BALC 1004

LECTURE

NOTES

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BALC1004 NOTES
AREAS OF STUDY – LEARNING OBJECTIVES

STOICHIOMETRY

 Calculate stoichiometry quantities of reactants and products given the chemical

reaction.
 Define limiting reactant, excess reactant, percent excess, degree of conversion and
yield.
 Identify the limiting and excess reactants and calculate the percent excess
reactant, the percent conversion, degree of completion and yield for a chemical
reaction with reactants present in non – stoichiometric amounts.

EQUATIONS OF STATE (EOS)

 Solve problems using the ideal gas law

 Select consistent values and units of the ideal gas law constant.
 Use the Van der Waals equation of state to predict pressure and temperature of
gases
 Calculate reduced properties of gases and use generalized compressibility chart to
obtain values of Z.
 Use equations of state to predict pressure, volume and temperature properties of
gases with particular emphasis on the compressibility factor equation of state
 Develop a spreadsheet to calculate temperature or pressure of gas using equations
of state.

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BALC1004 NOTES
MATERIAL BALANCES ON NON REACTIVE SYSTEMS

 Calculate mass fraction, mole fraction and average molecular mass for a mixture.
 Distinguish between system and surroundings, open and closed systems and
steady and unsteady states.
 Select an appropriate basis for solving mass balance problems.
 Write the general mass balance equation and apply it to solve simple problems.
 Perform mass balances on a single unit with recycle.
 Perform mass balances on multiple units (not more than two units).
 Discuss the importance of recycling unreacted material.
 Perform mass balances on a single unit with a bypass stream.

GAS – VAPOUR MIXTURES

 Differentiate between a gas and a vapour.

 Equate the partial pressure of the vapour component to its vapour pressure, when
the gas vapour mixture is saturated.
 Determine the condensation temperature (dew point) of a vapour in a gas given
the pressure and molar ratio of vapour to gas.
 Define humidity, relative humidity, molal humidity.
 Define relative saturation, molar saturation.
 Analyze and solve problem involving condensation..

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BALC1004 NOTES
  UNIT 1 - STOICHIOMETRY

In general, reactants are not mixed in stoichiometric amounts for practical reasons.

 Cheaper, more abundant reagents are used in greater amounts than are
stoichiometrically necessary in order to assure that the more expensive, less
abundant reagent is consumed completely

 Stoichiometric calculations are based on the total consumption of the limiting

reagent

LIMITING REACTANT

Two reactants, A and B, are said to be present in stoichiometric proportion if the

moles of A present
ratio: moles of B present  stoichiometric ratio obtained from the balanced

chemical equation. Consider 2 SO2  O2  2 SO3

For the reactants to be present in stoichiometric proportion there must be 2 moles

of SO2 for every mole of O2 present.

NOTE: The limiting reactant is not present in sufficient quantity to react with
all other reactants.
The reaction stops when the limiting reactant is completely consumed.
Any remaining reactants are considered “excess reactants”.
The limiting reactant determines the amount of product formed in a
reaction.
The reactant that would disappear first if a reaction proceeded to
completion is called the limiting reactant.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 For the reaction: aA+bB products

There are three common methods of determining the limiting reactant:

1. Comparing stoichiometric ratio to actual moles of reactants

Stoichiometric ratio is obtained from the balanced chemical equation, i.e.

a
S .R 
b
a
If actual ratio is less than , A is the limiting reactant.
b

a
If actual ratio is equal to , the reactants are present in exact stoichiometric
b
amounts.

a
If actual ratio is greater than , B is the limiting reactant.
b

2. Determining the amount of one reactant needed to react with a given quantity
of the second reactant.

If the amount of A needed to react with the amount of B present is less

than the amount of A present, A is the limiting reactant.

If the amount of A needed to react with the amount of B present is

greater than the amount of A present, B is the limiting reactant.

3. Determining the theoretical yield based on the amount of each reactant

present.

Balance the chemical equation for the given reaction.

Convert the reactant quantities to moles

Determine the moles of product that could be formed from the amount
of each reactant present.

The reactant that gives the smaller theoretical yield is the limiting reactant.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 YIELDS OF REACTION.

Theoretical yield – the quantity of product that is theoretical possible from a chemical
reaction for given quantities of reactants.( It is the maximum amount of product which
can be produced from a given amount of reactants.)

Actual yield – the quantity of product experimentally obtained from a chemical reaction.
The actual yield is usually smaller than the theoretical yield.

Percent yield – the ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield, multiplied by 100.

Actual Yield
Percent Yield   100
Theoretical Yield

EXCESS REACTANT.

Excess reactant is a reactant in excess of the limiting reactant. The percent excess is
based on the amount of any excess reactant above the amount required to react with the
limiting reactant according to the chemical equation:

moles in excess
Percent Excess   100
moles required to react with lim iting reac tan t

Note: Even if part of the limiting reactant actually reacts, the required and
excess quantities are based on the entire amount of the limiting reactant.

CONVERSION.

Conversion is the fraction of the feed or some material in the feed that is converted to
products. Conversion is related to the degree of completion of a reaction. It is usually
stated as a fraction or percentage of the limiting reactant converted into products.

moles reacted
Fractional conversion of a reactant, f  moles fed

Example: Consider the reaction: FeS + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2S

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BALC1004 NOTES
 If 10.2 g of HCl is added to 13.2 g of FeS, how many grams of
H2S can be formed? What is the mass of the excess reactant?

R.A.M.: Cl – 35.5, Fe – 56, H – 1, S – 32.

Solution: We have to determine which of the two reactants is the limiting reactant.

R.M.M.: HCl = 36.5, FeS = 88, H2S = 34.

No. of moles of HCl present = 10.2 / 36.5 = 0.2795

No. of moles of FeS present = 13.2 / 88 = 0.15

Stoichiometric ratio of FeS: HCl = ½ = 0.5

Actual ratio of FeS: HCl = 0.15 / 0.2795 = 0.537

Since Actual ratio of FeS: HCl  stoichiometric ratio,

HCl is the limiting reactant.

OR
For the reactants to be present in stoichiometric proportion, there
must be 0.15 moles of FeS and 0.3 moles of HCl, since we have
only 0.2795 moles of HCl, HCl is the limiting reactant.

OR
From the balanced chemical equation:

0.15 moles of FeS produce 0.15 moles of H2S

But 2 moles of HCl produce 1.0 mole of H2S

 0.2795 moles of HCl will produce ½ x 0.2795 = 0.13975 moles of H2S

Thus HCl is the limiting reactant since it gives the smaller theoretical yield of
product.

Since HCl is the limiting reactant, FeS is the reactant present in excess.

Moles of H2S formed = 0.13975

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Mass of H2S formed = 0.13975 (34) = 4.7515 g

From the balanced chemical equation:

2 moles of HCl react with 1.0 mole of FeS

 0.2795 moles of HCl will react with ½ (0.2795) = 0.13975 moles of FeS

Moles of FeS remaining = 0.15 – 0.13975 = 0.01025

Mass of FeS remaining = 0.01025 (88) = 0.902 g

WORKSHEET – STOICHIOMETRY

1. 2H2 + O2 2H2O

10 grams of H2 are reacted with 320 g of oxygen. Determine:

a) the limiting reactant
b) the theoretical yield of product
c) the percent yield if 60 g of water is actually formed.

2. 14.0 grams of nitrogen and 6.0 grams of hydrogen are fed to a reactor.
If 10.0 g of ammonia is produced, determine:
a) the limiting reactant
b) the theoretical yield of ammonia
c) the percent yield of product.

3. Given the following reaction:

Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) 2Fe (l) + Al2O3 (s)
What masses of Fe2O3 and aluminum must be used to produce 15.0 g
of iron? What is the maximum mass of Al2O3 that could be produced?
How much Al2O3 would be produced if the yield is 93.0 %?

4. The reaction: 3Mg + N2 Mg3N2

a) How many grams of magnesium nitride can be made through the
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BALC1004 NOTES
 reaction of 35.0 g of Mg and 13.0 g of nitrogen?
b) How many grams of the excess reactant remain after the reaction?

5. Consider the reaction: Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2S

If 10.2 g of HCl is added to 13.2 g of FeS, how many grams of H2S
can be formed? What is the mass of the excess reactant remaining?

6. Aluminum sulphate can be made by reacting crushed bauxite ore

with sulphuric acid according to the equation:

Al2O3 + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O

The bauxite ore contains 55.4% by mass Al2O3, the remainder being impurities.
Sulphuric acid solution contains 77.7% H2SO4, the rest being water. To produce
crude aluminum sulphate containing 1798 kg of pure Al2 (SO4)3, 1080 kg of
bauxite ore and 2510 kg of sulphuric acid solution are used.

(a) Identify the excess reactant.

(b) What percentage of the excess reactant was consumed?

(c) What was the degree of completion of the reaction?

R.A.M.: Al = 27, S = 32, O = 16, Mg = 24, N = 14, Cl = 35.5, Fe = 56.

H = 1.

WORKSHEET # 1

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. Calculate the total volume of gaseous product formed when measured at
standard temperature and pressure when 1kg of octane (C8H18) is completely
burnt.

2. Acrylonitrile is produced by the reaction of propene, ammonia and oxygen.

3
C3H6 (g) + NH3 (g) + O2 (g) C3H3N (g) + 3H2O (l)
2
The feed contains 10 mole% C3H6, 12 mole% NH3 and 78 mole% air. A fractional
conversion of 30 mole % of the limiting reagent is achieved. Determine the
limiting reagent, the percentage by which each of the other reactants is in excess,
and the molar quantities of all the product gas constituents for this 30%
conversion of the limiting reactant, taking the basis as 100 moles of feed.

3. A lamp burns acetylene produced according to the equation:

CaC2 + 2 H2O C2H2 + Ca (OH)2

If the lamp consumes 1000 litres of gas per hour at 298 K and at a pressure of
750mm Hg, calculate the weight of calcium carbide required for 15 hours
service of the lamp.

