Original Investigation | Health Policy

Perceptions of Factors Associated With Inclusive Work

and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations
A Qualitative Narrative Analysis
Jaya Aysola, MD, DTM&H, MPH; Frances K. Barg, PhD, MEd; Ana Bonilla Martinez, BS, CHES; Matthew Kearney, MPH; Kareha Agesa, BA;
Carlos Carmona, BA; Eve Higginbotham, SM, MD

Abstract Key Points

Question What factors matter for
IMPORTANCE Diversifying the health care workforce remains a critical goal for health care
creating inclusive clinical and learning
organizations focused on reducing disparities in care. However, it remains unknown what factors
environments within health care
create inclusive health system environments and help organizations retain a diverse workforce.
organizations?

OBJECTIVE To understand from members of the health care workforce what factors contribute to Findings This qualitative analysis
inclusive work and learning environments and what can be done to improve inclusion within health identifies 6 modifiable contributors to
care organizations. an inclusive culture and the implications
of these factors on the well-being and
DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS A qualitative narrative analysis of responses to a weekly performance of members of the health
email call for narratives within health care organizations sent June 1, 8, 15, and 22, 2016. The email care workforce.
contained an anonymous link to 2 open-ended stimulus questions asking for stories reflecting
Meaning Understanding these factors
inclusion or lack thereof within participants’ work environments as well as demographic questions.
provides health care systems a way to
The study took place at 6 hospitals, including a free-standing children’s hospital and a Veterans
improve inclusivity and facilitate the
Affairs medical center, 4 health sciences schools (Medicine, Nursing, Dental, and Social Policy and
retention of a diverse health
Practice), and outpatient facilities within a university-based health care system in Pennsylvania.
professional student body and health
There were 315 completed narratives submitted from health care system executives (n = 3), staff
care workforce to ultimately improve
(n = 113), academic faculty (n = 97), trainees or students (n = 99), and 3 who declined to specify their
care delivery.
positions.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Workplace experiences with inclusivity, implications of these + Invited Commentary
experiences, and recommendations to improve inclusion within environments. Author affiliations and article information are
listed at the end of this article.

RESULTS Of 315 narratives submitted from members of the health care system, in 188 (59.7%) the
writer self-identified as female; in 10 (3.2%), as transgender/queer; in 38 (12.1%), as non-Hispanic
black; in 152 (48.3%), as non-Christian; in 31 (9.8%), as having a language other than English as their
primary language; and in 14 (4.4%), as having a disability. Analysis of the narratives revealed 6 broad
factors that affected inclusion within health care organizations: (1) the presence of discrimination; (2)
the silent witness; (3) the interplay of hierarchy, recognition, and civility; (4) the effectiveness of
organizational leadership and mentors; (5) support for work-life balance; and (6) perceptions of
exclusion from inclusion efforts. Challenges with inclusion had negative effects on job performance
and well-being, with reports of stress, anxiety, and feelings of hopelessness. Most respondents
referenced a systemic culture that influenced their interpersonal dynamics and provided specific
strategies to improve organizational culture that focused on leadership training and expanding
collegial networks.

(continued)

Open Access. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License.

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 1/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

Abstract (continued)

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE This narrative analysis provides a taxonomy of factors that health
care organizations can use to assess inclusion within their learning and work environments as well as
strategies to improve inclusion and retain a diverse health care workforce.

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003

Introduction
Diversifying the health care workforce remains a critical goal for many health care organizations
focused on improving clinician education and reducing disparities in access and care.1-7 Populations
with equal access to care experience disparities in treatment despite well-intentioned efforts
because of the structural bias ingrained in our health care systems and health care professionals’
implicit biases.8-11 Prior evidence demonstrates that the engagement of a diverse workforce reduces
such biases and improves the cultural competencies of nonminority and minority health care
professionals alike.1,8,12 Enhancing diversity brings together distinct minds with varying perspectives,
backgrounds, and experiences, improving the way we generate medical knowledge and deliver
care.8,13-15 Prior solutions for a diverse workforce have centered on recruitment and not retention,2,16
despite evidence of greater attrition among women and minorities.17-20 Organizational efforts that
focus on creating an inclusive environment may promote greater retention of a diverse workforce,
reduce the costs related to attrition, and ultimately affect patient satisfaction and care quality.21
However, there is a paucity of research on how health care organizations create a culture that
promotes inclusive environments to achieve these goals. Prior work has conceptualized inclusion as
a set of social processes that influence an individual’s access to information, sense of belonging and
job security, and social support system.22 Health organizations lack sufficient understanding of the
operational definition of inclusion to guide their efforts to improve culture. To address this gap, we
conducted a narrative analysis to understand from members of the health care workforce what
factors affect perceptions of inclusion in a health care system.

Methods
Data Collection
To conduct this narrative analysis, we used a culturally diverse study team that included 3 student
researchers, a research coordinator, and 3 faculty members. We solicited anonymous narratives from
employees, faculty, and students about their experiences with inclusion at 6 hospitals, including a
free-standing children’s hospital and a Veterans Affairs medical center, and 4 health schools
(Medicine, Nursing, Dental, and Social Policy and Practice) within a university-based health system.
Administrators sent a weekly email call for narratives on June 1, 8, 15, and 22, 2016, to listservs
representing different constituents within and across organizations affiliated with the academic
health system. This email contained an anonymous link to an inquiry using REDCap,23 consisting of
demographic questions and 2 open-ended stimulus questions designed to evaluate participant
interpretations of inclusion:
1. Think about a time when you witnessed or participated in a situation where you or a colleague/
member of [this organization] was treated in a manner that made you/them feel either included,
valued, and welcome OR excluded, devalued, and unwelcome as a member of this [organization].
2. Please comment on your perception of the general climate at the [organization] with regards to
inclusion and respect.
Respondents were instructed to avoid use of personal identifiers and were promised
anonymity. We flagged and redacted any narratives with identifiable information. Some initiated a
narrative but did not submit (n = 1270), and others submitted incomplete narratives (n = 47). All data
from the responses were stored in REDCap with access limited to the study team. The University of

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 2/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board approved our study protocol and the recruitment language
that detailed public use of only deidentified narratives. Participants consented for public use of their
anonymized data by submitting a response, as indicated in the instructions given in the email. We
followed Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) reporting guidelines in reporting
this study.

