Table 13-1 Equations of Speed Ratio for a Planetary Type

Sun Gear A Planet Gear B Internal Gear C

No. Description Za Zb Zc Carrier D

Rotate sun gear A once while holding - Za - Za

1 +1 0
carrier Zb Zc
System is fixed as a whole while + Za + Za + Za + Za
2 rotating +(Z /Z )
a c Zc Zc Zc Zc
1 + Za + Za - Za 0 + Za
3 Sum of 1 and 2
Zc Zc Zb (fixed) Zc
Table 13-2 Equations of speed Ratio for a Solar Type
Sun Gear A Planet Gear B Internal Gear C
No. Description Za Zb Zc Carrier D

Rotate sun gear A once while holding - Za - Za

1 +1 0
carrier Zb Zc
System is fixed as a whole while
2 rotating +(Z /Z ) -1 -1 -1 -1
a c
0 - Za - 1 - Za - 1
3 Sum of 1 and 2 -1
(fixed) Zb Zc
In spur and helical gearing, backlash allowance is
usually obtained by sinking the hob deeper into the
SECTION 14 BACKLASH blank than the theoretically standard depth. Further, it
Up to this point the discussion has implied that there is no backlash. If is true that any increase or decrease in center distance
the gears are of standard tooth proportion design and operate on of two gears in any mesh will cause an increase or
standard center distance they would function ideally with neither decrease in backlash. Thus, this is an alternate way of
backlash nor jamming. designing backlash into the system.
Backlash is provided for a variety of reasons and cannot be designated In the following, we give the fundamental equations
without consideration of machining conditions. The general purpose of for the determination of backlash in a single gear
backlash is to prevent gears from jamming by making contact on both mesh. For the determination of backlash in gear trains,
sides of their teeth simultaneously. A small amount of backlash is also it is necessary to sum the backlash of each mated gear
desirable to provide for lubricant space and differential expansion pair. However, to obtain the total backlash for a series
between the gear components and the housing. Any error in machining of meshes, it is necessary to take into account the
which tends to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to gear ratio of each mesh relative to a chosen reference
increase the amount of backlash by at least as much as the possible shaft in the gear train. For details, see Reference 10 at
cumulative errors. Consequently, the smaller the amount of backlash, the end of the technical section.
the more accurate must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both 14.1 Definition Of Backlash
gears, errors in profile, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and center Backlash is defined in Figure 14-2(a) as the
distance Ä all are factors to consider in the specification of the amount excess thickness of tooth space over the thickness of
of backlash. On the other hand, excessive backlash is objectionable, the mating tooth. There are two basic ways in which
particularly if the drive is frequently reversing or if there is an backlash arises: tooth thickness is below the zero
overrunning load. The amount of backlash must not be excessive for the backlash value; and the operating center distance is
requirements of the job, but it should be sufficient so that machining greater than the zero backlash value.
costs are not higher than necessary.
In order to obtain the amount of
backlash desired, it is necessary to
decrease tooth thickness. See
Figure 14-1. This decrease must
almost always be greater than the
desired backlash because of the
errors in manufacturing and
assembling. Since the amount of
the decrease in tooth thickness
depends upon the accuracy of
machining, the allowance for a
specified backlash will vary
according to the manufacturing
conditions.

It is customary to make half of the allowance for backlash on the tooth

thickness of each gear of a pair, although there are exceptions. For
example, on pinions having very low numbers of teeth, it is desirable to
provide all of the allowance on the mating gear so as not to weaken the
pinion teeth.