WORKSHEET # 2

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BALC1004 NOTES
Circle the most appropriate answer.
1. Which ONE of the following statements is FALSE for the chemical equation
given below in which nitrogen gas reacts with hydrogen gas to form ammonia
gas assuming that the reaction goes to completion?
N2 + 3H2 2 NH3
a) One mole of H2 will produce ⅔ moles of ammonia
b) One mole of N2 will produce two moles of ammonia
c) Three moles of H2 will produce 17 g of ammonia
d) 14 g of N2 will produce 17 g of ammonia

2. How many moles of KBrO3 are required to prepare 0.0700 moles of Br2
according to the reaction:
KBrO3 + 5KBr + 6HNO3 6KNO3 + 3Br2 + 3H2O
a) 0.0233
b) 0.0700
c) 0.210
d) 0.220

3. Calcium carbide, CaC2, is an important preliminary chemical for industries

producing synthetic fabrics and plastics. CaC2 may be produced by heating
calcium oxide with coke.
CaO + 3C CaC2 + CO
What is the amount of CaC2 which can be produced from the reaction of excess
CaO and 10.2 g of carbon?

a) 18.1 g
b) 19.8 g
c) 27.2 g
d) 28.4 g

4. Calculate the mass of H2 formed when 25.0 g of Al reacts with excess HCl.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 2 Al + HCl Al2Cl6 + H2
a) 0.93 g
b) 1.20 g
c) 1.80 g
d) 2.80 g

R.A.M.: Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16, Al = 27, H = 1, Cl = 35.5

5) The formation of ethanol (C2H5OH) by the fermentation of glucose (C6H12O6)

may be represented by: C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
If a particular fermentation process is 87.0 % efficient, how many grams of
glucose would be required for the production of 51.0 g of ethanol?

a) 68.30 g
b) 86.80 g
c) 115.0 g
d) 229.0 g

6. The limiting reactant in a chemical reaction is one that

a) has the largest molar mass

b) has the smallest molar mass
c) is consumed completely
d) has the smallest coefficient

7. Consider the reaction: Mg + I2 MgI2

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Under which of the following reaction conditions will Mg be the limiting
reactant?

i. 200 atoms of Mg and 300 molecules of I2

ii. 0.16 moles of Mg and 0.25 moles of I2
iii. 100 atoms of Mg and 100 molecules I2
iv. 0.12 moles of Mg and 0.08 moles of I2

a) i and ii only
b) i and iii only
c) i, ii and iii only
d) iii and iv only

8. Consider the reaction:

2SO2 + O2 2SO3
What is the largest number of SO3 molecules which could be made from
381 molecules of SO2 and 185 molecules of O2?
a) 381
b) 370
c) 185
d) 92

9. Fe2O3 (s) + 2 Al (s) 2 Fe (l) + Al2O3 (s)

When 2.0 moles of Fe2O3 reacts with excess Al, the total amount of
products formed is

a) 3.0 moles
b) 6.0 moles
c) 9.0 moles
d) 12.0 moles

10. What is the percent yield of H2O if 0.90 g of H2O is obtained when
29.0 g of butane is burnt in excess oxygen?
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BALC1004 NOTES
 2 C4H10 + 13 O2 8 CO2 + 10 H2O
a) 0.02 %
b) 2.00 %
c) 10.00%
d) 36.00 %
R.A.M.: C =12, H = 1, O = 16.

11. How many grams of carbon are needed to react completely with
75.2 g of SiO2?
SiO2 + 3 C SiC + 2 CO
a) 3.76 g
b) 15.10 g
c) 36.00 g
d) 45.12 g
R.A.M.: Si = 28, C = 12, O = 16.

12. One of the functions of the catalytic converter in your car is to oxidize CO to
CO2. If 15.0 g of CO reacts with 9.0 g of oxygen, how many grams of the excess
reactant remains?
2 CO + O2 2CO2
a) 0.4 g of O2 remains unreacted
b) 0.8 g of CO remains unreacted
c) 7.1 g of CO remains unreacted
d) 8.1 g of O2 remains unreacted

13. How many grams of CO2 are formed when 10.05 g of H2C2O4 and
26.72 g of KMnO4 are mixed together?

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 5 H2C2O4 + 2 KMnO4 4 H2O + 10 CO2 + 2MnO2 + 2 KOH

a) 4.912 g
b) 7.441 g
c) 9.825 g
d) 24.56 g
R.A.M.: K = 39, Mn = 55.

14. What is the percent yield of C2H2 when 32.0 g of CaC2 reacts with
excess water to yield 6.74 g of C2H2?
CaC2 + 2 H2O Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
a) 4.75 %
b) 25.90 %
c) 40.90 %
d) 51.80 %
R.A.M.: Ca = 40, C = 12, H = 1, O = 16.

15. What is the percent yield of C4H10O, diethyl ether, if the reaction started with
40.0 g of C2H6O, ethanol, and obtained 28.5 g of C4H10O?
2 C2H6O C4H10O + H2O
a) 11.4 %
b) 32.2 %
c) 71.2 %
d) 88.6 %

16. How many grams of NO will be produced from the reaction of

3.18 g of Cu and 15.75 g of HNO3?

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BALC1004 NOTES
 3Cu + 8 HNO3 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4H2O
a) 1.00 g
b) 1.50 g
c) 1.88 g
d) 2.81 g

17. Identify the limiting reactant if 3.2 moles of NH3 reacts with
1.78 moles of O2.
4 NH3 + 5 O2 4 NO + 6 H2O
a) NH3
b) O2
c) NO
d) H2O

18. How many grams of Al will react with 3.45 moles of H2SO4?
2 Al + 3 H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + 3 H2
a) 33.2 g
b) 62.1 g
c) 78.9 g
d) 100.1 g

19. Given: aA + bB cC + dD
Which ONE of the following statements is FALSE?
a) If the actual ratio of the reactants is greater than the stoichiometric ratio, B is
the limiting reactant.
b) If the actual ratio of the reactants is less than the stoichiometric ratio, A is the
limiting reactant.
c) If the actual ratio of the reactants is equal to the stoichiometric ratio, the
reactants are present in exact stoichiometric amounts.
d) If the actual ratio of the reactants less than the stoichiometric ratio, B is the
limiting reactant.

20. How many grams of Manganese (Mn) can be prepared from 50.0 g
of Al? 4 Al + 3 MnO2 2 Al2O3 + 3 Mn

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BALC1004 NOTES
 a) 33.4 g
b) 37.5 g
c) 76.4 g
d) 112.0 g
R.A.M.: Mn = 55, Al = 27, O = 16, H = 1, Cu = 64, N = 14, C = 12, Si = 28,
K = 39.

21. Given the reaction: 4 NH3 + 5 O2 4 NO + 6 H2O

If 160 moles of NH3 is fed to a reactor, how many moles of O2 are
required for the reactants to be present in stoichiometric proportion?

a) 5/4
b) 4/5
c) 128
d) 200

22. C6H14 + O2 CO2 + H2O

When the reaction is balanced, the number of moles of O2 will be:
a) 1.5 moles
b) 13 moles
c) 19 moles
d) 38 moles

23. Which ONE of the following statements is NOT true?

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BALC1004 NOTES
 a) The limiting reactant determines the theoretical amount of product formed
b) The reaction stops when the limiting reactant is completely consumed
c) The limiting reactant is not present in sufficient quantity to react with all
other reactants.
d) The limiting reactant is present in the greatest amount.

24. How many grams of NH3 can be produced from 77.3 g of N2 and

14.2 g of H2, assuming that the reaction goes to completion?

a) 13.3 g
b) 47.0 g
c) 80.5 g
d) 120 g

25. Silicon carbide, an abrasive, is made by the reaction of silicon

dioxide with graphite.
SiO2 + 3 C SiC + 2 CO
If 100g of SiO2 and 100 g of C are reacted as far as possible, which
ONE of the following statements will be correct?

a) Graphite is the limiting reactant

b) The reactants are present in stoichiometric proportion
c) 40.0 g of carbon will be left over
d) 40.0 g of silicon dioxide will be left over

WORKSHEET # 3

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. Diborane, B2H6, a possible rocket propellant, can be made by using Lithium
hydride (LiH): 6 LiH + 2 BCl3 B2H6 + 6 LiCl

If you mix 400 g of LiH with 1000 g of BCl3, you recover 100.0g of B2H6.
Determine:
a) The limiting reactant
b) The reactant present in excess
c) The percent excess reactant
d) The degree of completion of the reaction.

R.A.M.: B = 11, Li = 7, Cl = 35.5

2. The electrolytic manufacture of chlorine gas from sodium chloride solution is

carried out by the following reaction:
2 NaCl + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2
a) How many kg of Cl2 can be produced from 10.0 m3 of brine solution
containing 5 % by weight NaCl. The specific gravity of the brine solution
with respect to water at 4 oC is 1.07.

b) Suppose that 50 kg NaCl reacts with 10.0 kg of H2O. Determine:

i) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?

ii) Which reactant is present in excess?
iii) The amount of chlorine produced if the reaction is 60 % complete.

R.A.M. : Na = 23, H = 1, O = 16, Cl = 35.5

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BALC1004 NOTES
 3. Diborane, B2H6, a possible rocket propellant, can be made by using lithium
hydride, LiH.

6 LiH  2 BCl3  B2 H 6  6 LiCl

If you mix 200 kg of LiH with 1000 kg of BCl3, you recover 45.0 kg of B2H6.
Determine:

a) The limiting reactant

b) The reactant that is present in excess
c) The percent excess reactant
d) The percent conversion of LiH to B2H6
e) The degree of completion of the reaction

4. Antimony is obtained by heating pulverized stibnite (Sb2S3) with scrap iron and
drawing the molten antimony from the bottom of the reaction vessel:

Sb2 S 3  3Fe  2 Sb  3FeS

Suppose that 0.600 kg of stibnite and 0.250 kg of iron filings are heated together
to give 0.200 kg of Sb metal. Calculate:
a) Identify the limiting reactant
b) Calculate the percentage of excess reactant

c) Determine the degree of completion of the reaction

R.A.M.: Sb = 122, Fe = 56, S = 32

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Solution # 4

Sb2 S 3  3Fe  2Sb  3FeS

Component Mass (kg) RMM/ RAM # of kmol

Sb2S3 0.600 340 0.00176
Fe 0.250 56 0.00446
Sb 0.200 122 0.00164

From balanced chemical equation,

1 kmol of Sb2S3 react with 3 kmol of Fe if reaction goes to completion
∴ 0.00176 kmol of Sb2S3 will react with 3 x 0.00176 = 0.00528 kmol of Fe if reaction
goes to completion
But only 0.00446 kmol of Fe are present. Thus, Fe is the limiting reactant.

a) 3 kmol of Fe react with 1 kmol of Sb2S3

1
∴ 0.00446 kmol of Fe will react with  0.00446  0.00149 kmol of Sb2S3
3
Amount of Sb2S3 in excess = 0.00176 – 0.00149 = 0.00027 kmol
0.00027
% Excess =  100  18.12 %
0.00149

b) Degree of completion is based on the limiting reactant.

