Mekelle University

Ethiopian Institute of Technology-

Technology-Mekelle

Chapter Three: Embankment Dam

Principles of Design and Construction
Course Name: Dam Engineering
Course Code: CENG 6032

Dr. Bizuneh Asfaw Abebe.

1 2019/2018A.Y
3. Types of Embankment Dams
3.1. Introduction

ICOLD defined an embankment dam as, "any dam constructed of excavated materials

placed without addition of binding materials other than those inherent in the natural
material. The materials are usually obtained at or near the dam site“

An embankment dam is a non-rigid dam, which resists the forces exerted upon it mainly

by its shear strength. For the construction of embankment dams the entire range of
soils from clays to boulders or quarried stones are used.

These dams usually provide the most economical and most satisfactory solution for

sites at which suitable foundation at reasonable depth may not be available for a dam of
concrete or masonry.
2
Characteristics
General Remarks

Flexible construction; loads are distributed; less demands on bearing capacity

and uniformity of the subsoil as compared to concrete dams;

mostly separated into supporting and sealing part of the damming construction.

Cross section mostly symmetrical.

Rectilinear line in the ground plan.

3
Advantages:

Construction on loose rock is possible;

Almost all types are insensitive to settlings and earthquakes;

Simple construction (depending on the construction method and technical

requirements);

Increase of height easily possible at a later stage;

Good adaption into the landscape, planting at the downstream slope.

4
 Disadvantages:

Sensitive to wave wash (also if backwater level is lowered);

High free board is necessary (3 to 4 m) i. e. level difference between crown and

head water level at high water stages;

Not overflowable (operating set-ups and spillway must be clearly separated from

the dam, either as separate construction in the slope area or as independent

concrete construction; for safety reasons, increased design flood);

Surface erosion at the downstream slope due to rain (counter measure: berms);

Construction progress and materials depending on the weather;

5 Large mass quantities (high cost of transport; larger settlings).

Cont’d…

The two main forms of embankment dams are

Earth (Earthfill) dams made predominantly of earth or soil,

Rock fill dams made predominantly of quarried rock.

However, composite earth and rock fill type of embankment dams are also being widely used.

Earth dams: can be constructed on almost all types of foundations, provided suitable measures are
taken. Earth dams are usually cheaper than gravity dams if the soil in abundant quantity is available
near the site. Modern developments in earthmoving equipment have resulted in decreased cost for
earth dams.

Rockfill dams: require somewhat stronger foundations as compared to earth dams, but the
foundation need not be as strong as those for gravity dams.

Rockfill dams are more economical than gravity dams if Rockfill is easily available at the site.

6
4.2. Earth (fill) Dams

The design of earth dam involves both hydraulic and structural considerations.

Hydraulic analysis primarily involves a determination of the seepage patterns and magnitudes, as well
as the internal hydrostatic forces resulting from seepage, both for the dam body and foundation of
particular importance is piping.

Structural analysis involves a study of the embankment stability under the given conditions of seepage
and other forces. Settlement and stability studies of the foundation are also important.

3.2.1. Types of Earth Dams

Based on methods of construction, earth dams could be classified into:

Rolled-fill earth dams

Hydraulic-fill earth dams, and

Semi-hydraulic fill earth dams

Rolled-fill dams are most commonly used in practice. These dams are constructed by placing materials in thin
7 layers, about 15 to 45 cm thick, and compacting each layer to the required dry density with heavy rollers.
Cont’d…
In hydraulic-fill earth dams water is used for transporting and placing the materials.
 The main advantages are

No roller is required for compaction.

The material at the borrow pits is mixed with a large quantity of water to form slush or mud.
This slush is transported through flumes or pipes and discharged along the outside edges of
the fill of the earth dam.

As soon as the slush comes out of the pipes, the coarser materials are deposited near the
pipe exit. However, the finer materials are carried into the central pool at the location of the
core.

8
 Cont’d…
 The main disadvantages of the hydraulic fill dam are that the fill is saturated

when placed and a very high pore-water pressure develops in the core
material.

The embankment should be safe under the pore-pressure developed during the

construction. Moreover, because of slow drainage of water from the core,

settlement occurs over a long period.

The embankment is also highly susceptible to the damage due to earthquake

till the drainage is complete. Moreover, the quality control is difficult.

9
Cont’d…

In semi-hydraulic fill dams, the coarse material is dumped from trucks into the

required position to form shells. The core is, however, constructed by hydraulic-fill
method. The fines are sluiced into a core.

