid Rehman 15

 ERP
• In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used
instead to denote the max radiated power as compared
to an half-wave-dipole antenna
• Dipole antenna gain = 1.64, ERP will be 2.15dB
smaller than the EIRP for the same transmission
system
• dBi - dB gain wrt to an isotropic source
• dBd - dB gain wrt to a half wave dipole

Engr. Khalid Rehman 16

 Free space propagation model
• Path loss (represents signal attenuation) is the
difference (in dB) between the transmitted power
and the received power.

• PL(dB) = 10 log (Pt/Pr) = -10log[(GtGrl2)/(4p)2d2]

– For unity antenna gains

PL(dB) = 10 log (Pt/Pr) = - 10log[l2/(4p)2d2]

Engr. Khalid Rehman 17

 FAR FIELD
• Friis model is only valid for received powers,
Pr at distances d, which are in the far field or
Fraunhofer region.
• Far field of a transmitting antenna is defined as
the region beyond the far field distance df,
which is related to the largest linear dimension
of the antenna aperture and/or carrier
wavelength.

Engr. Khalid Rehman 18

Fraunhofer Distance

Engr. Khalid Rehman 19

Free space propagation model

Engr. Khalid Rehman 20

Example 4.1 (P-109)

Engr. Khalid Rehman 21

Example 4.2 (P-109)

Engr. Khalid Rehman 22

 Example 4.3 (P-112)
• Example: Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W
transmitter. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz, free space
propagation is assumed, Gt = 1, and Gr = 2, find the power at the
receiver. (Ignore part b and c of this example)
• Solution:
• Pr(d) = (PtGtGrl2) / ((4p)2d2L)
• Pr(d) = (50*1*2*(0.33)2) / ((4p)2(10,000)2(1))
• Pr(d) = -91.5 dBW = -61.5dBm

Engr. Khalid Rehman 23

 Basic propagation mechanisms
• The physical mechanisms that govern radio
propagation are complex and diverse, but generally
attributed to the following three factors
1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
Reflection
– Occurs when waves impinges upon an obstruction that is
much larger in size compared to the wavelength of the signal
– Example: reflections from earth and buildings
– These reflections may interfere with the original signal
constructively or destructively
Engr. Khalid Rehman 24
 Basic propagation mechanisms
Diffraction
– Occurs when the radio path between sender and receiver is
obstructed by an impenetrable body and by a surface with
sharp irregularities (edges) giving rise to secondary waves
– Secondary waves are present even behind the obstacles
– Diffraction explains how radio signals can travel urban and
rural environments without a LOS path
Scattering
– Occurs when the radio channel contains objects whose sizes are
on the order of the wavelength or less of the propagating wave
and also when the number of obstacles are quite large.
– They are produced by small objects, rough surfaces and other
irregularities on the channel
– Follows same principles with diffraction
– Causes the transmitter energy to be radiated in many directions
– Lamp posts and street signs may cause scattering
Engr. Khalid Rehman 25
Basic propagation mechanisms

transmitter R
Street
S
D
D

R: Reflection receiver
D: Diffraction Building Blocks
S: Scattering

Engr. Khalid Rehman 26

 Basic propagation mechanisms
• As a mobile moves through a coverage area, these
3 mechanisms have an impact on the
instantaneous received signal strength.
• If a mobile does have a clear LOS path to the base-
station, than diffraction and scattering WILL NOT
dominate the propagation.
• If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then
diffraction and scattering WILL dominate the
propagation.

Engr. Khalid Rehman 27

 Reflection
• When a radio wave falls on another medium
having different electrical properties, a part of it is
transmitted into it, while some energy is reflected
back.
• If the radio wave is incident on a dielectric
medium, some energy is reflected back and some
energy is transmitted.
• If the medium is a perfect conductor, all energy is
reflected back to the first medium.