2 kmol of Sb is produced from 3 kmol of Fe

3
∴ 0.00164 kmol of Sb will be produced from  0.00164  0.00246 kmol of
2
Fe
amount of Fe consumed 0.00246
Degree of completion = amount of Fe entering  0.00446  0.5512

UNIT 2 - EQUATIONS OF STATE

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BALC1004 NOTES
 An equation that relates the quantity (mass or moles) and volume of a gas to the
gas temperature and pressure is called an equation of state (EOS).

The simplest and most widely used equation of state is the ideal gas equation:
PV  nRT

Where P – absolute pressure of the gas

V – volume or volumetric flow rate of the gas
N – number of moles or molar flow rate of the gas
R – gas constant
T – absolute temperature of the gas

Note: The ideal gas equation is valid at high temperatures and low pressures.

The ideal gas law may be written as: PVˆ  RT where Vˆ is the specific molar
volume of the gas

Pa m 3
Values of gas constant, R = 8.314 mol K
J
= 8.314 mol K
L atm
= 0.08206 mol K
m 3 atm
= 0.08206 kmol K

Problem:

Calculate the volume, in liters, occupied by 100 g of N2 at 23 oC and 3.0 psig

assuming ideal gas behavior. Answer: 72.054 L

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem:

Two cylinders have identical volumes and contain gases at identical

temperatures and pressures. Cylinder A contains H2 and cylinder B contains
CO2. If both gases behave ideally, how does the number of moles of H2 compare
to the number of moles of CO2? How do the masses of the two substances
compare?

m
Density is defined as mass per unit volume i.e.  
V
Molecular mass M
For 1 mole of gas,   molar volume  V
RT
For 1 mole of gas, PV  RT or V 
P

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BALC1004 NOTES
 PM
∴ 
RT

Problem:

Find the density of N2 at 303 K and 2.0 atm gauge pressure. Answer: 3.38 g/L

Problem:

Find the volume of 88 kg of CO2 at a pressure of 2 atm gauge and 373 K.

Answer: 20.4 m3

Problem:

Calculate the pressure exerted by 220 kg of CO2 if it is stored in a 30 m3

container at 573 K. Answer: 7.836 atm

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem:

Find the temperature reached by 176 kg of CO2 when compressed to 10 bar

pressure and confined to a 30 m3 container. Answer: 902.1 K

Problem:

A compressed air cylinder is 2.0 m long and has an internal diameter of 0.6 m. It
contains air at a pressure of 5 MPa and at a temperature of 15 oC. If 1 m3 of air
at s.t.p. has a mass of 1.29 kg, calculate the mass of air in the cylinder.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Answer: 34.09
kg

REAL GASES

Real gases have finite molecular volume and additionally intermolecular /

repulsive forces exist.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 The classical equation of state is the Van Der Waals EOS.
 a
 P  2   v  b   RT equation 1
 v 

27 R 2 TC2 R TC
a and b
64 PC 8 PC

where v is the molar volume and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants unique for each gas.
This equation of state corrects the real gas volume by allowing for the molecular
volume and corrects the pressure term by accounting for the attractive forces.
 a
 P  2   v  b   RT
 v 
The term (V – b) corresponds to the free volume available for unimpeded
molecular motion after the effective volume occupied by the molecules
themselves has been deducted.
If the parameter ‘b’ is neglected, the equation becomes:
 a
 P  2  v  RT
 v 
a
Pv  RT
v
RT a
P  
v v
a
P  Pideal 
v
where P ideal is the pressure that would be exerted by the gas if it were ideal.
Subtraction of the term a/v suggests that the actual pressure is less than the ideal
gas pressure.

V
Recall, v
n

 n 2 a    nv  nb  
 P  2     RT
 V  n 

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BALC1004 NOTES
  n2a 
 P  2  V  nb   nRT equation 2
 V 
Making ‘V’ subject of formula of equation 2:
V3 
 nb  nRT  V2 
n2a
V 
n 3 ab
0
P P P

Problem:

Calculate the pressure in a 1.0 m3 vessel containing 25 kg of steam at 100 oC.

2
 cm 3  cm 3
a  5.48  10 6
atm.   and b  30.6 Answer: 33.85 atm
 g  mol  g  mol

Problem:

Calculate the temperature of 2 g – mol of a gas using Van der Waals EOS with
m 6 .atm m3
a  1.35  10  6 and b  0.0322  10  3
 g  mol  2 g  mol

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BALC1004 NOTES
 if the pressure is 100 kPa and the volume is 0.0515 m3. Ans: 309.9 K

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR EQUATION OF STATE

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BALC1004 NOTES
 As the temperature of a gas decreases and the pressure increases, the ideal gas
law provides an increasingly poor description of the gas behavior.

Another approach to dealing with PVT behavior of real gases involves the use
of a compressibility factor, Z.
Pv
Z  where v is the molar volume
RT
PV
Or Z  where V is the total volume
n RT

Note: A value of Z = 1, corresponds to ideal gas behavior. Any deviation in Z

from a value of 1 is a measure of the deviation from ideal gas behavior. Z
may be less than or more than unity depending on the pressure and
temperature of the gas.

The compressibility factor, Z, at a specific temperature and pressure is not the

same for all gases. It would be very accommodating, if we could use a single
chart of Z (T, P) for all PVT calculations.
The Law of corresponding states expresses the idea that all gases when compared
at the same reduced temperature and pressure have approximately the same
compressibility factor. It follows that for all gases:
Z  Z  PR , TR 
P T
where PR  and TR 
PC TC

The LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES allows us to construct a single

universal chart for the estimation of the compressibility factors for all gases. This
chart is called the generalized compressibility chart. The generalized
compressibility chart is plotted with Z versus PR for various values of TR and VR.
To use the chart, we require PC and TC for the gas under consideration.
We can then calculate PR &TR to find Z; VR & TR to find Z; Pr and Vr to find Z.
From chart, read off the value of Z.
Vˆ
VR 
VˆCideal

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Applying ideal gas equation: PC VˆCideal  R TC
R TC
VˆCideal 
PC

Vˆ PC Vˆ
VR  =
VˆCideal R TC

Problem:
Calculate the volume occupied by 5.0 kg of ethane at 150 oC and 48.2 atm.
For ethane: P C = 48.2 atm and T C = 306 K. Ans: 105.64 L

Problem:
Calculate the pressure in a 3.0 m3 reactor containing 160 kg of methane at 107 oC
using

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1) The ideal gas equation

2) The compressibility factor equation of state.

WORKSHEET # 1

1. A graduate student wants to use the Van Der Waals equation of state to design a
steel tank in which CO2 is to be stored at a temperature of 17 oC. The tank is to be

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BALC1004 NOTES
 designed in the shape of a uniform cylinder with an internal diameter of 90.98 cm
and a height of 4.0 0m. Determine the pressure exerted within the tank in
atmospheres, if it is to contain 440 kg of CO2.

2. Using compressibility charts, estimate the pressure within a spherical vessel that
contains 2.8 kg of N2 at a temperature of – 20.6 oC. The vessel has an internal
diameter of 21.22 cm.

3. A gas flowing in a pipeline at a rate of 2800 m3/h as measured at standard

conditions. Calculate the actual volumetric flow rate if the pressure in the
pipeline is 50 atmospheres and the temperature is 60 oC. Assume that the critical
temperature is 280 K and the critical pressure is 15 atmospheres.

4. Determine the molar volume of propane at a pressure of 5900 kPa gauge and at a
temperature of 223 oC. (Hint: Use Compressibility factor equation of state.)

5. Calculate the temperature in a 5.0 m3 storage vessel containing 241.5 kg of H2 at

T P
62.4 atmospheres. For H2, Tr = T  8 and Pr = P
c c

6. Carbon dioxide gas (1.00 mol) at 373 K occupies 536 mL at 50.0 atm. What is the
calculated value of the pressure using:
a) Ideal gas law
b) Van Der Waals equation ( a = 3.61 L2.atm. mol - 2 , b = 0.0428 L.mol - 1)

WORKSHEET # 2 – Van der Waals EOS

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. A 1.5 m3 cylinder containing 88 kg of CO2 stands in the sun. A pressure gauge
shows that the pressure is 676.2 psig. Using Van der Waals equation of state,
determine the temperature of propane in the cylinder.

2. Calculate the pressure of 10 kmol of ethane in 4.86 m3 vessel at 30 oC using Van

der Waals equation of state. The observed value is 34.0 atm. Comment on your
result.

3. It is desired to market oxygen in small cylinders having volumes of 0.25 m3 and

each containing 10 kg of oxygen. If the cylinders would be subjected to a
maximum temperature of 45 oC, calculate the minimum pressure for which the
cylinders must be designed using Van der Waals equation of state.

WORKSHEET # 3 – COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR EQUATION OF STATE

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. One hundred and thirty two kilograms (132 kg) of CO2 is contained in a 1.0 m3
cylinder. The safety limit of the cylinder is 2128 psig. Use the compressibility
chart to estimate the maximum permissible gas temperature.

2. A stream of oxygen enters a compressor at 298 K and 1.00 atm at a rate of 127
m3/h and is compressed to 358 K and 1000 atm. Estimate the flow rate of
compressed O2, using the compressibility – factor equation of state.

3. Estimate the pressure exerted by 10 mol of ethane in a 5.0 L vessel at 450 K using
the generalized compressibility chart.

4. Calculate the molar volume of CO2 gas at 600 atm and 40 oC.

5. Ethylene (C2H4) at P = 500 atm and T = 100 oC is contained in a cylinder of

volume 0.04 m3. How many grams of C2H4 are in the cylinder?

6. 0.5 m3 of CO2 is held at constant pressure of 3647.7 kPa and heated from 37 oC to
77 oC. Compare the volumes calculated by using:
a) The ideal gas law
b) The generalized compressibility chart

WORKSHEET # 4

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. A gas flowing in a pipeline at a rate of 2240 m3/h as measured at standard
conditions. Calculate the actual volumetric flow rate if the pressure in the pipeline
is 50 atmospheres and the temperature is 60 oC. Assume that the critical
temperature is 280 K and the critical pressure is 15 atmospheres.

2. Calculate the temperature in a 5.0 m3 storage vessel containing 241.5 kg of

Oxygen at 62.4 atmospheres using Van der Waals equation of state.

 a
 P  2   v  b   RT where v is the molar volume
 v 
27 R 2TC2 0.125 RTC
a b
64 PC PC

3. Estimate the pressure exerted by 10 mol of ethane in a 5.0 L vessel at 450 K using
the generalized compressibility chart.