Out of these three types of dams rolled fill dams are most commonly adopted.

This is so because in the case of the other two types of dams lack of control in
placing the material may result in the failure of the dam.

 Rolled fill dams are of three types:

I. Homogeneous earth dams
II. Zoned earth dams
III. Diaphragm-type earth dams
10
1. Homogeneous Earth Dams: Composed of only one material except for the slope protection.

When practically only one impervious material is available and the height of the dam is

relatively low, a homogeneous dam with internal drain may be used .

The inclined drain serves to prevent the downstream slope from becoming saturated and

susceptible to piping and/or slope failure and to intercept and prevent piping through any
horizontal cracks traversing the width of the embankment.

In this type of dam, the slope must be relatively flat for stability.

11
Cont’d…
 Basic properties required in the material for an homogeneous embankment or for the core of a

rockfill dam are:

It must be sufficiently impervious to prevent excessive loss of water through the dam, the

acceptable loss being determined by the safety of the structure and the value of the lost water;

It must be capable of being placed and consolidated to give a practically homogeneous mass,

free from potential paths of percolation, either through the fill or along its contact with the
foundation;

The soil should develop a maximum practical shear strength under compaction and maintain

most of it after the filling of the reservoir;

It must not consolidate, soften or liquify upon saturation.

12
2. Zoned Earth Dams: Composed of more than one type of soil

A zoned earth dam usually consists of a central impervious core flanked by shells of
pervious materials on the upstream and downstream sides.

A transition filter is usually required between the core and the shell to prevent piping.

The central core checks seepage through the dam. It is constructed of clay, silt, silty clay
or clayey silt.

The pervious shell gives stability to the dam and it consists of sand, gravel, or a mixture of
these materials.

13
Cont’d…

The upstream pervious zone provides free drainage during sudden
drawdown. The downstream pervious zone acts as a drain to control the
phreatic line.

The pervious zones give stability to the core and also distribute the load
over a large area of foundation.

The transition filter prevents the migration of the core material into the
pores of the shell material.

The downstream transition filter is useful during the steady seepage
conditions and the upstream filter is useful during the sudden drawdown
conditions.
14
3. Diaphragm-type Earth Dams:

Consists of a thin impervious core, called diaphragm, surrounded by pervious shells.

It is also called thin core earth dam. The difference between zoned earth dam and
diaphragm-type earth dam is only in the thickness of the core.

If the thickness of the core at any elevation is less than the height of the embankment
above the elevation or 10 m, the dam is generally considered to be of diaphragm type.

Diaphragm-type earth dams are not common. These are constructed only when there is
shortage of impervious material for the construction of a zoned earth dam.

15
Embankment Dam with Core
Description

Core within the embankment cross section,

reaching the surface at the crest only.

Downstream supporting shell made of

material with higher shear strength, mainly

to withstand water pressure.

Mostly, coarse fill material is used.

For fine-grained materials, drainage layers

are provided in the underground.

16
Advantages:

Seepage control of layer is in a protected position;

Possibility of ponding from both sides in the function of a low weir upstream of a

reservoir (Forebay).

Low sensibility dynamic loads e.g. earthquakes.

Disadvantages:

Only indirect control is possible;

No possibility of repair;

Merging of construction stages (core and supporting shell at the same time).

17
(a) Thick core (clay, loam, silt)

Flexible core, made of natural or prepared cohesive soils; vertical
placement between filter layers.

18
Cont’d…
Advantages:

Little sensitivity to unregular settling (sealing in the direction of the settlings);

Core not sensitive to earthquakes.

Disadvantages:

The downstream shell of the core only acts as supporting body
against water pressure;

Installation of filters before and behind the core is necessary;

Later heightening most difficult.

19
Thin core

Flexible core made of asphalt concrete, without filter layers in embankment centre line,

possibly slightly inclined in the upper part towards the downstream side. Favorably used

when natural impervious material is not available.

20
Cont’d…
Advantages:

Simple construction;

Little chemical and material change of the core;

Due to good elastic and plastic deformation properties, embankment remains

watertight also after settlings or earthquake;

Better connection to the subsoil.

Disadvantage:

Water pressure acts horizontally, thus minimizing stability.
21
Cont’d…

The minimum thickness of core is dependent on a number of factors:

tolerable seepage loss;

minimum width which will allow proper construction;

the type of material chosen for the core and shoulders of the dam;

design of proposed filter layers;

past experience on similar projects.