Data Analysis
We analyzed data from all submitted narratives with completed responses to both open-ended
questions (n = 315). We evaluated the narratives with a focus on both structure and content, using
the Labov and Waletzky model for narrative analysis.24 We coded core features of each narrative
(introduction, presenting problem, complicating factors, resolution, moral or meaning,
characteristics of persons involved) to facilitate comparisons across narratives. We jointly analyzed a
subset of narratives (n = 30) to identify emerging patterns in the data and develop a codebook, with
explicit definitions and examples to ensure coding accuracy and facilitate intercoder reliability.25
Three research assistants independently coded the remaining narratives (n = 285), with each
member coding an unique sample (n = 84) as well as a shared sample (n = 33) to assess intercoder
reliability. All coding discrepancies were resolved by group consensus. We used NVivo 1126 for all data
management and coding. Our intercoder reliability using the κ coefficient27 revealed acceptable
agreement among coders (mean [range] κ, 0.93 [0.76-1.00]). We organized codes into themes and
subcoded further to characterize dimensions of themes by participant attributes and level of
interaction (individual and/or interpersonal, group, and system).

Results
Of the 315 completed narratives submitted, 3 (1.0%) were from health care system executives, 113
(35.9%) from staff, 97 (30.8%) from academic faculty, 99 (31.4%) from trainees or students, and 3
(1.0%) from participants who declined to specify their positions. Only 48 participants (15.2%)
reported being at the institution for less than 1 year, compared with 91 (28.9%) who reported being
at the institution for 1 to 5 years, 64 (20.3%) for 5 to 10 years, and 107 (34%) for more than 10 years.
More than 90% of participants provided their demographic information, and 188 (59.7%) self-
identified as female, 10 (3.2%) as transgender/queer, 38 (12.1%) as non-Hispanic black, and 152
(48.3%) as non-Christian. Also, 31 (9.8%) reported a primary language other than English and 14
(4.4%) reported having a disability (Table 1).

Narrative Structure
The submitted narratives varied in content but were similar in structure. Most responses detailed a
presenting event, reactions, and conclusions. The median (interquartile range) character count of
narratives submitted in response to stimulus question 1 was 377 (600); for question 2 it was 66 (90).
Despite an online process with assurances of anonymity, some responded that they feared sharing
their story, while others often sandwiched their negative experiences with positive statements. Both
positive and negative examples of inclusion and lack of inclusion supported the themes we present
in the following sections. We aimed to provide quotes most representative of the theme, irrespective
of valence.

Theme 1: A Taxonomy for Characterizing Inclusion

Six broad factors emerged from our analysis to form the basis of a taxonomy that characterizes
perceptions of inclusion or lack thereof within health care systems: (1) presence of discrimination; (2)
silent witness; (3) interplay among hierarchy, recognition, and civility; (4) effectiveness of leadership
and mentors; (5) support for work-life balance; and (6) perceptions of exclusion from inclusion
efforts. Regardless of the factor, the underlying thread among these 6 factors was the need to belong

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 3/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

Table 1. Respondent Characteristics

Characteristic No. (%)

Gender identity
Male 108 (34.3)
Female 188 (59.7)
Transgender/queera 10 (3.2)
Declined to answerb 9 (2.9)
Sexual orientation
Heterosexual 238 (75.6)
Lesbian/gay/homosexual/bisexualc 49 (15.6)
Decline to answer 28 (8.9)
Race/ethnicity
Non-Hispanic white 159 (50.5)
Asian 47 (14.9)
Non-Hispanic black 38 (12.1)
Otherd 28 (8.9)
Hispanic 21 (6.7)
Multi 11 (3.5)
Declined to answer 11 (3.5)
Belief system
Non-Christiane 152 (48.3)
Christian 151 (47.9)
Declined to answer 12 (3.8)
Primary language
English 275 (87.3)
Non-English 31 (9.8)
Declined to answer 9 (2.9)
Disability
Yes 14 (4.4)
No 269 (85.4)
Declined to answer 32 (10.2)
Length of time at institution, y
<1 48 (15.2)
1-5 91 (28.9)
5-10 64 (20.3)
≥10 107 (34.0)
Declined to answer 5 (1.6)
Position
Stafff 113 (35.9)
Faculty or physician 97 (30.8)
Trainee or graduate studentg 86 (27.3)
Undergraduate student 13 (4.1)
Executive 3 (1.0)
Declined to answer 3 (1.0) a
Includes “Transgender,” “Other,” and “Do not
Primary site
identify.”
School of medicine 126 (40.0) b
Declined to answer includes both refused and/or
University-affiliated hospitalsh 103 (32.7) missing responses.
Free-standing pediatric hospital 21 (6.7) c
Includes “Other.”
School of nursing 15 (4.8) d
Includes Native American/American Indian, Pacific
Dental school 13 (4.1)
Islander, and “Other (unspecified).”
Outpatient clinics and facilities 9 (2.9) e
Includes all other religious categories.
Research facilities 6 (1.9) f
Includes “Staff” and “Staff–Manager Level.”
School of social policy and practice 2 (0.6)
g
Includes “Resident/Fellow/Intern/Postdoc” and
Administrative sites 2 (0.6)
“Graduate Student.”
Other 11 (3.5) h
Includes the Veterans Affairs hospital and all other
Declined to answer 7 (2.2)
adult care hospitals.

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 4/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

and feel recognized and valued. Table 2 summarizes the key factors of an inclusive environment.
These factors are also detailed in the following paragraphs with representative quotes.

Presence of Discrimination
Reported discrimination cut across all demographic characteristics and ranged from harassment and
bullying to nepotism. Two commonly cited manifestations included microaggressions, defined as
casual degradations of any marginalized group, and unequal performance expectations, with males
and nonminority groups, often referred to as “the old white boys club,” reportedly benefiting from
this inequality. Minorities and women consistently reported being held to stricter standards and
needing to work harder to advance within the organization.