 PC V
Vr  T P
TR  PR 
RTC TC PC
P V  znRT where z is the compressibility factor

WORKSHEET # 5

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. A cylinder containing 10 kg of CH4 exploded. It had a bursting pressure of 14000
kPa gauge and a safe operating pressure of 7000 kPa gauge. The cylinder had an
internal volume of 0.0250 m3. Calculate the temperature when the cylinder
exploded.

2. You are asked to design a steel tank in which CO2 will be stored at 190 K. The
tank is 10.4 m3 in volume and you want to store 460 kg of CO2 in it. Using the
Van der Waals equation of state, determine the pressure that the CO2 will exert.

3. Calculate the pressure of 4.0 gmol of CO2 contained in a 6.25 x 10 – 3 m3 fire

extinguisher at 25 oC using:
a) The ideal gas equation
b) The Van der Waals EOS

4. A cylinder 0.150 m3 in volume containing 22.7 kg of propane stands in the hot

sun. A pressure gauge shows that the pressure is 4790 kPa gauge. Using VDW
EOS, determine the temperature of the propane in the cylinder.

5. How many kilograms of CO2 can be put into a 25 L cylinder at room temperature
(25 oC) and 200 kPa absolute pressure?

UNIT 3

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BALC1004 NOTES
 MASS FRACTION AND MOLE FRACTION

mass in grams
g  mol 
molar mass

mass in lb
lb  mol 
molar mass

mass in kg
k  mol 
molar mass

Moles of A
Mole fraction 
Total moles

Mass of A
Mass fraction 
Total mass

Example 1:

An industrial strength drain cleaner contains 6.0 kg of NaOH and 4.0 kg H2O.
What is the mass fraction of each component in a bottle of cleaner?

Solution: Basis: 10.0 kg of solution (drain cleaner)

Component Mass (kg) Mass Fraction (xi) RMM Number of k – mol Mole fraction
4 18 4 0.2222
 0.4  0.2222  0.597
H2O 4.0 10 18 0.3722
6 40 6 0.15
 0 .6  0.15  0.403
NaOH 6.0 10 40 0.3722
 =10.0  x i = 1.0  = 0.3722  = 1.0

Example 2:

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BALC1004 NOTES
 kg
A sugar solution has a density of 1068 and is prepared by mixing 25 kg of
m3
sugar crystals ( C12 H 22 O11 ) in 150 kg of water. Calculate:

a) The mass fraction of each component in the mixture

b) The mole fraction of each component in the mixture

Solution:
Component Mass (kg) Mass Fraction (xi) RMM Number of k – mol Mole fraction
150 18 150 8.333
 0.857  8.333  0.9913
H2O 150 175 18 8.406
C12 H 22 O11 25 342 25 0.0731
 0.143  0.0731  0.0087
25 175 342 8.406
 =175  x i = 1.0  = 8.406  = 1.0

AVERAGE MOLECULAR MASS

N
Average molecular mass = X M
1
i i  X 1 M 1  X 2 M 2  X 3 M 3  .......

Where X i is the mole fraction of component ‘i’ and M i is the molar mass of
component’i’.

Example 3:

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BALC1004 NOTES
 A liquefied mixture of hydrocarbons has the following composition in percent:
n - C4H10 30%
n - C5H12 20%
n - C6H14 30%
n - C7H16 20%

For the mixture calculate:

i) the mass fraction
ii) the mole fraction
iii) the average molecular mass.

Solution: Basis: 100 g of the liquid mixture

Components Mass % Mass (g) Mass R.M.M. No. of Mole xi M i

Fraction Moles fraction (xi)
n  C 4 H 10 30 30 30 58 30 0.517 22.38
 0 .3  0.517  0.386
100 58 1.34
n  C 5 H 12 20 20 20 72 20 0.278 20.02
 0 .2  0.278  0.207
100 72 1.34
n  C 6 H 14 30 30 30 86 30 0.345 29.67
 0 .3  0.345  0.257
100 86 1. 34
n  C 7 H 16 20 20 20 100 20 0.2 14.9
 0 .2  0.2  0.14 9
100 100 1.34
 = 100  = 1.34  = 0.999  = 86.97

Average molecular mass of the liquid mixture = 86.97

WORKSHEET # 1 – MASS FRACTION, MOLE FRACTION & AVERAGE MOLECULAR MASS

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. A sugar solution has a density of 1068 kgm-3 and is prepared by mixing 25 kg of
sugar crystals (C12H22O11) with 150 kg of water. Express the concentration of
sugar in this solution as a:
i) mass fraction
ii) mole fraction.

2. Commercial sulphuric acid is 98% H2SO4 and 2% H2O. What is the mole ratio of
H2SO4 to H2O?

3. A gas mixture has the following molar composition:

CH4 30%
H2 10%
N2 60%
Determine the average molecular mass of the gas mixture.

4. A fuel gas is reported to analyze, on a mole basis, 20% CH4, 5.0% C2H6 and the
remainder CO2. Calculate the analysis of the fuel gas on a mass composition
basis.

5. A mixture of gases has the following composition by mass:

O2 16%
CO 4%
CO2 17%
N2 63%
What is the molar composition?

6. A liquefied mixture of hydrocarbons has the following composition in percent:

n - C4H10 30%
n - C5H12 20%
n - C6H14 30%
n - C7H16 20%
For the mixture calculate:
iv) the mass fraction
v) the mole fraction
vi) the average molecular mass.

7. a) Calculate the mass fraction of sucrose (C12H22O11) in an aqueous solution

that contains 5.3 mole % of sucrose

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BALC1004 NOTES
 .
R.A.M.: C – 12, H – 1, O – 16.

b) The gas stream has the following:

Components Lb – mole /hr

H2 15610.00

N2 5737.95

CH4 96.01

CO 78.73

CO2 4651.03

Ar 69.06

For this stream, determine:

i) the molar composition of the stream

ii) the average molecular mass of the stream
iii) the mass composition of the stream.
R.A.M.: C = 12, H = 1, N = 14, O = 16, Ar = 40.

c) Two students, A and B, are calculating the average molecular mass of a

gaseous mixture containing oxygen and other gases. Student A uses the
correct molecular mass of oxygen, 32, and determines the average
molecular mass correctly as 39.2. Student B uses the molecular mass of
oxygen as 16 and determines the average molecular mass of the gaseous
mixture as 32.8. If this is the only error in the calculation, determine the
amount of oxygen in the mixture expressed in mole percent and mass
percent.

WORKSHEET # 2 - AVERAGE MOLECULAR MASS

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BALC1004 NOTES
 1. A gaseous mixture of composition 80 % propane and 20 % butane is confined to a
1.5 m3 cylinder at 5 atmospheres gauge pressure at a temperature of 30 oC. Find
the mass of gas in the cylinder.

2. A mixture of propane and ethane has an average molecular mass of 33.5. Find the
mole percent of ethane and propane in the mixture.

3. A flue gas is analysed and was found to have the following composition by
volume:
N2 60 %
CO2 15 %
CO 15 %
H2O 10 %
a) Calculate the average molecular mass on a dry basis.
b) Determine its mass composition on a dry basis.

4. A mixture of methane and ethane has an average molecular mass of 24.4. Find the
mole percent of methane and ethane in the mixture.
Atomic mass of H = 1 and C = 12.

5. Calculate the average molecular mass of a gaseous mixture containing 50 g of

each of the following gaseous components:

Component Mass (g)

CH4 50
H2 50
N2 50

6. A sample of gas is analysed at 1 atm pressure and is found to have the following
composition by mass: Copy and complete the table.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Component Mass Mass(kg) R.M.M. Number Mole
percent of kmol fraction
CO 10
CO2 25
N2 55
H2 5
H2O 5

a) What is the basis of calculation?

b) Calculate the average molecular mass of the gas.
c) Calculate the molar composition of the gas on a dry basis.
d) Calculate the molar composition of the gas

7. A mixture consists of 10.0 mole % C2H5OH, 75.0 mole % C4H8O2 and 15 mole %

CH3COOH.

a) Calculate the mass fraction of each compound in the mixture.

b) What is the average molecular mass of the mixture?

c) What would be the mass of the above sample containing 25.0 kmol of C4H8O2?

8. The feed to an ammonia synthesis reactor contains 25 mole % nitrogen and the

balance hydrogen. The flow rate of the stream is 3000 kg/h. Calculate the flow

rate of nitrogen into the reactor in kg/h.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 9. Agaseous mixture contains argon, B and C. The following composition of the
mixture is given:
40 mole % argon
18.75 mass % B
20.0 mole % C
The molecular mass of argon is 40 and the molecular mass of C is 50. Determine:
a) The average molecular mass of the mixture
b) The molecular mass of B

CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Chemical processes may be classified as:

 Batch

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BALC1004 NOTES
  Continuous
 Semi – batch or semi – continuous

and as either steady state or transient.

BATCH PROCESS

The feed is charged into the system at the beginning of the process, and the
products are removed sometime later. No mass crosses the boundaries between
the time the feed is charged and the time the product is removed e.g. making a
fixed volume of wine.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS

The inputs and outputs flow continuously throughout the duration of the process.
Example: Pumping a mixture of liquids into a distillation column at a constant
rate and steadily withdraw vapour and liquid streams from the top and bottom of
the column.

SEMI – BATCH

Any process that is neither batch nor continuous e.g. A balloon being filled with
g
air at a steady rate of 2 .
min

STEADY STATE / UNSTEADY STATE PROCESSES

If the values of the variables in a process (temperature, pressure, volume, flowrate,

composition, pH etc.) do not change with time, the process is said to be operating at
steady state.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 If any of the variables change with time, transient or unsteady – state operation is
said to exist.

Batch and semi – batch processes are unsteady – state operations. Why? Continuous
processes may be steady – state or transient.

Batch processing is commonly used when relatively small amounts of a product are
required while continuous processing is better suited to large scale production.

WORKSHEET – CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESSES

Processes can be classified as:

Batch, Semi – batch or Continuous

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BALC1004 NOTES
Closed or open
Steady – state or transient

Complete the table:

Process Batch, Semi – batch Open or Steady – state or

or Continuous closed Transient
Emptying a bath tub

An electric iron

A cooling tower

A sealed can of Coca –

Cola

Filling a tank

Inflating a balloon

Inflating a car tire

A distillation unit at start –

up

Rainfall

GENERAL MASS BALANCE EQUATION

Boundary
INPUT

(System)
Generation
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BALC1004 NOTES Consumption
 Accumulation

Surroundings
Surroundings

OUTPUT

Accumulation

The boundary separates the system from the surroundings. Input is material crossing
into the system from its surroundings; output is material leaving the system through
the system boundary. Within the system, material may be generated or consumed. So if
there is no generation or consumption of material within the system, the amount of
material that comes into the system must leave the system if it is at steady state.