22
Cont’d…
Advantages of vertical cores:

One advantage of the vertical core is that higher pressures will exist on the

contact between the core and the foundation, and will provide more protection
against the possibility of leakage along the contact.

The vertical core tends to be slightly thicker for a given quantity of impervious soil

than the thickness of a sloping core.

23
Sloping Impervious Core Earthfill Dams

Natural impervious materials (loam, clay) or prepared sealing materials
(clay concrete, hydrated clay); position upstream under the surface
between filter layers.

24
Advantages:

Greater part of the embankment acts as supporting shell;

Filling of the supporting shell independent from dam sealing and underground sealing;

Filling works can be done according to weather conditions.

Disadvantage:

Sensitive to deformations.

It may be difficult to locate the grout curtain in the desired position relative to the core
contact area.

If it is anticipated that additional grouting is required through the embankment after the
dam is completed then a central core design is preferred, because the work can be done
25 from the crest of the dam without lowering the reservoir.
 3.3. Foundation Requirements of earth dams

Earth dam can be constructed on almost all types of foundations provided that
sub-surface strata have been thoroughly investigated and the design has been
adopted to suit the foundation.

The foundation of earth dam should provide a stable support for the dam under
all conditions of saturation and loading. Moreover, it should provide sufficient
resistance to seepage to prevent piping failure and excessive loss of
water.

Foundations may be classified into the following three types:

Rock foundations

Pervious soil foundations, and

Impervious soil foundations.

26
 (a) Rock foundations

Are generally suitable for earth dams and do not present much problems.

The shear stresses in the foundation due to earth dams are usually low and
well within the bearing capacity of the rock.

If there are fissures, joints, fault planes or permeable seams in the
foundation rock, grouting is done to check the excessive erosive leakage and
loss of water.

Shale foundations may, however, cause difficulties, especially if they contain
joints, faults, weak layers and seams filled with soft materials.

While designing the dam, excess pore pressure and the overall strength should
be considered.
27
(b) Pervious soil foundations

Sometimes the earth dam foundations consist of recent alluvial soil overlying

impervious geological formation like rock or clay.

In such foundations, there is excessive amount of under seepage and a possibility

of piping caused by forces exerted due to under seepage.

For such foundations, adequate measures are required to check seepage and

piping.

28
Cont’d…

Coarse sand and gravel:

These have high shear strength and pose no problem from the

point of view of stability.

As they have high permeability they get consolidated very rapidly

under the loads of the dam, and the shear strength increases
almost simultaneously with the construction of the dam.

The main problem with such foundations is the under seepage.

29
 Cont’d…

Loose fine sand or coarse silt:
 This presents difficult foundation problems. Such soils have low shear strength and
high compressibility, which cause problems.
 If such soils are subject to sudden shear stresses because of earthquakes or any
other such source, they may liquefy and a phenomenon known as liquefaction
occurs.
 The soil loses all its shear strength and flows like a liquid. Such a behaviour is
exhibited by uniform sands, which are very fine and consist of rounded grains.
 If unavoidable as a foundation, they should be compacted by pile driving or other
methods so that they become quite dense before the construction of the dam.
30
(c) Impervious soil foundations:

Foundations of fine silt and clay are impervious and have very low shear strength.
Shear failures may occur in such foundations. Moreover, there are problems of
excessive pore water pressure, large deformations and settlements.

Such foundations have low permeability and their consolidation takes a very long time.
Because of the very low rate of consolidation, the shear strength develops very
gradually.

The shear stresses induced in the foundation by the earth dam should not exceed the
shear strength of the soil to avoid failure of the foundation by shear.

The earth dam design in such cases should consider likely strains in the foundation. It
usually becomes necessary to provide flatter slopes or berms to spread the load over a
31 large area to reduce the deformation and shear stresses.
3.3.1. Design of earth dam to suit the available material

In the interest of economy the design of earth dam should be adapted to the utilization of
the material available at or near the site.

Thus, if near the site there is nothing available but sand, then the adopted design should
utilize this sand for the bulk of the dam, limiting the imported material of concrete, clay, or
silt for providing an impervious member to the minimum required.

In Figure 1.2 is shown a suitable design for a site where there is nothing available except
sand gravel.

32
Cont’d…

The nearest impervious material is a sandy clay, which is located far away. Due to
excavation and transportation costs the sandy clay material has to be kept at a
minimum.