Silent Witness
Many narratives were submitted by witnesses to discrimination. Witness narratives displayed the
impact of discrimination on all parties involved, including fostering anxiety and hindering job
performance. Most bystanders disclosed worrying about their own job security and well-being. As
one stated, “Some of us whispered about how the [program leader] has done it to other people of
color. ‘But do you know how powerful s/he is at [this institution].’ We learned to be silent.”

Effectiveness of Organizational Leadership and Mentors

The integral role of leadership and mentorship in fostering discriminatory practices vs promoting
inclusion was a common theme. A common perception was that “leadership, the faculty, all hold on
to positions of power and promote and protect their own.” Many lamented the lack of mentorship,
stating, “people hire and mentor those that have similar demographics.”

Interplay of Hierarchy, Recognition, and Civility

Respondents reported differences in treatment and their perceived value based on their status
within the organization. Examples of differential treatment varied in degree, from not holding a door

Table 2. Taxonomy of Factors That Foster Inclusion

Key Factors Representative Quotes

The presence of discrimination “There are some examples but they are subtle yet apparent. One thing I have noticed is that my residents of color seem to get criticized for
things that the majority do not, even if they do the same things. There is this microscope that is applied to them (and I feel myself) which again,
is subtle, yet present.”
“[This institution] like many institutions also has a culture of nepotism and favoritism in the hiring process, which also fosters exclusion. I've had
fellow white colleagues nonchalantly mention they were ‘approached’ for promotions. As a woman of color, I've never been ‘approached.’ I’ve
had to ‘request’ and self-promote my requests for additional compensation and equal recognition.”
The silent witness “Though my [department leader] was present for the comment [an insensitive statement relating to sexuality], nothing was said to address the
comment that had been made.”
“I have witnessed a few instances where women or nonwhite students or employees were treated in a disrespectful or discriminatory manner,
and I conclude that, despite the rules and policies, it all depends on the particular individuals you end up dealing with.”
The interplay between “I sometimes feel that administration sticks to themselves and only interacts with those they view as important people, other professors, or
hierarchy, recognition, guest speakers. It meant a lot to me that a stranger of a high ranking within the school took the time to get to know someone new who was
and civility obviously a trainee, and not directly linked to them or introduced to them.”
“The only issue I have always had is the feeling of entitlement and rudeness from staff in higher positions that are absolutely rude to staff.
When staff members greet certain people they walk by as if nothing was said or just issues with general courtesy—not holding a door when
someone is walking in behind you or not holding an elevator door.”
The effectiveness of leadership “I have experienced and witnessed leadership in our division systematically do this across ethnic lines, where minorities and outsiders have to
and mentors work much harder to prove themselves and be treated with respect.”
“[A mentor] really helped me feel at home here…and gave me an assurance that it would be possible to be able to finish my first year here
successfully (which I did, with the help of him and other mentors).”
Support for work-life balance “[A male colleague] stated that I was not included as an author on a paper to which I contributed before my leave because I ‘made it clear that I
was not available to work during my [maternal] leave.’ I have never felt so devalued.”
“Now having a family of my own, I have asked for time off during my own religious holidays. This has been met with polite ignorance; an
unconscious devaluation of non–Judeo-Christian traditions. So I stopped asking.”
Perceptions of exclusion by “I’m guessing the inclusion you are speaking of has to do with LGBTQ sorts of issues. I would also imagine that [our institution] does a decent
inclusion efforts job with this. No firsthand experience.”
“My one concern about [this institution’s] climate of inclusion is that often, racial and ethnic groups on campus tend to stick together.
Unfortunately, these communities often separate themselves from the rest of campus, which creates a conflict between ‘us’ and ‘them’
sometimes.”

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 5/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

or being greeted to perceptions of inadequate compensation, evaluation, or promotion. Narratives

characterized status in many ways, including type of position (eg, faculty vs staff, tenure vs
nontenure, clinician vs clinician investigator, specialist vs generalist, postdoctoral student vs principal
investigator), level of education, gender, and seniority and/or rank.

Support for Work-Life Balance

Respondents highlighted how unwritten rules often overshadowed policies put in place to support
employees and faculty. Many reported inappropriate comments and/or devaluation of their work on
returning from maternity leave or leave for medical reasons. Others praised the supportive actions
of their supervisors as examples of an inclusive culture. As one wrote, “He went above and beyond
including dedicating space in our center for lactation as well as flexibility to work from home when
needed.”

Perceptions of Exclusion From Inclusion Efforts

There were many who reported feeling excluded specifically because they were not female or a
minority and many others who assumed asking about inclusion must apply only to select groups.
Comments ranged from narrow interpretations of inclusion, such as “I suppose, what you mean is in
terms of the race and demographics. Then, my comments would not be what your office is seeking”
to sentiments such as, “Oh to be a black female and gay! Being none of those things, not only have I
been excluded, but I have been intimately involved in processes that required excluding others who
are not those things.”

Theme 2: Inclusion Is Integral to Workforce Wellness and Engagement

Respondents noted how the lack of inclusion they experienced or witnessed affected their well-
being and caused stress, anxiety, and feelings of hopelessness, social isolation, and expendability. As
one bystander expressed about the department’s approach to an injured colleague, “It left me
worried about how I would be treated if I were disabled.” Table 3 further summarizes the effects of
noninclusive workplace culture with illustrative quotes.
Narratives often described how microaggressions and favoritism eroded participants’ sense of
value and thereby limited their engagement and contributions to the organization. As one narrator
noted, “Needless to say, I felt exceptionally excluded and no longer want to be engaged in [this

Table 3. The Effects of Organizational Culture on Workforce Wellness and Engagement