Input + Generation – Output – Consumption = Accumulation

If no chemical reaction occurs, then the generation and consumption terms are zero. The
general mass balance equation reduces to:
Input – Output = Accumulation

If the process operation is taking place at steady – state, then accumulation within the
system is zero.
Thus for non – reactive systems,
INPUT = OUTPUT for steady – state operation.

Differential Balance is a balance taken at a specific instant in time. It is generally

applied to a continuous process. If the process is at steady state, a differential balance
applied at any time gives the same result. It indicates what is happening in the system at
an instant in time. Each term in the material balance equation is rate e.g. rate of input
(kg/s).
Integral balance is a balance taken at two specific instants in time. It describes what has
happened over the time period between the two points. An integral balance is generally
applied to the beginning and the end of a batch process. Each term in the material
balance equation is an amount e.g. g CO2.

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BALC1004 NOTES
Note:

By system we mean any arbitrary portion or whole of a process set out specifically for
analysis.
An open (or flow) system is one in which material is transferred across the system
boundary, i.e. enters the system, leaves the system or both.
A closed system is one in which there is no material transfer during the time interval of
interest.

What type of mass balances can one write?

In mass balance calculations one can write:

1. A mass balance using the total mass in each process stream. This is called a Total
or Overall balance.
2. A separate mass balance for each component involved. These balances are called
component balances.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING MASS BALANCE PROBLEMS.

a) Draw a flowchart of the process

b) Write the values and units of all known stream variables at the locations of the

streams on the flowchart

c) Assign algebraic symbols to the unknown stream variables

d) Write the appropriate mass balance equations and solve for the unknowns

Example:
1000 kg/h of a mixture of benzene and toluene that contains 50 % benzene by
mass is separated by distillation. The mass flow rate of benzene in the top stream
is 450 kg/h and that of toluene in the bottom stream is 475 kg/h. The operation is

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BALC1004 NOTES
 at steady – state. Write appropriate balances to calculate the unknown component
flow rates in the output streams.
D T,D  ?
m

kg
 B , D  450
m
h

Feed, F = 1000 kg/h Distillation Column

x B , F  0.5

B  B,B  ?
m

kg
 T , B  475
m
h
Since the process is at steady state, the accumulation term is zero. In addition, no
chemical reaction occurs, the generation and consumption terms are zero. The
general mass balance equation reduces to:
Input = Output

Overall balance: F=D+W or 1000 = D + W

Benzene balance: xB , F F  xB , D D  xB , B B

0.5 x 1000 = 450 + m

 B,B

m
 B , B = 50 kg/h

Toluene balance: xT , F F  xT , D D  xT , B B

0.5 x 1000 = m
 T , D + 475

m
T , D = 25 kg/h
PROBLEM

Calculate the unknown stream flow rates and composition.

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BALC1004 NOTES
Example:

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BALC1004 NOTES
A blend of sorghum syrup is to be produced by mixing pure syrup with corn syrup and a
semi-syrup to produce 100 kg of blended product. Properties of the three syrups are
shown in the following table. All percentages are by mass.

Solution: Three mass balances are needed: sugar; flavor; and total mass. Using the
symbol following each syrup name in the table, we write the mass balances as follows:
Total: S + C + P = 100
Sugar: 0.755 S + 0.8 C + 0.59 P = 0.75 × 100 = 75
Flavor: 0.015 S + 0 C + 0.01 P = 0.01 × 100 = 1
Rearranging the flavor balance and solving for P in terms of S gives: P = 100 – 1.5 S
Substituting this relationship for P into the total mass balance equation given:
S + C + 100 – 1.5 S = 100, C = 0.5 S
Substituting for C and P in the sugar balance equation given:
0.755 S + 0.8 (0.5 S) + 0.59 (100 – 1.5 S) = 75
0.27 S = 15
S = 55.56
Solving for C and P: C = 0.5 S = 0.5 (55.56) = 27.78
P = 100 – 1.5 S = 100 – 1.5 (55.56) = 16.66
Checking the results against the total mass balance equation, we see that
S + C + P = 55.56 + 27.78 + 16.66 = 100

Problem:

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BALC1004 NOTES
A slurry containing 25 wt % of solids is fed into a filter. The filter cake contains 90 wt %
solids and the filtrate contains 1 wt % solids. The slurry feed rate to the filter is 2000
kg/h. determine the flow rates of the cake and the filtrate.

S= 2000 kg FILTER CAKE (C)

FILTER

System boundary

FILTRATE (F)

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………

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BALC1004 NOTES
………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….……………………
WORKSHEET # 1 – MASS BALANCE

1. A continuous fractionating column is to be designed to separate 10,000 kg/h of a

mixture of 50 mol % benzene and 50 mol % toluene to give an overhead product
containing 98 mol % benzene and a bottom product of 97 mol % toluene.
Calculate the mass flow rates of the overhead and bottom products.

2. In the Keyes process for making absolute alcohol from alcohol containing 5 % by
mass of water, a third component benzene is added to the alcohol feed. Benzene
lowers the volatility of the alcohol and takes the water impurity overhead as a
constant boiling mixture of composition: 18.5 % alcohol, 7.5 % water and 74 %
benzene by mass. The residue from the still is pure alcohol. Calculate the amount
of benzene and impure alcohol required for the production of 2500 kg of pure
alcohol.

3. An air – ammonia mixture containing 5 mol % of ammonia enters a packed

column at the rate of 500 kmol per hour. It is desired to recover 90 % of the
ammonia by using 700 kmol per hour of pure water. Calculate the composition of
the ammonia in the liquid effluent and gaseous effluent from the absorption
column.

4. An aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) contains 20% NaOH by mass. It is

desired to produce an 8% NaOH solution by diluting a stream of the 20% solution with a
stream of pure water.

a) Draw a flowchart to represent the process.

b) Determine the feed rates of the 20% NaOH solution, and diluting water
needed to produce 2310 kg/min of the 8% NaOH solution.
R.A.M.: Na = 23.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 55 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 WORKSHEET # 2 – MASS BALANCE
1. A multi – stage evaporator concentrates a weak solution of KOH in water from 5
wt % to 22.0 wt % KOH. The evaporator processes 5 metric tonnes of solution
each day. Determine:
a) The mass of concentrated KOH made each day
b) The volume of water produced each day.

2. Wet sugar that contains 20 wt % water is sent through a dryer in which 75 % of

the water is removed. Given that one metric ton of wet sugar is fed to the dryer
every hour, calculate the following:
i) The mass fraction of dry sugar in the product leaving the dryer
kg of watyer removed
ii) The ratio of kg product exiting the dryer

3. Consider a steady state desalination (removes salt from seawater) process. Feed is
sea water containing 0.035 mass fraction salt. There are 2 product streams. The
first product is pure water (liquid). The second product stream is waste brine (salt-
water solution). Sea water is evaporated to produce 1000 lb/h of pure water. Draw
and label the flow diagram. Find the flow rate needed of sea water if corrosion
considerations limit waste brine (salt) mass fraction to 0.07.

4. In a pulp mill, wet pulp enters a dryer with a moisture content of 48 %. The rest
is dry fibre. As it passes through the dryer, water is evaporated. The moisture
content of the wet pulp leaving the dryer is 12 %. If 1000 kg of wet pulp enters
the dryer, calculate:
a) How many kilograms of water are evaporated?
b) How many kilograms of dried pulp are produced?

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BALC1004 NOTES
 5. It is desired to produce 100 kg of solution of ammonia in water containing 10 %
by mass ammonia. This will be achieved by stripping ammonia from ammonia –
air mixture by water in a counter – current absorption tower. The inlet gas stream
contains 20 % ammonia by mass and the outlet gas stream contains 2 % ammonia
by mass. Determine:
a) The mass of ammonia in 100 kg of liquid product.
b) The mass of water fed to the column.
c) The mass of air in the inlet gas stream if X kg of ammonia – air mixture is fed
to the column.
d) The mass of the exit gas stream.
e) The mass of ammonia in the exit gas stream.
f) The value of X.

6. A multistage evaporator concentrates an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution

containing 10 wt % of NaOH to 50 wt % NaOH. If the evaporator processes 10
metric tonnes of solution per day, determine:
a) The mass of concentrated NaOH produced daily
b) The volume of water produced each day.

Density of water is 995 kg/m3

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 57 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 WORKSHEET # 3 – MASS BALANCE

1. A continuous stream contains 40.0 mole % benzene and the balance toluene.

Write expressions for the molar and mass flow rates of benzene, n B (mol C6H6 /s)
 
and m B (kg C6H6/s), in terms of the total molar flow rate of the stream, n (mol/s).

2. 1000 kg/h of a mixture containing equal parts by mass of methanol (CH3OH) and
water is distilled. Product streams leave the top and bottom of the distillation
column. The flow rate of the bottom stream is measured and found to be 673 kg/h,
and the top product is analysed and found to contain 96 wt % methanol.
a) Draw a labeled flow chart of the process.
b) Calculate the mass and mole fractions of methanol in the bottom product stream.
c) Calculate the molar flow rates of methanol and water in product streams.

3. Wet sugar contains one – fifth water by mass is conveyed through an evaporator
in which 85 % of the entering water is vaporised. Taking a basis of 100 kg/s of
feed, calculate:
a) The mass fraction of water in the wet sugar leaving the evaporator.
b) The ratio (kg water vaporised / kg sugar leaving the evaporator).

4. 10000 kg/ h of a C2H5OH/ CH3OH mixture is to be separated in a distillation

column. The feed is 40.0 mole % C2H5OH and the distillate has 90.0 mole %
CH3OH and 80 % of the CH3OH in the feed is to be recovered as distillate.
Calculate the molar composition of the bottom product.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 58 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 RECYCLE

Processes involving recycling part of the product stream are frequently used in the
chemical manufacturing sector. Most reactions do not go to completion. The unreacted
material is then separated from the product and recycled e.g. in ammonia synthesis. The
gas mixture leaving the reactor is recycled back to the reactor after the recovery of the
ammonia formed.

Recycle

Feed Mixe Reactor Separator

Product r

A recycle stream is a stream which transfers part of the material coming out of a process
unit back to the inlet of the same process unit.
Recycle ratio is defined as the ratio of the recycle to fresh feed.

mass flow rate of recycle stream

Re cycle ratio 
mass flow rate of fresh feed

BYPASS

Bypassing of a fluid stream by splitting it into two streams is often practised when
accurate control of concentration is desired.
A bypass stream is a stream that skips one or more of the earlier stages of the process and
goes directly to another stage.