Figure 1.3 shows a design suitable for a site where both clayey silt and coarse
pervious sand are available in adequate quantities in borrow pits near the site.
Furthermore, both drainage and stability conditions are favourable. The
pervious stratum has adequate shear strength.

33
Cont’d…

The design in figure 1.4 is suitable for a site where both clayey silt and coarse sand are

available in adequate quantities and where the foundation is impervious.

In figure 1.5 is shown a suitable design for a site where both sand gravel and clayey silt are

available and where the foundation is highly pervious to a great depth. A blanket of clayey silt,
which is very impervious as compared with the sand gravel of the foundation, is carried from
the impervious core upstream under the upstream shell and extended for a distance frequently
10 or more times the head upstream from the heel of the dam.
34
Cont’d…

Such blankets cut down the seepage materially by forcing the

water to pass through several times the distance which it

would have to pass through without the blanket.

35
Cont’d…

In figure 1.6 is shown an earth dam design, which is suitable for a site where the only
material available is silty clay and where the foundation consists of silty clay, which is
highly unconsolidated.

In this case, the upstream slope is flattened to take care of rapid drawdown, and also in
many cases the flatness of both slopes is determined by the requirements for spreading the
load.

So that the maximum unit stress induced in the foundation will be less than the shear
strength of the plastic material in the foundation with a fair factor of safety.

36
3.4. Causes of failures of earth dams

Earth dam failures are mainly caused by improper design, lack of thorough

investigations, and inadequate care in construction and poor maintenance.

The various causes of failures can be grouped into three categories as,

Hydraulic failures 40%

Seepage failures, and 30%

Structural failures 30%

37
 Cont’d…

Hydraulic failures: may be occur

due to one or more of the following

causes:

Overtopping

Erosion of upstream face

Erosion of downstream face

Erosion of downstream toe

38
Cont’d…

Overtopping of earth dam occurs if

The design flood is underestimated,

The spillway capacity is not adequate,

The spillway gates are not properly operated,

The freeboard is not sufficient

39
Excessive settlement of the dam and the foundation occur.

 Cont’d…

Seepage failures may occur due to the

following causes:

Piping through the dam

Piping through the foundation

Conduit leakage

Sloughing of downstream toe

40
Cont’d…

Structural failures in earth dams are generally shear failures leading to

sliding of the embankments or the foundations.

Structural failures in earth dams are of the following types:

Slides in embankments

Foundation slides

Liquefaction slides

Failures by spreading or deferential settlement

Failures due to earthquakes

Failure due to holes caused by burrowing animals

41
failure due to holes caused by leaching of water-soluble salts.

Cont’d…

Settlement

All structures undergo some settlement, regardless of their construction or of the quality of their foundations. Structures
made of soil or founded on soil settle so much that their performance is affected and their safety is compromised.

Causes of settlement

Bearing capacity failure or instability, including landslides.

Failure or deflection of the foundation structure.

Elastic or distortion of the soil or rock.

Consolidation (compression) of the soil or rock.

Shrinkage due to desiccation.

Change in density due to shock or vibration.

Chemical alteration of constituents, including decay.

Underground erosion.

Collapse of underground openings such as caves or mines.

Structural collapse due to weakening of cementation upon saturation

42
 3.5. Criteria for safe design of earth dams

The earth dam should be designed such that the failure of the dam or its foundation
does not occur.

The dam should be safe and stable during construction and throughout its life. For the
safe design of earth dam, the following basic criteria should be satisfied.
(a) No overtopping: The dam should be safe against overtopping during occurrence of
the worst floods,

An adequate free board should be provided so that the dam is not overtopped due to
the wave action,

A suitable allowance in the height of the dam should be made to account for
settlement.
43
Cont’d…
(b) No seepage failure:

The phreatic line (or the seepage line) should remain well within the

downstream face of the dam so that no sloughing of the downstream

face occurs,

The dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure,

There should be no opportunity for free passage of water from the

upstream to the downstream either through the dam or foundation.

44
Cont’d…
(c) No structural failure:

The slopes (u/s & d/s) should be safe during and immediately after construction,

Upstream slope should be safe during sudden drawdown conditions,

Downstream slope should be safe during steady-seepage conditions,

The foundation shear stresses should be within the safe limits,

The dam as a whole should be earthquake-resistant.