Key Theme Representative Quotes

Fear of repercussions “The culture of intimidation is such that individual physicians and staff will not report incidents for fear of reprisal and jeopardizing their careers
and the expectation that nothing will change.”
Feelings of hopelessness “Things like this survey will not help because the people in charge of them don't actually have any power to change the climate.”
Feeling expendable “Only research is valued and respected. Those of us who teach full time are seen as dispensable and not deserving in decision-making processes,
including curriculum.”
“Not only is there little interest on the part of the [principal investigators] to mentor their trainees, but they keep their interactions to a minimum
so that it does not feel as though one is contributing—often extremely long hours—to advancing knowledge and the standing of the [principal
investigator’s] lab. They may as well have robots doing the work.”
Feelings of social isolation “Given the incredibly low number of URM students [at this organization], I feel like we stick out like sore thumbs…I don’t feel welcomed
here…I felt the pressure to be ‘whiter’ and not allowed to feel comfortable in my own skin/language/culture. I do not feel included.”
“Unfortunately, this is an experience of exclusion. Over the last several years, within my research group, I have experienced routine isolation
and regular condescension, and periodically I have observed my ideas to be ignored until other individuals suggest those ideas.”
Anxiety, stress, depression “[Shares examples of hyper critical environment that involve public bashing of employees’ errors] First of all, it made me extremely fearful and
anxious in my position of making even the most minor mistake and also, what will be said of me by others when I was out of earshot. In all of my
years of working, I have never been part of an environment where everyone seems to be so fearful of making mistakes. I’m sad that has been my
experience.”
“Over time, the once bubbly assistant became (what seemed to be) clinically depressed, and so fearful of the director that she literally froze in
place whenever she passed by her cubicle. After looking for nearly a year, she secured a new position at [the University], and left the department
[…] She is currently being treated for PTSD from the experience, while in her new position.”
Lack of engagement “[After receiving two unsolicited negative comments from a male colleague and a faculty member] Feeling very attacked and degraded by the
conversation, I disengaged.”
“I feel like my career would not prosper [here] due to microaggressions leading to an inability to have my work recognized and my career
promoted appropriately. I do not intend to stay at [this institution] after my residency training for these reasons.”

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 6/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

health] system. If this is how they treat new people, then it’s not worth my time investing my energy
and ideas into the system. I felt very unwelcomed and it still bothers me to this day.”

Theme 3: Barriers to Challenging Workplace Culture

A common theme that emerged was the lack of effectiveness of formal channels, such as going to
human resources, leadership, supervisors, or an ombudsman, to address challenges with workplace
culture and interactions. As one witness noted, “The [individual] reported the bullying to HR as well
as his/her director’s immediate boss—to no avail. S/He was told s/he was being ‘too sensitive’ when
his/her boss made comments about his/her weight.”
Many attempts to confront microaggressions proved futile, as one related, “If I raise a concern
[about inappropriate racial/ethnic or sexist comments], they [colleagues] say something sarcastic like
‘sorry I’m not being [politically correct],’ or ‘humor is our way of coping with having to work with very
sick people every day.’” Many described self-accommodating behaviors, such as, “my other friends
in the office invited [the individual who makes insensitive jokes about ethnicity/race] to lunch, so I
started wearing noise canceling headphones and eating alone.” In addition, others referenced
resignation and/or transferring as the only solution to their experiences within work environments
that lacked inclusion. As one wrote, “Using the words ‘unwelcome’ and ‘devalued’ to describe how I
felt [when being pushed off a team after taking family leave] would be understatements. Fortunately,
I have found employment elsewhere and will be leaving the [institution’s name] community.”

Theme 4: Participants’ Recommendations for Fostering Inclusion

Strategies for fostering an inclusive organizational culture emerged from the narratives in the form of
direct recommendations and positive examples of inclusion. We found most respondents referenced
a systemic culture that influenced their group and interpersonal dynamics. Therefore,
recommendations centered on system-level interventions. Table 4 details the respondent-proposed
solutions described in the following sections with representative quotes.

Table 4. Recommendations From Narratives to Improve Inclusion Within Health Care Organizations

Key Theme Representative Quotes

Examine Leadership
Leadership and faculty training “I believe all professors, male and female, should receive unconscious bias training and learn how to interact with diverse students.”
“I believe mandatory education for faculty on how to accept that they have implicit biases and combat these biases…would be a huge asset to
the [institution’s name] community.”
Increase diversity “Each division or department is different. Mine has explicitly tried to recruit [underrepresented minorities] trainees and faculty. While not [an
underrepresented minority] myself, this still creates the kind of environment that I prefer and I think benefits all of us.”
“Men, and white people, need to recognize that diversity in science and higher ed is ESSENTIAL for them as well.”
Revisit Organizational Policies
Increase accountability “There are many respectful people at [this institution]. What is lacking is a robust mechanism to appropriately deal with those who are
disrespectful.”
Ensure inclusive organizational “One of the reasons for coming to work at [this institution] was the benefit program already in place for domestic partners. I also noticed I
policies didn’t have to hide who I was as a person around my coworkers or boss.”
“A few months ago, when I received an email offering free yoga and massages to female graduate students only that kind of pissed me off.
I definitely felt excluded then.”
Advocacy Campaigns
Promote bystander advocacy “Older generation attendings do not handle racist/sexist interactions appropriately when they see it—it’s not enough to not be racist/sexist
yourself—you have to stand up for other colleagues when patients or coworkers make such comments.”
Promote civility “However, there are times when exclusion or devaluation is sensed (by me or a colleague) as a result of individuals’ negative disposition and/or
heavy tongue/demeanor. It would benefit such individuals as well as those whom they may impact to take a deep breath, lighten up, and ask
themselves, ‘what can I do to make someone else’s life better/easier/more pleasant.”
Expand collegial networks “There is little recognition that perspectives and experiences different than one’s own is what we need to be stronger. This requires a cultivated
humility that is somewhat antithetical to the environment.”
“The environment is generally inclusive, but there is still a tendency of individuals to form insular cliques based on superficial similarities, like
shared language. Time will tell if this insularity fades away and opens people to interactions across group regardless of race/ethnic background.”

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 7/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

Examining Leadership
Narratives raise the importance of examining leadership, noting, for example, that the institution
“needs to educate and strengthen its chairman to change this culture.” Many proposed instituting
“mandatory education…on how to accept that they have implicit biases and combat these biases,”
starting with leaders and mentors within the organization. Many narratives discussed the importance
of diversifying leadership as this quote illustrates: “I am confident we could be a stronger, more
resilient and ultimately successful institution if there was authentic engagement of more women at
the higher levels of leadership.”