Bypass stream

FEED Separator Mixer

Reactor

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BALC1004 NOTES
 PURGE STREAM

One major drawback with the recycling of fluid streams is the gradual accumulation of
inerts or impurities in the recycle stream. Bleeding off a fraction of the recycle stream can
solve this problem.

RECYCLE Divide
r PURGE

Separato
Mixe PRODUCT
r REACTOR r

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BALC1004 NOTES
PROBLEM # 1

A solution of sodium chloride in water is fed into an osmotic cell at a rate

of 1000kg/h with 3.10 wt % NaCl . Figure 1 illustrates the schematic of the process.

OSMOTIC CELL

FIGURE 1
(i) Determine the flow rates for both the Product stream and the Extracted Water
stream.

(ii) The ratio of the amount NaCl recycled to the amount of NaCl in the product
stream.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 61 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
PROBLEM # 2

R
Calculate the recycle ratio (recycle ratio = )
F

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 62 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
Problem # 3

R
Calculate the recycle ratio (recycle ratio = )
F

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 63 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 PROBLEM # 4

Fresh orange contains 13 wt % solids and the balance water. Concentrated orange
juice contains 42 % solids. The juice that the evaporator is concentrated to 58 wt %
solids and the evaporator product stream is mixed with bypassed fresh juice.
a) Draw a labeled diagram of the process. (Assume only water evaporates)
Calculate the amount of product (42 % solids) produced per 100 kg of fresh juice fed
to the process and the fraction of the feed that bypasses the evaporator

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 64 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 MASS BALANCES ON REACTIVE SYSTEMS

Mass balances on reactive systems can be analysed using:

 Balances on molecular species
 Atomic balances
 Extent of reaction (ξ )

ATOMIC SPECIES BALANCES

All balances on atomic species (C, H, O etc) take the form: Input = Output, since atomic
species can neither be generated nor consumed in chemical reactions.

Solving the two equations simultaneously, n

 1 = 60 kmol/min and n
 2 = 40 kmol/min.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 65 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
Problem # 1

Write atomic balances for all species present and verify that they are all satisfied.

Problem # 2

Methanol is formed by the following reaction.

3H2 + CO2 CH3OH + H2O

The feed contains nitrogen and methane which do not take part in the reaction. Its molar
composition is as follows: 20% CO2, 70% H2, 1% N2 and 9% CH4. The conversion of the
limiting reactant is 60%. Calculate the product composition.
Basis: 100 mol/s of gaseous mixture
n
 3 mol /s CH3OH

20 mol/s CO2 n
 1 mol/s CO2
REACTOR
70 mol/s H2 n 2 mol/s H2
1 mol/s N2 1 mol/s N2
9 mol/s CH4 9 mol/s CH4
n
 4 mol/s H2O

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 66 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 3
2 SO2  O2  2 SO3

100 mol SO2/s n

 1 (mol SO3/s)

REACTOR

90 mol O2/s 20 mol SO2/s

n 1 (mol O2/s)

Calculate the value of n 1 and n 2 .

Problem # 4
C2 H 2  2H 2  C2 H 6

20 k – mol C2H2 REACTOR n

 1 – mol C2 H6
50 k – mol H2 n 2 – mol H2

Calculate the value of n 1 and n 2 .

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 67 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 5

C2 H 2  2H 2  C2 H 6

50 k – mol C2H2 REACTOR n

 1 – C2

H6
50 k – mol H2 n
 2 – H2

25 mol C 2 H 2

Calculate the value of n 1 and n 2 .

Problem # 6

140 kmol C2H6 / min REACTOR 40 kmol H2/min

n
 1 kmol C2H6/min

n 2 kmol C2H4/min

Calculate the values of n 1 and n 2 .

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 68 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 UNIT # 4 – GAS VAPOUR MIXTURES

Suppose na moles of substance A, nb moles of substance B and nc moles of substance C

are contained in a volume V at a temperature T and total pressure P.
The partial pressure, Pa, is the pressure that would be exerted by na moles of A alone in
the same total volume, V, at the same temperature T.
The pure volume component, VA, is the volume that would be occupied by na moles of A
alone at the total pressure P and temperature T of the mixture.
Assuming ideal gas behavior,
PV  n RT where n  na  nb  nc
There are ‘n’ moles in the volume V at a pressure P and temperature T.
From the definition of partial pressure, Pa V  na R T
Pa V n RT
 a
PV n RT

Pa n
 a  y a  the mole fraction of A in the gas
P n
Pa  y a P

That is the partial pressure of a component in an ideal gas mixture is the mole fraction
of that component times the total pressure.
Dalton’s law states that for a gaseous mixture, the sum of the partial pressure for each
component would be equal to the total pressure.
N
PT  P
1
i

From Dalton ' s Law : Pa  Pb  Pc  PT

y a PT  y b PT  y c PT  PT

y a  y b  y c  PT  PT

y a  y b  y c   1.0

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BALC1004 NOTES
Example

A gaseous mixture made from 10 g of O2 and 5 g of CH4 is placed in a 10 L vessel at

25 oC. Assuming ideal gas behaviour, determine:
a) The partial pressure of each component in the gaseous mixture
b) The total pressure in the vessel

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Worksheet

1. A flue gas has the following composition:

CO2 14 %
O2 6%
N2 80 %
It is at 400 oF and 765.0 mm Hg pressure. Calculate the partial pressure of each
component.

2. A gas has the following composition at 50 oC and 13.8 psia.

N2 2.0 mole %
CH4 79.0 mole %
C2H6 19.0 mole %
What is the partial pressure of each component?

3. A gaseous mixture has the following composition by volume:

Methane 10.0 %
Ethane 30.0 %
Hydrogen 60.0 %
and flows at the rate of 1000 L/s at 30 oC and 2000 mm Hg gauge pressure.
Calculate
a) The mole fraction of each component
b) The average molecular mass of the mixture
c) The partial pressure of each component
d) The mass flow rate in kg/h

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 71 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
A gas is a substance in its gaseous state above its critical temperature.

A vapour is a substance in its gaseous state below its critical temperature.

The critical temperature of a substance is the temperature at and above which vapour of
the substance cannot be liquefied, no matter how much pressure is applied.

Unit operations that involve the transfer of liquid into the gas phase are:
 Evaporation
 Drying
 Humidification

Processes that involve transfer of a condensable species from gas to liquid phase are:
 Condensation
 Dehumidification

Suppose that water is introduced into a chamber that initially contains dry gas and that T
and P of the system is kept constant.
Initially the gas is dry, that is, it contains no water. Water begins to evaporate.
The mole fraction of water in the gas phase increases and so does the partial pressure of
water vapour {H2O (v)}.
p H 2O  y H 2 O P

Eventually, the amount of water in the gas phase is such that the rate at which molecules
enter the gas phase by evaporation equals the rate at which molecules leave by
condensation i.e. equilibrium is established.
The gas phase is said to be saturated with water vapour. In other words, it contains all
the water vapour it can hold at the system temperature and pressure.

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BALC1004 NOTES
Vapour pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapour in equilibrium with
its own liquid.

Vapour pressure always increases as temperature is increased.

NOTE:

1. A gas in equilibrium with a liquid must be saturated with the volatile

components of the liquid.
2. The partial pressure of a vapour at equilibrium in a gas mixture containing a
single condensable component cannot exceed the vapour pressure of the pure
component at the system temperature i.e. Pi  Pi  where Pi  is the vapour
pressure of the pure component at the system temperature.

EXAMPLE:
Air and water are contained at equilibrium in a closed chamber at 75 oC and 101.3 kPa.
Determine the composition of the vapour.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 73 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
Problem # 1
The vapour pressure of acetone is 200 mm Hg at 22.7 oC. Liquid acetone is kept in a
sealed flask at 22.7 oC, and the gas above the liquid contains air and acetone vapour at a
pressure of 900 mm Hg. Assuming equilibrium conditions exist determine:
a) The partial pressure of acetone in the gas
b) The partial pressure of Nitrogen in the gas
c) The mole fraction of acetone in the gas

How would you determine the boiling point of the acetone at a pressure of 900 mm Hg?

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 74 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 DEW – POINT
When a partially saturated gas is cooled at constant pressure, the volume of the mixture
may change slightly, but the partial pressure of the gas and vapour remain constant until
the dew point is reached. At this point water begins to condense; the gas remains
saturated as the temperature is lowered. All that occurs is that more water goes from
vapour into the liquid phase. At the time the cooling is stopped, the air is still saturated,
and at its dew- point.
In other words, at the dew point,
Equilibrium vapour pressure of liquid = partial pressure of vapour in the
mixture

Problem # 2

The vapour pressure of styrene is 100 mm Hg at 82 oC and 200 mm Hg at 100 oC.

A gas consisting of 10 mole % styrene and 90 mole % noncondensables is stored in a
tank at 100 oC and 1000 mm Hg. Determine the dew point of the gas.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 75 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
Problem # 3
A stream of air at 100 oC and 5260 mm Hg contain 10 % water by volume. Calculate the
percentage of water vapour that condenses and the final composition of the gas phase if
the air is cooled to 80 oC at constant pressure. Assume gas at the condenser outlet is
saturated with water vapour.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 76 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 4
What is the dew point of a mixture of air and water vapour at 60 oC and 1.0 bar if
the mole fraction of air is 0.8? The total pressure of the system is constant.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 77 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 SATURATION AND HUMIDITY

The system of interest is a mixture of a non – condensable gas and a single

condensable component e.g. a mixture of air and water vapour.

Air is the non – condensable gas; water vapour is the condensable component.

Thus in the liquid phase there is only one component and in the gaseous phase there
are two components.

If a gas contains a vapour in such proportion that the partial pressure of the vapour is
less than the vapour of the pure liquid at the existing temperature, the mixture is said to
be partially saturated. PV  PV

where PV is the partial pressure of the vapour

and PV is the vapour pressure of the pure liquid
Note: Under these conditions, the vapour and liquid are not in equilibrium. There
is no liquid.
If a gas contains a vapour in such proportion that the partial pressure of the vapour is
equal to the vapour of the pure liquid at the existing temperature, the mixture is said to
be saturated. PV  PV

Note: Under these conditions, the vapour and liquid are in equilibrium.

RELATIVE SATURATION

Relative saturation is the ratio of the partial pressure of the vapour in the gas mixture, Pv,
to the partial pressure if saturated, PV .

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 78 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 PV
Re lative Saturation 
PV

Dew point is the temperature at which saturation occurs.