45
Cont’d…
(d) Proper slope protection:

U/s slope should be protected against erosion by waves,

D/s slope and the crest should be protected against erosion due to rain and
wind.
(e) Proper drainage: The portion of the dam downstream of the impervious core
should be properly drained.
(f) Economic section: As far as possible, the materials available near the dam
site should be used to reduce the cost.
All the above criteria are kept in mind while selecting the preliminary section of
the earth dam.
46
3.5.1. Seepage through earth dams

For any dam of homogeneous material seepage will pass through the dam and
appear at the downstream face regardless of the tightness of the material.

The line of saturation, i.e., the upper boundary of the flow line below, which the
flow is under hydrostatic pressure, is called the phreatic line.

If this line of saturation is allowed to intersect the downstream slope above
the toe, a serious sloughing will always occur unless prevented by
construction of toe drains of filters or rock fill toe.

Location of the position of the phreatic line is desirable for determination of
the amount of seepage and for construction of the flow nets as it represents
one flow boundary.
47
Cont’d…

In order to define the flow and pressure distribution within the embankment and

total flow through the embankment the first step is determination of the upper
flow line (which is the line of seepage boundary) and the length of the seepage
exit face on the downstream slope of the earth dam.

The two dimensional flow of fluid through porous soil can be expressed by

Laplace’s equation

48
Cont’d…

Graphically, the equation can be represented by two sets of curves that

intersect at right angles. The combined representation of two sets of lines is

called a flow net (See Fig.). With the help of a flow net, the seepage problems
can be analyzed at any point within the section of the embankment.

49
Cont’d…

The two unknown boundaries, BC and CD, figure 1.7, are a combination of an

entrance condition, BB1; part of a parabola, B1B2; a smooth transition between

points of tangency, B2C, and a straight line discharge face along the downstream
slope, CD.

A parabola, shown by the dashed line, is the basic geometric member used to

define the location and extent of the two boundaries.

Casagrande (1937) provided the standard reference for flow through

embankments while others (Harr 1962, Cedergren 1977, and others) added to and
refined the basic methods.
50
Cont’d…

Figure 1.8 provides the nomenclature and formulas for drawing the line of

seepage and exit face and determining the quantity of seepage per unit length

of embankment, q.

In a given problem, embankment geometry and head water elevation provide

values for h, m and α which allow location of points A and B and determination of

distance, d, as shown in figure 1.8.

51
 Cont’d…

(1) α < 30º Schaffernak-Van Iterson: The two formulas for this method given in figure 1.8
assume gradient equals dy/dx and allow direct determination of a and q.

Construction of basic parabola shown in figure 1.9 is the first step in determining the
upper line of seepage (Casagrande 1937).

From embankment geometry and headwater height, point A is located. d and yo are
determined by scribing an arc, with radius DA through point E. Then the point of vertical
tangency of the basic parabola, F, is determined.

Line AG, parallel to the embankment base and horizontal axis of the parabola, is drawn
and divided into an equal number of segments (6 in the case in figure 1.9).

Line GF, the vertical tangent to the parabola, located at yo/2 from the downstream toe of

52the embankment is divided into the same number of equal segments as line AG.
Cont’d…

The points dividing line AG into segments are connected with point F. The intersection of these
lines with their counterpart lines drawn from the points on line GF define the parabola.

Thus the basic parabola, dashed line A-F, is defined. The upstream portion of the line of seepage,
dotted line BH, is drawn by starting at point B perpendicular to the upstream slope (since the
upstream slope is an equipotential line and the line of seepage is a flow line) and continuing
downstream to make line BH tangent to the basic parabola at point H which is selected based on
judgment.

The central portion of the line of seepage is along the basic parabola while the downstream
portion is a smooth transition from the basic parabola to tangency with the downstream slope at
point C.

Point C is located a distance a. from the downstream toe as determined by the equation for
Schaffernak-Van Iterson shown in figure 1.8.
53
 Cont’d…

2) α < 90° L. Casagrande: The gradient assumption for this method is i = dy/ds
where s is the distance along the line of seepage, and allows greater accuracy than
Schaffernak-Van Iterson method for steeper downstream slopes.

Use of the equations in figure 1.8 and the same general procedures used for the
Schaffernak-Van Iterson method apply for α´s up to 60º. For 60° < α < 90°, since a
and s are interdependent, the location of point C (or distance a) must be estimated to
determine the value of then distance a calculated.

This procedure is repeated until there is satisfactory agreement between the
portion of the distance so as measured and a as calculated. Thus the seepage
boundaries are established allowing flow net construction.
54
 Cont’d…

(3) α = 180° Kozeny: For this special case Kozeny described a solution adapted by

Casagrande (1937). Figure 1.10 illustrates the nomenclature and construction

method for this case.