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 If the tooth thickness of either or both mating gears is
less than the zero backlash value, the amount of Hence, an approximate relationship between center distance change
backlash introduced in the mesh is simply this numerical and change in backlash is:
difference: ∆a = 1.933∆j for 14.5º pressure angle gears (14-3b)
j = Sstd - Sact = ∆S (14-1) ∆a = 1.374∆j for 20º pressure angle gears (14-3c)
Although these are approximate relationships, they are adequate for
where: most uses. Their derivation, limitations, and correction factors are
j = linear backlash measured along the pitch circle detailed in Reference 10.
(Figure 14-2(b)) Note that backlash due to center distance opening is dependent upon
Sstd = no backlash tooth thickness on the operating the tangent function of the pressure angle. Thus, 20º gears have 41%
more backlash than 14.5º gears, and this constitutes one of the few
pitch circle, which is the standard tooth thickness for
advantages of the lower pressure angle.
ideal gears
Equations (14-3) are a useful relationship, particularly for
Sact = actual tooth thickness
converting to angular backlash. Also, for fine pitch gears the use of
Backlash, Along Line-of-Action = jn = jcosα feeler gages for measurement is impractical, whereas an indicator at the
pitch line gives a direct measure. The two linear backlashes are related
by:
j = jn (14-4)
cos α
The angular backlash at the gear shaft is usually the critical factor in
the gear application. As seen from Figure 14-2(a), this is related to the
gear's pitch radius as follows:
jθ = 3440 j (arc minutes) (14-5)
R1
Obviously, angular backlash is inversely proportional to gear radius.
Also, since the two meshing gears are usually of different pitch
diameters, the linear backlash of the measure converts to different
angular values for each gear. Thus, an angular backlash must be
specified with reference to a particular shaft or gear center.
Details of backlash calculations and formulas for various gear types
are given in the following sections.
When the center distance is increased by a relatively 14.2 Backlash Relationships
small amount, ∆a, a backlash space develops between
mating teeth, as in Figure 14-3. The relationship
between center distance increase and linear backlash jn Expanding upon the previous
along the line-of-action is: definition, there are several
jn = 2 ∆a sinα (14-2) kinds of backlash: circular
backlash Jt, normal backlash
jn, center backlash jr, and
angular backlash Jθ(º), see
Figure 14-4.
Table 14-1 reveals
relationships among circular
backlash jt, normal backlash jn
and center backlash Jr. In this
definition, Jr is equivalent to
change in center distance, ∆a
in Section 14.1.

This measure along the line-of-action is useful when

inserting a feeler gage between teeth to measure
backlash. The equivalent linear backlash measured along
the pitch circle is given by:
j = 2 ∆a tanα (14-3a)

where:
∆a = change in center distance
α = pressure angle

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 and radial backlash jr' have the following relationships:

Circular backlash jt has a relation with angular backlash jθ as (14-11)

follows:
jθ = jt 360 (degrees) (14-6)
πd
14.2.1 Backlash of a Spur Gear Mesh
From Figure 14-4 we can derive backlash of sour mesh as:

(14-7)

14.2.2 Backlash of Helical Gear Mesh

The helical gear has two kinds of backlash when referring to
the tooth space. There is a cross section in the normal direction
of the tooth surface n, and a cross section in the radial direction
perpendicular to the axis, t.

jnn= backlash in the

direction normal to The radial backlash in the plane of axes can be broken down
the tooth surface into the components in the direction of bevel pinion center axis,
jnt= backlash in the jrt and in the direction of bevel gear center axis, jr2.
circular direction in
the cross section
normal to the tooth (14-12)
jtn= backlash in the
direction normal to
the tooth surface in
14.2.4 Backlash of a Spiral Bevel Gear Mesh
the cross section
Figure 14-7 delineates backlash for a spiral bevel gear mesh.
perpendicular to the
axis
jtt =backlash in the
circular direction
perpendicular to the
axis
Fig. 14-5 Backlash of Helical Gear
Mesh

These backlashes have relations as follows:

In the plane normal to the tooth:
jnn= jnt cosαn (14-8)
On the pitch surface:
jnt=jttcos β (14-9)
In the plane perpendicular to the axis:

(14-10)

14.2.3 Backlash of Straight Bevel Gear Mesh

Figure 14-6 expresses backlash for a straight bevel gear
mesh.
In the cross section perpendicular to the tooth of a straight
bevel gear, circular backlash at pitch line jt, normal backlash jn In the tooth space cross section normal to the tooth:
jnn = jnt cos αn (14-13)
On the pitch surface:
jnt = jtt cos βm (14-14)

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In the plane perpendicular to the generatrix of the pitch cone:

(14-15) Let the backlash on the center distance direction be jn then:

jr = jt = 0.2 = 0.2747
2tanα 2tan20º
The radial backlash in the plane of axes can be broken down These express the relationship among several kinds of
into the components in the direction of bevel pinion center axis, backlashes. In application, one should consult the JIS standard.
and in the direction of bevel gear center axis, jr2 There are two JIS standards for backlash - one is JIS B
1703-76 for spur gears and helical gears, and the other is JIS B
1705-73 for bevel gears. All these standards regulate the
(14-16) standard backlashes in the direction of the pitch circle jt or jtt.
These standards can be applied directly, but the backlash
beyond the standards may also be used for special purposes.
14.2.5 Backlash of Worm Gear Mesh When writing tooth thicknesses on a drawing, it is necessary to
Figure 14-8 expresses backlash for a worm gear mesh. specify, in addition, the tolerances on the thicknesses as well as
the backlash. For example:

Circular tooth thickness

Backlash 0.100 ... 0.200
14.4 Gear Train And Backlash
The discussions so far involved a single pair of gears. Now,
we are going to discuss two stage gear trains and their backlash.
In a two stage gear train, as Figure 14-9 shows, j1 and j4
represent the backlashes of first stage gear train and second
stage gear train respectively.

On the pitch surface of a worm:

(14-17)

In the cross section of a worm perpendicular to its axis:

(14-18)

In the plane pependicular to the axis of the worm gear:

If number one gear were fixed, then the accumulated
(14-19) backlash on number four gear jtT4 would be as follows:
jtT4 = j1 d3 + j4 (14-20)
d2
14.3 Tooth Thickness And Backlash
This accumulated backlash can be converted into rotation in
There are two ways to produce backlash. One is to enlarge the
degrees:
center distance. The other is to reduce the tooth thickness. The
jθ = jtT4 360 (degrees) (14-21)
latter is much more popular than the former. We are going to
discuss more about the way of reducing the tooth thickness. In πd 4
SECTION 10, we have discussed the standard tooth thickness The reverse case is to fix number four gear and to examine
s. In the meshing of a pair of gears, if the tooth thickness of the accumulated backlash on number one gear jtT1
pinion and gear were reduced by ∆S1 and ∆S2 they would jtT1 = j4 d2 + j1 (14-22)
produce a backlash of ∆s1 + ∆s2 in the direction of the pitch d3
circle. This accumulated backlash can be converted into rotation in
Let the magnitude of ∆s1 ∆s2 be 0.1. We know that α = 20º degrees:
then: jθ = jtT1 360 (degrees) (14-23)
jt = ∆S1+ ∆S2= 0.1 +0.1 = 0.2 πd1
We can convert it into the backlash on normal direction:
jn = jtcosα = 0.2cos20º = 0.1879

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14.5 Methods Of Controlling Backlash

In order to meet special needs, precision gears are used

more Frequently than ever before. Reducing backlash becomes Case lll
an important issue. There are two methods of reducing or Center distance adjustment of backlash can be accomplished
eliminating backlash - one a static, and the other a dynamic in two ways:
method.
The static method concerns means of assembling gears and
then making proper adjustments to achieve the desired low
backlash. The dynamic method introduces an external force 1. Linear Movement -
which continually eliminates all backlash regardless of rotational Figure 14-11a show
position. adjustment along the
14.5.1 Static Method line-of-centers in a straight
or parallel axes manner.
This involves After setting to the desire
adjustment of either value of backlash the
the gears effective centers are locked in place.
tooth thickness or 2. Rotary Movement-
the mesh center Figure 14-11b show an
distance. These two alternate way c achieving
independent center distance adjustment
adjustments can be b rotation of one of the
used to produce four gear centers b means of a
possible swing arm on an eccentric
combinations as bushing. Again, once the
shown in Table desired backlash setting is
14-2. found, the positioning arm
is locked.
Case l
By design, center distance and tooth thickness are such that
they yield the proper amount of desired minimum backlash.
Center distance and tooth thickness size are fixed at correct
values and require precision manufacturing. Case IV
Case ll Adjustment of both center distance and tooth thickness is
With gears mounted on fixed centers, adjustment is made to theoretically valid, but is not the usual practice. This would call
the effective tooth thickness by axial movement or other means. for needless fabrication expense.
Three main methods are: 14.5.2 Dynamic Methods
1. Two identical gears are mounted so that one can be Dynamic methods relate to the static techniques. However,
rotated relative to the other and fixed. See Figure 14-10a. In they involve a forced adjustment of either the effective tooth
this way, the effective tooth thickness can be adjusted to yield thickness or the center distance.
the desired low backlash. 1. Backlash Removal by Forced Tooth Contact
2. A gear with a helix angle such as a helical gear is made in This is derived from static Case 11 Referring to Figure
two half thicknesses. One is shifted axially such that each makes 14-10a. a forcing spring rotates the two gear halves apart. This
contact with the mating gear on the opposite sides of the tooth. results in an effective tooth thickness that continually fills the
See Figure 14-10b. entire tooth space in all mesh positions.
3. The backlash of cone shaped gears, such as bevel and 2. Backlash Removal by Forced Center Distance Closing
tapered tooth spur gears, can be adjusted with axial positioning. This is derived from static Case lll. A spring force is applied to
A duplex lead worm can be adjusted similarly. See Figure close the center distance; in one case as a linear force along the
14-10c. line-of-centers, and in the other case as a torque applied to the
swing arm.
In all of these dynamic methods, the applied external force
should be known and properly specified. The theoretical
relationship of the forces involved is as follows:
F > F1 + F2 (14-24)