Revisit Organizational Policies

Our findings highlighted the strategic need for all health care organizations to examine existing
policies, such as family leave or observed religious holidays, to ensure they best meet the needs of a
diverse workforce. For example, one respondent noted, “Adoptive parents are not offered any kind
of paid parental leave. This makes nontraditional families like mine feel devalued and excluded.”

Advocacy Campaigns
A common theme centered on creating a culture and a structure that supports advocacy from those
who witness discrimination and/or incivility. Personal narratives routinely stressed the need for
bystanders to speak up against discriminatory behaviors rather than remaining silent. For example,
one participant stated, “it’s not enough to not be racist/sexist yourself—you have to stand up for
other colleagues when patients or coworkers make such comments.” Narratives illustrated the
success of bystanders speaking up, as in this example: “I told the patient this [patient requested a
student from certain race/ethnicity to leave the room] was unacceptable and either all of us were
going to take care of him/her or none of us. It was [his/her] choice. [Patient] apologized and moved
on.”

Expand Collegial Networks

Respondents emphasized the importance of interacting with different individuals within the
organization to gain new perspectives and foster a sense of community by expanding collegial
networks. Many respondents, irrespective of position, described the benefits of mentorship on their
confidence and ability to manage stressful situations. Some suggested “having mentors and support
groups where they discuss interpersonal issues and how to adapt” and proposed pairing employees
with mentors who may serve as advocates, role models, and resources when concerns arise.

Secondary Analyses
When comparing participants grouped by a single attribute, such as race/ethnicity, themes were
strikingly consistent across all comparisons. We found minimal differences by position, except for
executive leadership, who were underrepresented in our sample. Participants at the institution for
less than a year related more positive instances of feeling recognized and fewer events of
discrimination, as compared with those who were there longer.

Discussion
Evaluating and addressing inclusion within health care environments is a new and evolving field. The
diversity engagement survey, endorsed by the Association of American Medical Colleges, aims to
capture the aspects of institutional culture and social dynamics that sustain an inclusive culture and
support the retention of a diverse workforce.22 Our narrative analysis augments this survey’s
findings22 with a deeper understanding and taxonomy of what contributes to an inclusive culture
within health care organizations.
Our analysis identified 6 concrete contributors to an inclusive culture that guide tangible
strategies to improve inclusivity. This taxonomy is consistent with prior investigations. There is

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 8/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

evidence that discrimination manifesting most commonly as unequal expectations and

microaggressions for both women28-33 and minorities34-36 in medical fields leads to social isolation,
disengagement, and burnout not just for those who experience discrimination but for bystanders as
well.37,38 We see similar findings in other marginalized populations, including non–US-born
international medical graduates39 or health care professionals and workers with disabilities.40 Prior
studies also reveal that despite policies in place, persistent challenges in work-life balance hinder
female faculty advancement and sense of value within the organization.41-43 However, our narrative
approach was able to provide a nuanced understanding of the concept of inclusion and ways that
institutional policies fail to adequately address the problems they attempt to mitigate.

Is Inclusion a Zero-sum Game?

Inclusion is defined as the “the action or state of including or of being included within a group or
structure.” There is no mention of the act of including some at the expense of excluding others.
However, our analysis revealed that some perceived that inclusion efforts threaten gains for those
who have traditionally thrived in the organization. This sixth factor in our proposed taxonomy for
inclusion aligns with prior work. The word inclusion appeared to invoke the same perceptions of
exclusion or reverse discrimination among the majority culture seen in other efforts to promote
diversity.44-46 For health care organizations and affiliated schools to move forward with inclusion
efforts, we need ongoing research on how to design programs that affirm the benefits for all
members while providing education to dispel the notion that such efforts are zero-sum.47,48

Implications for the Health Care Workforce

We found that a lack of inclusive culture within health care organizations relates to job performance
and emotional wellness. With ongoing efforts to address the wellness of our health care
workforce,49-51 it is important to understand this interplay between an inclusive environment and the
wellness of employees, trainees, and students. How we treat each other and how we allow patients
to treat us is as important as how we treat patients. Our wellness efforts should reflect this
understanding and consider how policy adjustments and training in topics such as cultural humility
and implicit biases may assist health care employees, faculty, and students with how they interact
with each other52,53 as well as address situations where patients may make
discriminatory remarks.54,55

Understanding Inclusion
Achieving inclusion starts with effective ways of understanding what predicts it within our health
care learning and work environments. Building on surveys that assess culture within health care
institutions,22,56,57 our targeted online narrative analysis of solicited responses from employees and
students provides an effective and innovative method of conducting an audit of organizational
inclusion. The need to preserve anonymity and individual voice, avoid social desirability bias, and
ensure impunity for members of the workforce and student body makes qualitative assessments
using focus groups or semistructured interviews challenging.58-60 Our study demonstrates that
targeted online narrative analysis overcomes the challenges seen with other qualitative methods and
provides an anonymous and effective method for conducting ongoing assessments of organizational
inclusion. Ongoing assessments of inclusion allow for health care organizations to adapt to evolving
workplace cultures.

Limitations and Strengths

Our study has some limitations. Our findings from a regionally limited set of hospitals and health
science schools may not be nationally generalizable. However, prior work in other disciplines
supports our results, suggesting that our taxonomy for an inclusive organizational culture may be
widely applicable. Our email call for narratives sent out by administrators to their constituencies may

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 9/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

be subject to selection bias. We know that executive leadership as well as individuals who self-
identified as heteronormative Christian non-Hispanic white males were underrepresented in our
sample. However, this narrative analysis by design aims to intentionally capture meaningful
qualitative data from individuals within organizations motivated to share their stories.61
This study also has some notable strengths. While we reached thematic saturation with a
substantially smaller sample size, we still analyzed all completed narratives.62 This qualitative
assessment of more than 300 stories of inclusion within health care organizations captures
experiences from health care professionals, staff, administrators, students, and trainees.