Embankment geometry, h, and drain location control construction of the basic

parabola.

For this case the seepage face is the distance a0 and the correction ∆a is not

used. Again with boundary definition, the flow net can be drawn.

55
Cont’d…

(4) 30° < α < 180° A. Casagrande: After study of model experiments and

construction of flow nets for various α´s, A. Casagrande (1937) developed a

curve, figure 1.11, which relates a to the ratio,

Construction of the basic parabola is the first step in this procedure. The point,

Co, as shown in figure 1.8, where the basic parabola intercepts the downstream
slope is determined and distance a + ∆a is measured. Knowing α, C can be found in
figure 1.11 and ∆a calculated.

Information is then sufficient to draw the line of seepage and discharge face,

determine q, and construct the flow net.

56
Cont’d…

Harr (1962) explains an additional method, known as Pavlovsky's solution, for determining a0

and q for the case of a homogeneous, pervious embankment on an impervious foundation.

Pavlovsky analyzed the embankment by dividing it into three zones, writing an equation for q

in each of the zones and, by assuming continuity of flow, equating the three equations for q.

Figure 1.12 provides the nomenclature for Pavlovsky's solution. The embankment is divided as

shown with

Zone I between the upstream slope and a vertical line at the intersection of the crest and

upstream slope (y axis),

Zone II between the y axis and a vertical line at the intersection of the line of seepage with
the downstream slope, and

Zone III which is composed of the remainder of the downstream toe.
57
58
Cont’d…

It is assumed that α, β, b, hd, hw, hO, and k are known for a given problem, thus

since qI = qII = qIII = q (continuity of flow, steady state conditions) only a0, h1, and q
are unknown. This analysis provides three equations, (i), (ii), and (iii), or (iv), and
three unknowns.

The equations may be solved in a number of ways. One method for ho= 0 is to

equate (i) and (iv) and solve for a then equate (ii) and (iv) and solve for a0:

59
Quantity of Seepage

Consider earth embankment of homogeneous material given in fig. 4. Flow net

through the dam section has been drawn by trial and error method.

If h is the total hydraulic head and Nd is the number of potential drops (9 in fig.4)

the potential drop

deltah = h/Nd.

Consider a field of length l, the field being an approximate square its width is also

equal to l, the hydraulic gradient across the field deltah/l.

60
61
62
3.5.2. Measures to control seepage through the dam

For reducing seepage through the body of the dam, a core of

impervious material, such as silty clay or clayey silt, is

generally provided.

The impervious core forms a barrier within the body of the dam

against the seepage water.

63
Cont’d…

The type of core is selected depending on the availability of materials, topography of the

site, foundation conditions, etc.

Depending on the inclination of the axis of the core, there are two types of cores.
(1) Vertical core, and
(2) Inclined core

A vertical core provides a high pressure at the contact plane between the core and the
foundation. Hence, it is more effective in reducing seepage. However, an inclined core
has the advantage that the d/s portion of the dam can be constructed first and the core
can be placed later.

The minimum thickness of the core depends on
(1) Permissible seepage through the dam,
(2) Type of the material available for the core,
64 (3) Minimum practical thickness required for construction.
3.5.3. Control of seepage through foundations

If the foundation of an earth dam consists of an impervious stratum, generally
no specific measures are required to reduce the seepage. However, in rock
foundations, grouting and some surface treatment may be required.

On the other hand, if the foundation is pervious, various under-seepage control

measures are required to reduce the quantity of seepage and to check piping
failure.

The suitability of the method of treatment depends primarily on the nature of

the foundation. The methods include,

65
Cont’d…
(i) Grouting and grout curtain
(ii) Cut-off trenches

(iii) Partial cut-off

(iv) Sheet pile cut-off

(v) Cast-in-situ concrete diaphragm

(vi) Upstream blanket

(vii) Relief wells

66
Cont’d…

Grouting and grout curtain: Certain materials when injected as grout in the

foundation strata act as binder and fill the voids, thus reducing the permeability
and increasing its stability.

Blanket grouting (or consolidation grouting) is done to a depth of 5 to 10 m

through holes spaced 3 to 5 m to prevent piping.

Curtain grouting is done to much greater depths to reduce seepage through

foundation.

The number of lines and spacing of holes depend upon the nature of foundation

and width of grout curtain which is usually 1/3 to 1/5 the water head.
67
 Cont’d…

Cut-off trenches: The cut-off trenches with sides sloping or vertical are excavated
below the dams and filled with well-compacted impervious material.