where:
F1 = Transmission Load on Tooth Surface
F2 = Friction Force on Tooth Surface

If F < F1 + F2, then it would be impossible to remove

backlash. But if F is excessively greater than a proper level, the
tooth surfaces would be needlessly loaded and could lead to
premature wear and shortened life. Thus, in designing such
gears, consideration must be given to not only the needed
transmission load, but also the forces acting upon the tooth
surfaces caused by the spring load. It is important to appreciate
that the spring loading must be set to accommodate the largest
expected transmission force, F1. and this maximum spring force
is applied to the tooth surfaces continually and irrespective of
the load being driven.
3. Duplex Lead Worm
A duplex lead worm mesh is a special design in which
backlash can be adjusted by shifting the worm axially. it is
useful for worm

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drives in high precision turntables and hobbing machines.
Figure 14-12 presents the basic concept of a duplex lead
worm.

In the above table, W and W' are the tolerance units defined as:

The lead or pitch, PL and PR, on the two sides of the worm (15-1)
W= 0.56 W + 0.25m (µm) (15-2)
thread are not identical. The example in Figure 14-12 shows
The value of allowable pitch variation error is k times the
the case when PR > PL To produce such a worm requires a
single pitch error. Table 15-2 expresses the formula of the
special dual lead hob. allowable pitch variation error.
The intent of Figure 14-12 is to indicate that the worm tooth
thickness is progressively bigger towards the right end. Thus, it
is convenient to adjust backlash by simply moving the duplex
worm in the axial direction.
SECTION 15 GEAR ACCURACY
Gears are one of the basic elements used to transmit power
and position. As designers, we desire them to meet various
demands:
1. Minimum size.
2. Maximum power capability.
3. Minimum noise (silent operation).
4. Accurate rotation/position.
To meet various levels of these demands requires appropriate
degrees of gear accuracy. This involves several gear features.
15.1 Accuracy Of Spur And Helical Gears
This discussion of spur and helical gear accuracy is based
upon JIS B 1702 standard. This specification describes 9 grades
of gear accuracy - grouped from 0 through 8 - and four types of Figure 15-1 is an example of pitch errors derived from data
pitch errors: measurements made with a dial indicator on a 15 tooth gear.
Single pitch error. Pitch differences were measured between adjacent teeth and are
Pitch variation error. plotted in the figure. From that plot, single pitch, pitch variation
Accumulated pitch error. and accumulated pitch errors are extracted and plotted.
Normal pitch error.
Single pitch error, pitch variation and accumulated pitch errors
are closely related with each other.
15.1.1 Pitch Errors of Gear Teeth
1. Single Pitch Error (fpt)
The deviation between actual measured pitch value between
any adjacent tooth surface and theoretical circular pitch.
2. Pitch Variation Error (fpu)
Actual pitch variation between any two adjacent teeth. In the
ideal case, the pitch variation error will be zero.
3. Accumulated Pitch Error (Fp)
Difference between theoretical summation over any number
of teeth interval, and summation of actual pitch measurement
over the same interval.
4. Normal Pitch Error (fpb)
It is the difference between theoretical normal pitch and its
actual measured value.
The major element to influence the pitch errors is the runout
of gear flank groove.
Table 15-1 contains the ranges of allowable pitch errors of
spur gears and helical gears for each precision grade, as NOTE: A = Max. Single Pitch Error
specified in JIS B 1702-1976. B = Max. Accumulated Error
C = Max. Pitch Variation Error

Fig. 15-1 Examples of Pitch Errors for a 15 Tooth Gear

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