Achieving Inclusion
Addressing organizational culture is an emerging science in medicine, and we can learn from other
disciplines about how to design system-level interventions to achieve inclusion.63,64 Consistent with
prior work in education, our findings support interventions that expand collegial networks to foster
a sense of belonging and community, especially among women and minorities.65 Our findings echo
the importance of effective leaders and mentors.66,67 In addition to diversifying leadership, existing
administrators, leaders, and mentors should receive implicit bias training and inclusive leadership
skills that include how to be reflective and responsive to feedback.68-70 Leaders should foster
general civility, encourage everyone to speak up against discriminatory acts, and promote policies
that advocate for all members of their organization.66 A key factor in creating and sustaining an
inclusive environment is to empower bystanders and victims alike to speak up against acts of
discrimination or incivility.71,72 A system for accountability must couple such efforts with policies that
support individuals subject to discrimination. Lastly, all health care professionals should possess a
working understanding of how unconscious biases may influence daily interactions with colleagues
and patients.73

Conclusions
Growing evidence reveals a complex and delicate interplay among how health care professionals
treat each other, the wellness and engagement of a diverse workforce, and the care provided to all
patients irrespective of their cultural background or personal characteristics.8,68 This study provides
health care organizations with a novel and effective method for assessing inclusion within health
care organizations along with a set of key factors to guide their efforts to operationalize inclusivity.
Moreover, our findings underscore the implications of inclusion on wellness and retention of the
health care workforce and student body. A focus on factors that promote retention and advancement
of a diverse workforce only enhances recruitment efforts of groups underrepresented currently in
our workforce.74 How we approach both evaluating and addressing inclusion within health care
learning and work environments will shape the complex dynamics between the diversity of our
health care workforce, the wellness of that workforce, and the care we provide to diverse patient
populations.

ARTICLE INFORMATION
Accepted for Publication: May 2, 2018
Published: August 3, 2018. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003
Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License. © 2018 Aysola J et al.
JAMA Network Open.
Corresponding Author: Jaya Aysola, MD, DTM&H, MPH, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania,
423 Guardian Dr, 1229 Blockley Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104 ([email protected]).
Author Affiliations: Office of Inclusion and Diversity, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia (Aysola, Martinez, Kearney, Agesa, Carmona, Higginbotham); Leonard Davis Institute of Health
Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Aysola, Higginbotham); Department of Medicine, Perelman

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 10/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Aysola); Department of Family Medicine and
Community Health, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Barg); Center for
Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia (Barg).
Author Contributions: Dr Aysola had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the
integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
Concept and design: Aysola, Barg, Kearney, Higginbotham.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.
Drafting of the manuscript: Aysola, Kearney, Agesa, Carmona, Higginbotham.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Aysola, Barg, Bonilla-Martinez, Kearney,
Higginbotham.
Statistical analysis: Aysola, Agesa, Carmona.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Bonilla-Martinez, Kearney.
Supervision: Aysola, Barg, Kearney, Higginbotham.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.
Additional Contributions: We would like to thank Jeffrey Berns, MD, Designated Institutional Official for Graduate
Medical Education at the University of Pennsylvania, PJ Brennan, MD, Chief Medical Officer for the University of
Pennsylvania health system, and Larry Jamieson, MD, Dean of the University of Pennsylvania Medical School, for
their support of this study. We would like to thank Corrie Fahl and Kya Hertz, from the University of Pennsylvania
Office of Inclusion and Diversity, for their administrative support. None of these individuals received compensation
for their contributions.

REFERENCES
1. Saha S, Guiton G, Wimmers PF, Wilkerson L. Student body racial and ethnic composition and diversity-related
outcomes in US medical schools. JAMA. 2008;300(10):1135-1145. doi:10.1001/jama.300.10.1135
2. Iglehart JK. Diversity dynamics—challenges to a representative U.S. medical workforce. N Engl J Med. 2014;371
(16):1471-1474. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1408647
3. Marrast LM, Zallman L, Woolhandler S, Bor DH, McCormick D. Minority physicians’ role in the care of
underserved patients: diversifying the physician workforce may be key in addressing health disparities. JAMA
Intern Med. 2014;174(2):289-291. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.12756
4. Saha S. Taking diversity seriously: the merits of increasing minority representation in medicine. JAMA Intern
Med. 2014;174(2):291-292. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.12736
5. Deville C, Hwang WT, Burgos R, Chapman CH, Both S, Thomas CR Jr. Diversity in graduate medical education in
the united states by race, ethnicity, and sex, 2012. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175(10):1706-1708. doi:10.1001/
jamainternmed.2015.4324
6. Betancourt JR, King RK. Diversity in health care: expanding our perspectives. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000;
154(9):871-872. doi:10.1001/archpedi.154.9.871
7. Obedin-Maliver J, Goldsmith ES, Stewart L, et al. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender-related content in
undergraduate medical education. JAMA. 2011;306(9):971-977. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1255
8. Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR, eds. Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health
Care. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2002.
9. Chapman EN, Kaatz A, Carnes M. Physicians and implicit bias: how doctors may unwittingly perpetuate health
care disparities. J Gen Intern Med. 2013;28(11):1504-1510. doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2441-1
10. Green AR, Carney DR, Pallin DJ, et al. Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis
decisions for black and white patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22(9):1231-1238. doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5
11. Williams DR, Rucker TD. Understanding and addressing racial disparities in health care. Health Care Financ Rev.
2000;21(4):75-90.
12. Hung R, McClendon J, Henderson A, Evans Y, Colquitt R, Saha S. Student perspectives on diversity and the
cultural climate at a U.S. medical school. Acad Med. 2007;82(2):184-192. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e31802d936a
13. Steinbrook R. Diversity in medicine. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(20):1327-1328. doi:10.1056/
NEJM199605163342011
14. Avery DR, Thomas KM. Blending content and contact: the roles of diversity curriculum and campus
heterogeneity in fostering diversity management competency. Acad Manag Learn Educ. 2004;3(4):380-396. doi:10.
5465/amle.2004.15112544

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 11/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