The trench should be provided up to bedrock or other impervious strata. For moderate
pervious foundations positive cut-off up to hard stratum is provided. The cut-off may
be:
(i) sheet pile
(ii) cement bound curtain
(iii) concrete diaphragm.

68
 Cont’d…

Partial cut-off trench: is effective in stratified foundations by intersecting more

impervious layers in the foundation and by increasing the vertical path of

seepage.

A cut-off going to 80% of the total depth of pervious strata reduces the seepage

discharge by only 50%. Thus, wit a partial cut-off, the reliance is primarily on the
length of the seepage path.

Therefore, for treatment of deep pervious foundation where it is not economically

possible to provide a positive cut-off, partial cut-off along with upstream blanket
is provided to reduce the discharge and seepage pressure.
69
Cont’d…

Sheet piling cut-off: Steel sheet piling cut-off can be used in silty, sandy and fine
gravel foundations.

If the foundation strata contain boulders the sheet piles will not easily penetrate.

70
 Cont’d…

Upstream blanket: Impervious clay placed upstream of a dam and connected to the
impervious section is a convenient way of effecting moderate reduction in the amount of
seepage.

The quantity of seepage is somewhat less than inversely proportional to the total length of
impervious material (Figure 1.16).

71
Cont’d…

72
Cont’d…

73
Cont’d…

Relief wells: Their main purpose is to reduce artesian pressures which otherwise

would cause formation of sand boils and piping.

Relief wells should be designed to penetrate into the principal pervious strata to

obtain efficient pressure relief, especially where the foundation is stratified.

The wells should be spaced sufficiently close together

(generally 15 m apart) to intercept seepage and reduce uplift

pressures between wells. The wells must be so designed that
they do not become ineffective due to clogging or corrosion.
74
Cont’d…

The following guidelines may be adopted in the selection of the most suitable and economical

measures of seepage control.

(i) Positive cut-off is generally the most suitable measure if the depth of pervious stratum is
moderate.

(ii) When the pervious stratum is quite deep and extensive and its permeability is between 10-3
to 10-5 m/s, an upstream blanket combined with downstream relief wells and drainage
trenches have been found to be quite effective.

(iii) When the permeability of the pervious stratum is quite high, of the order of 10-3 m/s or
higher, and the stratum is quite deep, grout curtains and diaphragms are generally
economical.
75
3.5.4. Drainage of earth dams

Some water always seeps through the dam and foundation even after adopting several

seepage control measures.

The water, which has seeped through should be suitably drained away from the downstream

portion of the dam to minimize its ill effects.

Drainage in earth dams is usually provided to bring the phreatic line well within the

downstream face.

A proper drainage system also helps in avoiding heaving and piping, by arresting the soil

particles, which may otherwise move by seepage discharge.

The drainage system also reduces the pore water pressure in the downstream portion of the

dam and thus the stability of the downstream face is increased.

76
Cont’d…

Measures adopted for safe drainage of
Drainage of the foundation:

seepage water through the dam and (i) Toe drain

foundation include,
(ii) Drainage trench

Drainage of the dam:
(iii) Relief wells
(i) Horizontal drainage blanket
(iv) Vertical sand drains
(ii) Rock toe
(iii) Chimney drain
(iv) Toe drain and drainage trenches
77
Cont’d…

Horizontal drainage blanket: commonly used for earth dams of moderate heights.

The blanket extends from the downstream toe for a distance of about three times

the height of the dam or about one-third of the base width of the dam. However, it
should not be longer than two-thirds of the base width of the dam. In the case of a
zoned section, it extends up to the core.

The blanket must be very pervious to drain off the water effectively and its design

should fulfill the usual filter criteria in order to prevent the movement of particles
of the foundation or embankment by seepage discharge.

78
Cont’d…

The main disadvantage of a horizontal blanket is that it is not effective if the

embankment material has stratifications and the horizontal permeability is

greater than the vertical permeability.

In such a case, the seepage water may flow horizontally towards the downstream

face and cause sloughing and piping (Figure 1.17)

79
Cont’d…

Rock toe: is provided at the d/s toe of an earth dam and it forms a part of the dam

(Figure 1.18).

It consists of stones of size varying from 15 to 20 cm. The upstream face of the

rock toe may be vertical or inclined, but d/s slope is always inclined and it is in the
continuation of the d/s slope of the dam.

A graded filter is provided between the rock toe and the soil mass in the dam to

prevent piping.