NOTE: As the temperature is lowered, PV will decrease. If a gas is unsaturated

initially and the temperature is lowered, we will get to the point where the gas
becomes saturated i.e. the dew point is reached.

PERCENTAGE RELATIVE SATURATION

PV
Percentage Re lative Saturation   100
PV

MOLAL SATURATION
Molal saturation is the ratio of the moles of vapour present to moles of vapour – free
gas.
nV PV
Molal Saturation   where
nT  nV P  PV
nV  moles of vapour
nT  total number of moles
nT  nV  moles of vapour  free gas
P  total pressure

ABSOLUTE SATURATION

Absolute saturation is the ratio of the mass of vapour to the mass of vapour – free gas.
nV M V PV M V
Absolute Saturation  
 nT  nV  M G  P  PV  M G
Where MV is the molecular mass of the vapour
MG is the molecular mass of the gas

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 79 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 AIR –WATER SYSYTEM

When the vapour is water vapour and the gas is air, the special term Humidity
applies.
For other gases or vapours, the term saturation is used.

1. MOLAL HUMIDITY

Molal Humidity, Hm, is the moles of water vapour to moles of dry air.
moles of water vapour partial pressure of water vapour
Hm  
moles of dry air partial pressure of dry air

nW PW
Hm  
nT  nW P  PW

2. MOLAL SATURATION

Molal Humidity at saturation, Hms, is the moles of water vapour to moles of dry
air at saturation.
PW
H MS 
P  PW

3. HUMIDITY OR ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY (kg/ kg of dry air)

Humidity or absolute Humidity is the mass of water vapour per mass of dry

air.
nW M W PW M W
H    0.6207 H M
 nT  nW  M A  P  PW  M A
4. PERCENTAGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY

Percentage relative humidity, RH, is the ratio of the partial pressure of water in
the air mixture, PW, to the partial pressure if saturated PW , at the existing
temperature, expressed as a percentage.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 80 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 PW
RH   100
PW

Example

What is the relative humidity of 30.0 m3 of wet air at 27 oC that is found to contain
0.75 kg of water?

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 81 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 1

The molal humidity of a gas at 55 oC and 100 kPa is 0.05. Determine the:
a) Relative humidity of the gas
b) Dew point of the gas.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 82 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 2
Air at a temperature of 311 K and atmospheric pressure has a dew point of 300 K.
Estimate:
a. The molal humidity
b. The molal humidity at saturation
c. The absolute humidity

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 83 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 3
Air at 303 K and 760 mm Hg has a relative humidity of 80 %. Calculate:
a) The absolute humidity of the air
b) The absolute humidity of this air if the temperature is reduced to 288 K
and the pressure is increased to 2.0 atm condensing out some water
c) The mass of water condensed during cooling and compression

Data: Vapour pressure of water is 31.8 mm Hg and 12.75 mm Hg at 303 K and

288 k respectively.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 84 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 4
Air saturated with water vapour at 30 oC and 99.0 kPa occupying 1000 m3 is
cooled to 14 oC and compressed to 133.0 kPa. Calculate the mass of water
condensed out.

COMPRESSOR CONDENSER

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 85 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 Problem # 5
Air saturated with water vapour at 40 oC and 100.0 kPa occupying 1200 m3 is
cooled to 20 oC and compressed to 150.0 kPa. Calculate the mass of water
condensed out.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 86 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 GAS – VAPOUR MIXTURES WORKSHEET

1. What is the dew point of a mixture of air and water vapour at 60 oC and 1.0
atmosphere if the mole fraction of air is 88 %? The total pressure of the system is
constant.

2. The latest weather report includes the following statement: The temperature is
30 oC, barometric pressure is 1 bar and the relative humidity is 75 %. From this
information, estimate the mole fraction of water in the air and the dew point,
molal humidity and absolute humidity.

3. What is the relative humidity of 20.0 m3 of moist air at 35 oC that is found to

contain 0.18 kg of water vapour?

4. What is the relative humidity of 30.0 m3 of moist air at 55 oC that is found to

contain 0.36 kg of water vapour?

5. A mixture of air and benzene contains 10-mole % benzene at 38 oC and 790 mm

Hg pressure absolute. The vapour pressure of benzene is given as

1211
log10 p   6.906  where p  is the vapour pressure in mm Hg and T
220.8  T

is in oC. What is the dew point of the mixture?

6. A mixture of air and benzene contains 12-mole % benzene at 45 oC and 800 mm

Hg pressure absolute. The vapour pressure of benzene is given as

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 87 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 1211
log10 p   6.906  where p  is the vapour pressure in mm Hg and T
220.8  T

is in oC. What is the dew point of the mixture?

7. Air saturated with water vapour at 30 oC and 100.0 kPa occupies 1000 m3. The
moist air is cooled to 20 oC and compressed to 135 kPa. Calculate the mass of
water condensing out.

8. Air at 60 % relative humidity is cooled isobarically at 1 atm absolute from 90 oC

to 35 oC. Estimate the dew point and the degrees of superheat.

9. Air at 90 oC and 1.0 atm absolute contains 10.0 mole % water. A continuous
stream of this air enters a compressor – condenser, in which the temperature is
lowered to 15.6 oC and the pressure is raised to 3.0 atm. Calculate the fraction of
the water condensed from the air.

10. Air saturated with water vapour at 35 oC and 101 kPa occupies 1200 m3. The
moist air is cooled to 20 oC and compressed to 135 kPa. Calculate the mass of
water condensing out.

11. The molal humidity of a gas at 45 oC and 100.5 kPa is 0.055. Determine the:
a) Relative humidity of the gas
b) Dew point of the gas

12. The molal humidity of a gas at 65 oC and 101.325 kPa is 0.06. Determine the:
a) Relative humidity of the gas
b) Dew point of the gas
.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 88 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 COMBUSTION CALCULATIONS

Assumption: Air consists of 79 mole % N2 and 21 mole % O2.

Basis: 100 moles of air

79 moles of air moles of N 2

 3.76
21 moles of air moles of O2

100 moles of air moles of air

 4.76
21 moles of air moles of O2

Air sup plied  Theoretical air

% excess air   100
Theoretical air

1000 kg/h of propane is completely burnt in 25 % excess air in a furnace

operating under 2.0 mm Hg. Determine:
a) The flow rate of air entering
b) Molar composition of the flue gas
c) The dew point of the flue gas.

Data: Take atmosphere pressure to be 760 mm Hg.

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 89 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
Problem # 1

200 gmol/h of a gaseous fuel is burnt in 15 % excess air in a furnace operating under
vacuum. The fuel gas has the following composition by volume: 65 % CH4, 25 % C3H8
and the rest butane (C4H10). Air consists of 79 mole percent N2 and 21 mole percent O2.
Assuming complete combustion occurs determine:
a) The theoretical oxygen requirement if all of the fuel is consumed
b) The theoretical air requirement
c) The actual air supplied
d) The molar composition of the flue gas.

Solution:
n
1 mol CO2 /h
200 mol /h of fuel Furnace n 2 mol H2O mol /h
n
3 mol N2 /h
n 4 mol O2/h

Air
Write the chemical equations:
CH 4  2 O2  CO2  2 H 2 O
C 3 H 8  5 O2  3 CO2  4 H 2 O

13
C 4 H 10  O2  4 CO2  5 H 2 O
2
Basis: 1 g- mol of gaseous fuel

Component # of g- mol O2 requirement

CH4 0.65 0.65 x 2 = 1.30
C3H8 0.25 0.25 x 5 = 1.25

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 90 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
C4H10 0.1 0.1 x 6.5 = 0.65
Total = 3.2

a) The theoretical oxygen requirement = 200 x 3.2 = 640 g- mol/h

Moles of air 1
b)   4.76
Moles of O2 0.21
Theoretical air requirement = 4.76 x 640 = 3046.4 g – mol /h

c) Actual air supplied = 1.15 x 3046.4 = 3503.36 g – mol /h

d)
Component in flue # of g - mol Mole fraction Mole percent
gas
CO2 260 0.0794 7.94
H2O 150 0.0458 4.58
N2 2767.65 0.8455 84.55
O2 95.71 0.0292 2.92
∑ = 3273.36

Compiled by Karan Ramnarine Page 91 of 103

BALC1004 NOTES
 WORKSHEET – COMBUSTION

1. Natural gas of composition: 80 mole % methane and the remainder ethane is

burned in a furnace with 20 % excess air. If the operating pressure of the furnace

is 100 kPa, determine the dew point of the flue gas.

2. Natural gas containing 80 mole % CH4, 15 mole % C2H6 and 5 mole % C3H8 is to

be used as fuel in a steam generating plant. Assuming complete combustion

occurs, determine:

a) The molar composition of the flue gas.

b) The molar composition of the flue gas on a dry basis.

c) The dew point of the flue gas.

3. Three thousand kilograms per hour (3 000 kg/h) of ethane (C2H6) is burned in

25 % excess air in a furnace operating under 2 mm Hg vacuum. Assuming

complete combustion occurs, determine:

a) The flow rate of air entering the furnace

b) The molar composition of the flue gas.

c) The dew point of the flue gas.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 BALC 1004 - REVISION
1. Butane gas is fed to a furnace at a rate of 100 kmol/h and is completely oxidized.
Air that is used for the combustion process enters at 3575 kmol/h and consists of
20 mol % O2 and 80 mo % N2. Determine the molar flowrate of the flue gas
leaving the furnace and its molar composition.

2. A flue gas is analysed and was found to have the following composition by
volume:
N2 60 %
CO2 15 %
CO 15 %
H2O 10 %
c) Calculate the average molecular mass on a dry basis.
d) Determine its mass composition on a dry basis.

3. Find the volume of 176 kg of carbon dioxide at a pressure of 4.5 atm gauge and at
25 oC.
4. A gaseous mixture of composition 80 % propane and 20 % butane is confined to a
1.5 m3 cylinder at 5 atmospheres gauge pressure at a temperature of 30 oC. Find
its mass.

5. A mixture of propane and ethane has an average molecular mass of 33.5. Find the
mole percent of ethane and propane in the mixture.

6. A 0.75 m3 rigid tank containing He at 27 oC and 7.0 atmospheres gauge is

connected to another rigid tank via a valve and a short line. The other tank has a
volume of 0.5 m3 and contains helium at ambient temperature, 32 oC, and 1
atmosphere absolute. The valve is opened and the system is allowed to reach
thermal equilibrium. Determine the final pressure of the tanks when thermal
equilibrium is achieved neglecting the pressure drop across the line and valve.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 7. A graduate student wants to use the Van Der Waals equation of state to design a
steel tank in which CO2 is to be stored at a temperature of 27 oC. The tank is to be
designed in the shape of a uniform cylinder with an internal diameter of 100.0 cm
and a height of 4.0 m. Determine the pressure exerted within the tank in
atmospheres, if it is to contain 396 kg of CO2.