15. Ely RJ, Thomas DA. Cultural diversity at work: the effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes
and outcomes. Adm Sci Q. 2001;46(2):229-273. doi:10.2307/2667087
16. Cohen JJ, Gabriel BA, Terrell C. The case for diversity in the health care workforce. Health Aff (Millwood).
2002;21(5):90-102. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.21.5.90
17. Renfrow JJ, Rodriguez A, Liu A, et al. Positive trends in neurosurgery enrollment and attrition: analysis of the
2000-2009 female neurosurgery resident cohort. J Neurosurg. 2016;124(3):834-839. doi:10.3171/2015.
3.JNS142313
18. Cropsey KL, Masho SW, Shiang R, Sikka V, Kornstein SG, Hampton CL; Committee on the Status of Women and
Minorities, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Medical College of Virginia Campus. Why do
faculty leave? Reasons for attrition of women and minority faculty from a medical school: four-year results.
J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2008;17(7):1111-1118. doi:10.1089/jwh.2007.0582
19. Childs G, Jones R, Nugent KE, Cook P. Retention of African-American students in baccalaureate nursing
programs: are we doing enough? J Prof Nurs. 2004;20(2):129-133. doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.2004.03.002
20. Evans DB. Examining the influence of noncognitive variables on the intention of minority baccalaureate
nursing students to complete their program of study. J Prof Nurs. 2013;29(3):148-154. doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.
2012.04.016
21. Shore LM, Randel AE, Chung BG, Dean MA, Ehrhart KH, Singh G. Inclusion and diversity in work groups:
A review and model for future research. J Manage. 2011;37(4):1262-1289. doi:10.1177/0149206310385943
22. Person SD, Jordan CG, Allison JJ, et al. Measuring diversity and inclusion in academic medicine: the Diversity
Engagement Survey. Acad Med. 2015;90(12):1675-1683. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000921
23. Harris PA, Taylor R, Thielke R, Payne J, Gonzalez N, Conde JG. Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—a
metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support.
J Biomed Inform. 2009;42(2):377-381. doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2008.08.010
24. Elliott J. Using Narrative in Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications; 2005. doi:10.4135/9780857020246
25. Guest G, MacQueen K, Namey E. Validity and reliability (credibility and dependability) in qualitative research
and data analysis. In: Applied Thematic Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 2012:79-106. doi:10.4135/
9781483384436.n4
26. NVivo Qualitative Data Analysis Software [computer program]. Version 11. Melbourne, Australia: QSR
International Pty Ltd; 2015.
27. Viera AJ, Garrett JM. Understanding interobserver agreement: the kappa statistic. Fam Med. 2005;37(5):
360-363.
28. Carr PL, Ash AS, Friedman RH, et al. Faculty perceptions of gender discrimination and sexual harassment in
academic medicine. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132(11):889-896. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-132-11-
200006060-00007
29. Edmunds LD, Ovseiko PV, Shepperd S, et al. Why do women choose or reject careers in academic medicine? a
narrative review of empirical evidence. Lancet. 2016;388(10062):2948-2958. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736
(15)01091-0
30. Babaria P, Bernheim S, Nunez-Smith M. Gender and the pre-clinical experiences of female medical students:
a taxonomy. Med Educ. 2011;45(3):249-260. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03856.x
31. Babaria P, Abedin S, Nunez-Smith M. The effect of gender on the clinical clerkship experiences of female
medical students: results from a qualitative study. Acad Med. 2009;84(7):859-866. doi:10.1097/ACM.
0b013e3181a8130c
32. Babaria P, Abedin S, Berg D, Nunez-Smith M. “I’m too used to it”: a longitudinal qualitative study of third year
female medical students’ experiences of gendered encounters in medical education. Soc Sci Med. 2012;74(7):
1013-1020. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.043
33. Villablanca AC, Li Y, Beckett LA, Howell LP. Evaluating a medical school’s climate for women’s success:
outcomes for faculty recruitment, retention, and promotion. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2017;26(5):530-539.
doi:10.1089/jwh.2016.6018
34. Dyrbye LN, Thomas MR, Eacker A, et al. Race, ethnicity, and medical student well-being in the United States.
Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(19):2103-2109. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.19.2103
35. Nunez-Smith M, Ciarleglio MM, Sandoval-Schaefer T, et al. Institutional variation in the promotion of racial/
ethnic minority faculty at US medical schools. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(5):852-858. doi:10.2105/AJPH.
2011.300552

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 12/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