Engr. Khalid Rehman 28

 Two-Ray model
Calculating height
Proportions of an inaccessible
point

measurable
quantities

H(d0 ) d0
H(d)

Not d
measurable
directly
H (d)  H(d0) d
d0
Engr. Khalid Rehman 29
 Received power Pr(d)
l2 
Pt
Pr ( d )   2
( 4p ) 2 d

Pt Pt
 d2
Pr (d )  con  2 Pr (d 0 )  con 2 con Pr (d0 )  0

d d0 Pt
• d0 must be chosen to be in the far-field region
2
d 
Pr (d )  Pr (d )  0 
0   d  d0  d f
d


 
 Pr (d0)
d0 



Pr(d) [dBm]10log 

 20log  ; 



d d0 df .
0.001W
 d  

 
Engr. Khalid Rehman 30
 Received power
Pt Pr(d)
measurabl not
e measurabl
quantities e

d0
Pr (d0 ) Pr(d
d )
BS

2

d 
Pr (d )  P (d )  0
0   d  d0 
 d  f
  d
r
 Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model
• In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between
the base station and a mobile is exception rather then rule
• Two ray ground reflection model is reasonably accurate
for predicting the large scale signal strength over distances
of several kilometers for mobile radio systems
• The two-ray ground reflection model is a useful
propagation model that is based on geometric optics and
considers both direct path and a ground reflected
propagation path between transmitter and receiver.

Engr. Khalid Rehman 32

 Two Ray
Model d’
d0 ETOT
ht
d’’
E hr
O

E0 d0 cosw t  d  E0 d0 cosw t  d '' 

' d '   C  C 
ETO (d,t)
 
  d ''    
T
c  c
 Two Ray Model
2
d 
Pr (d )  P (d0 )0  d  d0 
 d f
  d
r 
E 0 d 0 
E (d )  (d  d0  d f
θ
d d 0 – reference
) distance
 
t    (d  d0
E0 d 0 d
E θ (d , t )  cos  wC 
d    ) 
c
E TOT ( d , t )  LOS ( d ' , t )  REF ( d ' ', t
E E )

cos C   E 0 d 0
cos w C 
 t  d '' 
Ed d '
ETOT (d , t )  0 0
t     
w d'   c  d'    c  

'
 Two Ray Model
Approximations
d' (ht  hr ) 2  d 2 ; d ''  (ht  hr ) 2  d 2 ;

2h h
 d ''d 't r ;
E 0d 0 Ed E
d ht  hr 
dd
 0 0  0 0
d d' d ''
;
 2πh h 2 πh t
ETOT (d )  2 E 0 d 0 sin t r 
 for
hr λ d
 0 .3
 d  λ d  rad


4πE 0 d 0 ht r h 2t h 2r
ETOT (d ) Pr  Pt G r Gt 4
h λ d2 d

Two Ray Model Path
Loss
Pt=1;transmitted
power[W] Gt=1;trans
antenna gain
Gr=1;receiver antenna
gain
0.15 [m] wavelength
1990 mHz carrier
frequency ht=15;
hr=1.5;

Large SNR Pt
Pr (d )  con 2
d
1/d 2 1/d 4 h 2t r
Pr  PtGr Gt h 2 4
Noise d
level
Two Ray Model -The
Model of ‘Distance
Filtering’
We wish it Pt=1;transmitted
power[W] Gt=1;trans
was like antenna gain
Gr=1;receiver antenna
thisThis is gain
0.15 [m] wavelength
1990 mHz carrier
frequency ht=15;
1/d 2 how it is hr=1.5;

1/d4
 Diffraction
 Diffraction is the bending of wave fronts around obstacles.

 Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate behind

obstructions and is thus one of the factors why we receive
signals at locations where there is no line-of-sight from base
stations

 Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a

receiver moves deeper into an obstructed (shadowed) region,
the diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient signal
strength to produce a useful signal.
Diffraction
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
 Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio
waves over hills and buildings is essential in predicting the field
strength in a given service area.

 As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over a knife edge

gives good in sight into the order of magnitude diffraction loss.

 When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a building,

the attenuation caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating
the obstruction as a diffracting knife edge
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
Consider a receiver at point R located in the shadowed region. The field
strength at point R is a vector sum of the fields due to all of the
secondary Huygens sources in the plane above the knife edge.
Knife-edge Diffraction Model


Which gives
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
 Fresnel zones
 Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary
waves have a path length from the TX to the RX which are nλ/2
greater in path length than of the LOS path. The plane below
illustrates successive Fresnel zones.
Fresnel zones
 Diffraction gain
 The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge, as
compared to the free space E-field

 The electric field strength, Ed, of a knife edge diffracted wave is

given by

 Eo : is the free space field strength in the absence of both the

ground and the knife edge.
 F(v): is the complex fresnel integral.
 v: is the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter
Graphical Calculation of diffraction
attenuation
 Numerical solution
 An approximate numerical solution for
equation

 Can be found using set of equations given

below for different values of v
Gd(dB) v
0  -1
20 log(0.5-0.62v) [-1,0]
20 log(0.5 e- 0.95v) [0,1]
20 log(0.4-(0.1184-(0.38-0.1v)2)1/2) [1, 2.4]
20 log(0.225/v) > 2.4
Example
Example
 Scattering
 Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small
compared to the wavelength, and where the number of
obstacles per unit volume is large.