8. Butane gas is fed to a furnace at a rate of 100 kmol/h and is completely oxidized.
Air that is used for the combustion process enters at 3575 kmol/h and consists of
20 mol % O2 and 80 mo % N2. Determine the molar flowrate of the flue gas
leaving the furnace and its molar composition.

9. A sample of gas is analysed at 1 atm pressure and is found to have the following
composition as shown in the table below.
Component wt %
CO 10
CO2 25
N2 55
O2 5
H2O 5

i) What is your basis of calculation?

ii) Calculate the average molecular mass of the gas.

iii) Calculate the average molecular mass on a dry basis.

iv) Calculate the molar composition of the gas on a dry basis

R.A.M.: C = 12, H = 1, N = 14, O = 16.

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BALC1004 NOTES
 10. One hundred and thirty two kilograms (110 kg) of CO2 is contained in a 1.0 m3
cylinder. The safety limit of the cylinder is 1764.0 psig. Use the compressibility
chart to estimate the maximum permissible gas temperature.


 PC V TR 
T
PR 
P
Vr  ,
TC PC
RTC
P V  znRT where z is the compressibility factor

1 atm = 14.7 psia


11. Using the data given in the process flow chart below, calculate the values of n1

and n2 by doing atomic balances.
2 SO2  O2  2 SO3


100 mol SO2/s REACTOR n1 mol SO /s 3

80 mol O2/s 10 mol SO2 /s



n2 mol O 2 /s

12. Propane gas is fed to a furnace at a rate of 100 kmol/h and is completely oxidized.
Air that is used for the combustion process enters at 3575 kmol/h and consists of

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BALC1004 NOTES
 20 mol % O2 and 80 mo % N2. Determine the molar flowrate of the flue gas
leaving the furnace and its molar composition.

13. A flue gas is analysed and was found to have the following composition:

Component wt %
N2 60 %
CO2 15 %
CO 15 %
H2O 10 %

Calculate the average molecular mass on a dry basis.

14. A multistage evaporator concentrates an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution

containing 10 wt % of NaOH to 50 wt % NaOH. If the evaporator processes 10
metric tonnes of solution per day, determine:
a) The mass of concentrated NaOH produced daily
b) The volume of water produced each day

Density of water is 995 kg/m3

15. Diborane, B2H6, a possible rocket propellant, can be made by using Lithium
hydride (LiH): 6 LiH + 2 BCl3 B2H6 + 6 LiCl

If you mix 400 g of LiH with 1000 g of BCl3, you recover 100.0g of B2H6.
Determine:
a) The limiting reactant
b) The reactant present in excess
c) The percent excess reactant
d) The degree of completion of the reaction.

R.A.M.: B = 11, Li = 7, Cl = 35.5

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BALC1004 NOTES
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
1. A sample of gas is analysed at 1 atm pressure and is found to have the following
composition as shown in the table below.

Component Mole %
CO 12
CO2 20 i) Calculate the average molecular mass of
N2 55 the gas.
O2 3 ii) Calculate the mass composition of the
H2O 10 gas.
R.A.M.: C = 12, H = 1, N = 14, O = 16.

Solution:
Component Mole % Mole fraction RMM yiMi
yi Mi
CO 12 0.12 28 3.36
CO2 20 0.20 44 8.8
N2 55 0.55 28 15.4
O2 3 0.03 32 0.96
H2O 10 0.10 18 1.8
Average molecular mass = 30.32

Basis: 1 gmol of sample of gas

Component Mole % Mole Number of RMM Mass in Mass
fraction gmol grams fraction
CO 12 0.12 0.12 28 3.36 0.1108
CO2 20 0.20 0.20 44 8.80 0.2902
N2 55 0.55 0.55 28 15.4 0.5079
O2 3 0.03 0.03 32 0.96 0.0317
H2O 10 0.10 0.10 18 1.8 0.0594
 30.32

Component Mass %
CO 11.08
CO2 29.02
N2 50.79
O
Compiled
2 by Karan3.17
Ramnarine Page 97 of 103
H O
BALC1004
2 NOTES 5.94
 2. The electrolytic manufacture of chlorine gas from sodium chloride solution is
carried out by the following reaction:

2 NaCl + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2

Suppose that 100 kg NaCl reacts with 40 kg of H2O. Determine:
i) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?

ii) Which reactant is present in excess?

iii) The amount of chlorine produced if the reaction is 60 % complete.
R.A.M. : Na = 23, H = 1, O = 16, Cl = 35.5

Solution:

Component Mass RMM Number

of kmol
NaCl 100 58.5 1.71
H2O 40 18 2.22
Cl2 71

From the balanced chemical equation;

2 kmol of NaCl react with 2 kmol of water
∴ 1.71 kmol of NaCl will react with 1.71 kmol of H2O
Since 2.2 kmol of water are present, NaCl is the limiting reactant and H2O is the
reactant present in excess

Fractional conversion is based on the limiting reactant.

Fractional conversion of NaCl is 60 %

f  amount of NaCl reacting  100

NaCl amount of NaCl entering

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BALC1004 NOTES
 60 amount of NaCl reacting

100 1.71
Amount of NaCl reacting = 0.6 x 1.71 = 1.026 kmol

From the balanced chemical equation;

2 kmol of NaCl produce 1 kmol of chlorine
1
∴ 1.026 kmol of NaCl will react with  1.026  0.513 kmol of Cl2
2
Mass of chlorine produced = 0.513 x 71 = 36.42 kg

3. One hundred and thirty two kilograms (132 kg) of CO2 is contained in a 1.0
m3 cylinder. The safety limit of the cylinder is 2128 psig. Use the
compressibility chart to estimate the maximum permissible gas temperature.

For CO2:
Pc = 72.9 atm Tc = 304.2 K
132
n=  3.0 kmol
44
2128  14.7
P=  145.76 atm
14.7
 1 m3
Molar volume, V =
3 kmol

a
27 R 2TC2

27  0.082062  304.2 2
 3.6061
atm. m 3  2

64 PC 64  72.9 kmol  2

0.125  R  TC 0.125  0.08206  304.2 m3
b   0.0428
PC 72.9 kmol

 a 
 
 P  ˆ 2  Vˆ  b  RT
 V 
a 
( P   2 ) (V  b)
T  V
R

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BALC1004 NOTES
  3.6061 
145.76    0.333  0.0428
 0.333 2  178.28  0.2902
T    630.47 K
0.08206 0.08206

4. A cylinder 0.150 m3 in volume containing 22.7 kg of propane stands in the hot

sun. A pressure gauge shows that the pressure is 4790 kPa gauge. Using VDW
EOS, determine the temperature of the propane in the cylinder.

For C3H8:
Pc = 42 atm Tc = 369.9 K
27
n=  0.6136 kmol
44
4790  101.325
P=  48.27 atm
101.325
 0.150 m3
Molar volume, V =  0.24446
0.6136 kmol

a
27 R 2TC2

27  0.082062  369.9 2
 9.2548
 
atm. m 3
2

64 PC 64  42 
kmol 2

0.125  R  TC 0.125  0.08206  369.9 m3

b   0.0903
PC 42 kmol

 a 
 
 P  ˆ 2  Vˆ  b  RT
 V 
a 
( P   2 ) (V  b)
T  V
R

 9.2548 
 48.27    0.24446  0.0903
 0.24446 2  203.134  0.15416
T    381.6 K
0.08206 0.08206

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BALC1004 NOTES
 5. A stream of oxygen at – 73 oC and 38.4 atm flows at a rate of 250 kg/h. Use
the compressibility factor equation of state to estimate the volumetric flow
rate of the stream.

T P
T  P 
R T R P
c c
FOR O2 : Tc = 154.4 K, Pc = 49.7 atm
Solution:
T = - 73 +273 = 200 K
200
TR=  1.29  1.3
154.4
P 38.4
PR    0.77  0.8
PC 49.7

mass flow rate 250 kmol

n    7.8125
RMM 32 h
From chart, using PR = 0.8 and TR = 1.3, z = 0.87
Using the compressibility factor equation of state:

PV  zn RT
zn RT 0.87  7.8125  0.08206  200 m3
V    2.905
P 38.4 h

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BALC1004 NOTES
 6. What is the relative humidity of 20.0 m3 of moist air at 35 oC that is found to
contain 0.18 kg of water vapour?

Solution:
Pw
Relative Humidity =  100
Pw
Using the concept of partial pressure, we can calculate Pw.
Applying the ideal gas law,
n RT
PW  W
V
0.18
nW   0.01 kmol
18
T = 35 + 273 = 308 K
atm. m 3
R = 0.08206 kmol. K
V = 20 m3
n RT 0.01  0.08206  308
PW  W   0.012637 atm
V 20
PW  0.012637  101.325  1.28 kPa

Vapour Pressure (kPa) Temperature (K)

6.230 310
X 308
4.718 305

6.230  4.718 X  4.718


310  305 308  305
1.152 X  4.718

5 3
5  X  4.718  1.152  3
5 X  23.59  3.456
5 X  27.046
X  5.4092 kPa
Pw  5.4092 kPa at 35 oC

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BALC1004 NOTES
 Pw 1.28
Relative Humidity = 
 100 =  100  23.66 %
Pw 5.4092
7. If a gas at 62 oC and a total pressure of 101.6 kPa has a molal humidity of
0.05, determine:
a) The relative humidity
b) The dew point of the gas in oC.

Pv
Molal Humidity , H M 
P  Pv
Pv
0.05 
101.6  Pv
0.05101.6  Pv   Pv
5.08  0.05 Pv  Pv
1.05 Pv  5.08
5.08
Pv   4.84 kPa
1.05
P  Vapour pressure of water at 62 oC (335 K)
From vapour pressure table for water, P   21.71 kPa

P
Relative Humidity = v  100
P
4.84
=  100  22.29 %
21.71
At the dew point, the partial pressure of the water vapour becomes the
vapour pressure of water, i.e. P   4.84 kPa
We have to find at what temperature is the vapour pressure of water = 4.84
kPa.

Vapour Pressure (kPa) Temperature (K)

6.230 310
4.84 T
4.718 305
6.230  4.718 4.84  4.718

310  305 T  305
1.152 0.122

5 T  305
5  0.122  1.152  T  305
0.61  1.152 T  351.36
T  305.53 K
Dew point temperature = 305.53 K or 32.38 oC

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BALC1004 NOTES