36. Peterson NB, Friedman RH, Ash AS, Franco S, Carr PL. Faculty self-reported experience with racial and ethnic
discrimination in academic medicine. J Gen Intern Med. 2004;19(3):259-265. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.
2004.20409.x
37. Truong KA, Museus SD, McGuire KM. Vicarious racism: a qualitative analysis of experiences with secondhand
racism in graduate education. Int J Qual Stud Educ. 2016;29(2):224-247. doi:10.1080/09518398.2015.1023234
38. Williams MS, Brown Burnett TJ, Carroll TK, Harris CJ. Mentoring, managing, and helping: a critical race analysis
of socialization in doctoral education [published online July 13, 2016]. J Coll Stud Retent. doi:10.1177/
1521025116657834
39. Chen PG-C, Curry LA, Bernheim SM, Berg D, Gozu A, Nunez-Smith M. Professional challenges of non–U.S.-born
international medical graduates and recommendations for support during residency training. Acad Med. 2011;86
(11):1383-1388. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e31823035e1
40. Neal-Boylan L, Hopkins A, Skeete R, Hartmann SB, Iezzoni LI, Nunez-Smith M. The career trajectories of
health care professionals practicing with permanent disabilities. Acad Med. 2012;87(2):172-178. doi:10.1097/ACM.
0b013e31823e1e1c
41. Westring AF, Speck RM, Sammel MD, et al. A culture conducive to women’s academic success: development of
a measure. Acad Med. 2012;87(11):1622-1631. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e31826dbfd1
42. Kohli AR. Capsule commentary on Pololi et al., assessing the culture of residency using the C-Change Resident
Survey: validity evidence in 34 US residency programs. J Gen Intern Med. 2017;32(7):799. doi:10.1007/s11606-
017-4056-4
43. Rochon PA, Davidoff F, Levinson W. Women in academic medicine leadership: has anything changed in 25
years? Acad Med. 2016;91(8):1053-1056. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000001281
44. Norton MI, Sommers SR. Whites see racism as a zero-sum game that they are now losing. Perspect Psychol
Sci. 2011;6(3):215-218. doi:10.1177/1745691611406922
45. Bauman CW, Trawalter S, Unzueta MM. Diverse according to whom? racial group membership and concerns
about discrimination shape diversity judgments. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2014;40(10):1354-1372. doi:10.1177/
0146167214543881
46. Plaut VC, Garnett FG, Buffardi LE, Sanchez-Burks J. “What about me?” perceptions of exclusion and whites’
reactions to multiculturalism. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2011;101(2):337-353. doi:10.1037/a0022832
47. Stevens FG, Plaut VC, Sanchez-Burks J. Unlocking the benefits of diversity. J Appl Behav Sci. 2008;44(1):
116-133. doi:10.1177/0021886308314460
48. Plaut VC. Diversity science: why and how difference makes a difference. Psychol Inq. 2010;21(2):77-99. doi:10.
1080/10478401003676501
49. Carvour ML, Ayyar BK, Chien KS, Ramirez NC, Yamamoto H. A patient-centered approach to postgraduate
trainee health and wellness: an applied review and health care delivery model. Acad Med. 2016;91(9):1205-1210.
doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000001301
50. Blackwelder R, Watson KH, Freedy JR. Physician wellness across the professional spectrum. Prim Care. 2016;
43(2):355-361. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2016.01.004
51. West CP, Dyrbye LN, Rabatin JT, et al. Intervention to promote physician well-being, job satisfaction, and
professionalism: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(4):527-533. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.
2013.14387
52. Ross HJ. Everyday Bias: Identifying and Navigating Unconscious Judgments in Our Daily Lives. Lanham, MD:
Rowman & Littlefield; 2014.
53. Fnais N, Soobiah C, Chen MH, et al. Harassment and discrimination in medical training: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. Acad Med. 2014;89(5):817-827. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000200
54. Whitgob EE, Blankenburg RL, Bogetz AL. The discriminatory patient and family: strategies to address
discrimination towards trainees. Acad Med. 2016;91(11 Association of American Medical Colleges Learn Serve
Lead: Proceedings of the 55th Annual Research in Medical Education Sessions):S64-S69. doi:10.1097/ACM.
0000000000001357
55. Paul-Emile K, Smith AK, Lo B, Fernández A. Dealing with racist patients. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(8):708-711.
doi:10.1056/NEJMp1514939
56. Pololi LH, Evans AT, Civian JT, Shea S, Brennan RT. Assessing the culture of residency using the C-Change
Resident Survey: validity evidence in 34 U.S. residency programs. J Gen Intern Med. 2017;32(7):783-789. doi:10.1007/
s11606-017-4038-6

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 13/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020

 JAMA Network Open | Health Policy Perceptions of Inclusive Work and Learning Environments in Health Care Organizations

57. Pololi LH, Krupat E, Schnell ER, Kern DE. Preparing culture change agents for academic medicine in a multi-
institutional consortium: the C-Change Learning Action Network. J Contin Educ Health Prof. 2013;33(4):244-257.
doi:10.1002/chp.21189
58. Morse JM, ed. Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications; 1994.
59. Condie J. Beyond rationalisations: improving interview data quality. Qual Res Account Manag. 2012;9(2):
168-193. doi:10.1108/11766091211240379
60. Tilley L, Woodthorpe K. Is it the end for anonymity as we know it? a critical examination of the ethical principle
of anonymity in the context of 21st century demands on the qualitative researcher. Qual Res. 2011;11(2):197-212. doi:10.
1177/1468794110394073
61. Webster L, Mertova P. Using Narrative Inquiry as a Research Method: An Introduction to Using Critical Event
Narrative Analysis in Research on Learning and Teaching. Abingdon, UK: Routledge; 2007.
62. Fugard AJB, Potts HWW. Supporting thinking on sample sizes for thematic analyses: a quantitative tool. Int J
Soc Res Methodol. 2015;18(6):669-684. doi:10.1080/13645579.2015.1005453
63. Frost S. The Inclusion Imperative: How Real Inclusion Creates Better Business and Builds Better Societies.
London, UK: Kogan Page Publishers; 2014.
64. Ainscow M, Booth T, Dyson A. Improving Schools, Developing Inclusion. Abingdon, UK: Routledge; 2006.
65. Walton GM, Cohen GL. A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of
minority students. Science. 2011;331(6023):1447-1451. doi:10.1126/science.1198364
66. Wuffli PA. Introduction: a framework for inclusive leadership. In: Inclusive Leadership. Cham: Switzerland.
Springer; 2016:1-7. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-23561-5_1
67. Pololi LH, Evans AT, Civian JT, et al. Mentoring faculty: a US national survey of its adequacy and linkage to
culture in academic health centers. J Contin Educ Health Prof. 2015;35(3):176-184. doi:10.1002/chp.21294
68. Higginbotham EJ. Inclusion as a core competence of professionalism in the twenty-first century. Pharos Alpha
Omega Alpha Honor Med Soc. 2015;78(4):6-9.
69. Laschinger HK, Wong CA, Cummings GG, Grau AL. Resonant leadership and workplace empowerment: the
value of positive organizational cultures in reducing workplace incivility. Nurs Econ. 2014;32(1):5-15.
70. Clark CM, Kenski D. Promoting civility in the OR: an ethical imperative. AORN J. 2017;105(1):60-66. doi:10.1016/
j.aorn.2016.10.019
71. Antman K. Building on #metoo to enhance the learning environment for us medical schools. JAMA. 2018;319
(17):1759-1760. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.3812
72. Chaney KE, Sanchez DT. The endurance of interpersonal confrontations as a prejudice reduction strategy. Pers
Soc Psychol Bull. 2018;44(3):418-429. doi:10.1177/0146167217741344
73. Williams A. Unconscious Bias in the Workplace–What Is It and What Role Is It Playing in the Inability of
Organisations to Drive Forward on Diversity. Sydney, Australia: Johnson Partners; 2011.
74. Price EG, Gozu A, Kern DE, et al. The role of cultural diversity climate in recruitment, promotion, and retention
of faculty in academic medicine. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20(7):565-571. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2005.0127.x

JAMA Network Open. 2018;1(4):e181003. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1003 August 3, 2018 14/14

Downloaded From: https://jamanetwork.com/ on 05/13/2020