 Scattered waves are produced by

 rough surfaces,
 small objects,
 or by other irregularities in the channel.

 Scattering is caused by trees, lamp posts, towers, etc.

 Scattering
 Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted
by reflection/diffraction models alone

 The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex surface is

scattered in many directions and provides more energy at a
receiver
 energy that would have been absorbed is instead reflected

to the Rx.

 flat surface → EM reflection (one direction)

 rough surface → EM scattering (many directions)
 Scattering
 Rayleigh criterion: used for testing surface roughness
 A surface is considered smooth if its min to max protuberance
(bumps) h is less than critical height hc
hc = λ/8 sinΘi

 Scattering path loss factor ρs is given by

ρs =exp[-8[(π*σh *sinΘi)/ λ] 2]
Where h is surface height and σh is standard deviation of surface
height about mean surface height.

 For rough surface, the flat surface reflection coefficient is multiplied

by scattering loss factor ρs to account for diminished electric field

 Reflected E-fields for h> hc for rough surface can be calculated as

Гrough= ρsГ
Scattering
Outdoor propagation Environment
 Based on the coverage area, the Outdoor
propagation environment may be divided into
three categories
1. Propagation in Macro cells
2. Propagation in Micro cells
3. Propagation in street Micro cells
 Outdoor propagation Models
 Outdoor radio transmission takes place over
an irregular terrain.
 The terrain profile must be taken into
consideration for estimating the path loss
e.g. trees buildings and hills must be taken into
consideration
 Some common models used are
 Longley Rice Model
 Okumura Model
 Hatta model
 Okumura Model
 In 1968 Okumura did a lot of measurements and
produce a new model.
 The new model was used for signal prediction in Urban
areas.
 Okumura introduced a graphical method to predict the
median attenuation relative to free-space for a quasi-
smooth terrain
 The model consists of a set of curves developed from
measurements and is valid for a particular set of system
parameters in terms of carrier frequency, antenna height,
etc.
 Okumura Model
 First of all the model determined the free space path loss
of link.
 After the free-space path loss has been computed, the
median attenuation, as given by Okumura’s curves has to
be taken to account
 The model was designed for use in the frequency range
200 up to 1920 MHz and mostly in an urban propagation
environment.
 Okumura’s model assumes that the path loss between the
TX and RX in the terrestrial propagation environment can
be expressed as:

61
 Okumura Model
 Estimating path loss using Okumura Model

1. Determine free space loss and Amu(f ,d ), between points of interest

2. Add Amu(f ,d) and correction factors to account for terrain

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)

LF = free space propagation loss
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment

62
59
 Okumura Model
 Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of
frequencies
 Antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB or 10dB per decade
h te
G(hte) = 20 log 10m < hte < 1000m
200
h re
G(hre) = 10 log hre  3m
3
h re
G(hre) = 20 log 3m < hre <10m
3

model corrected for

h = terrain undulation height, isolated ridge height
average terrain slope and mixed land/sea parameter
Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space = Amu(f,d) (dB)

100
70 Urban Area
ht = 200m 80
60 hr = 3m
70
50 60
50
40

d(km)
Amu(f,d) (dB)

40
30 30
20
20 10
5
10 2
1

100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 f (MHz)

Engr. Khalid Rehman 65
Correction Factor GAREA
Example
 Hata Model
 Most widely used model in Radio frequency.
 Predicting the behavior of cellular communication in
built up areas.
 Applicable to the transmission inside cities.
 Suited for point to point and broadcast transmission.
 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz, Transmission height up to 200m
and link distance less than 20 Km.
Hata Model
 Hata Model
 The correction factor a(hr) for mobile antenna height hr for a small
or medium-sized city is given by:
a(hr) = (1.1 logfc − 0.7)hr − (1.56 log(fc) − 0.8) dB
 For a large city it is given by
a(hr) = 8.29[log(1.54hr)]2 − 1.10 dB 3.20[log for fc <=300 MHz
(11.75hr)]2 − 4.97 dB for fc >= 300 MHz
PCS Extension to Hata Model

71
 Thank you
“The success which we search for
whole life, calls us five times a day”

Engr. Khalid Rehman 72