The graded filter is also provided between the rock toe and the foundation if it is

pervious.
80
Cont’d…

The height of the rock toe is generally between H/3 and H/4, where H is the

height of the dam.

While fixing the height of the rock toe, it should be ensured that there is at least a

minimum cover of 1 m between the phreatic line and the downstream face.

81
Cont’d…

Chimney drains: is a vertical or nearly vertical drain, which is located inside the dam so

that it intercepts all layers of the dam in the seepage zone (Figure 1.19).

Thus the chimney drain prevents the emergence of the seepage water on the d/s face of

the dam even when the embankment has stratifications and some layers of high
permeability.

A chimney drain thus renders the d/s portion of the dam free from seeping water and

it increases the stability of the d/s slope. From the chimney drain, the water is carried
to the d/s toe of the dam through a horizontal drainage blanket.

82
Cont’d…

Toe drain and drainage trenches: They are used to collect the seepage from the horizontal
drainage blanket which discharge into the spillway-stilling basin or into the river channel below
the dam (Figure 1.20).

Drainage trenches can be used to control seepage where the top stratum is thin and the
pervious foundation is shallow so that the trench can be built to penetrate the aquifer
substantially. The filter comprising the drainage layers should be designed in accordance with the
filter criteria.

83
Cont’d…

Relief wells: As mentioned above, they are used for the drainage of foundation if

it consists of a deep pervious stratum which is stratified and whose permeability

increases with depth.

Relief wells are provided at or near the d/s toe of the dam to collect water

seeping through the foundation and to reduce the pore pressure in the
foundation.

Vertical sand drains (Figure1.21): These drains consist of vertical holes drilled in

the foundation all along the base of the dam.

These holes are filled with clean, coarse sand of high permeability to form sand
84
columns.
Cont’d…

These sand drains reduce the path of drainage in the horizontal direction and help

in the drainage of the foundation. These also accelerate the consolidation of the
foundation soil by providing drainage.

Vertical sand drains are quite effective for the drainage of soft clay foundation,

which cannot be easily drained by other methods.

85
3.6. Preliminary section of earth dam

It is usual practice to select a preliminary section of the earth dam and check

whether the section satisfies all the criteria mentioned in the preceding section.

The preliminary section of the dam is selected based on the experience,

considering various factors as listed below.

(a) Foundation conditions
(b) Availability of materials
(c) Physical properties of various materials
(d) Methods of construction and the construction control
(e) Diversion methods and construction schedule
(f) Climatic conditions affecting the placement moisture control and subsequent moisture
changes
(g) Safety factors with respect to seepage
(h) Safety factors with respect to stability

86
Cont’d…

After the consideration of the above factors, a preliminary section of the earth dam is

selected.

If it does not satisfy the safety criteria, it is modified and again checked. In the preliminary

section, the following parameters are decided.

(a) Crest width
(b) Free board
(c) U/s and d/s slopes of the dam
(d) Settlement allowance
(e) Cutoff wall in the foundation
(f) Impervious core
(g) Downstream drainage system
87
(h) Provision of riprap
 Cont’d…

Crest Width: The crest width (i.e. top width) should not be less than 4 m for

maintenance purposes. However, the width depends on several considerations such as

(i) Nature of embankment material and minimum allowable percolation distance through
the embankment at normal reservoir level,
(ii) Height and importance of structure,
(iii) Required width to provide embankment mass for resistance to earthquake shock,
and
(iv) Roadway requirements.

USBR (1987) provides the following formula for the determination of crest width of small dams:

b = 0.2 H + 3 where b is crest width and H is height of dam

88
Cont’d…

Free board: Sufficient free board should be available between the maximum water

level and the top of the dam.

The free board should be adequate against the wave action and the wind set-up.

It is assumed that the highest possible waves occur when the reservoir is full. The

free board for the wave action is generally taken as 1.5 hw where hw is the height
of the wave.

The actual free board is usually kept as follows:

Free board = 1.5 hw+ additional safety provision

89
Cont’d…

Upstream and downstream slopes of a dam: These depend upon the type of

material, foundation conditions, the height of the dam, etc.

The general practice is to select the side slopes on the basis of the experience

gained with similar dams elsewhere and to check the stability of selected slopes.

If the adopted slopes are not safe or economical, they are suitably modified.

The u/s slopes of most earth dams vary from 2.5:1 to 4:1, and d/s slopes are

generally between 2:1 and 3:1.

For a maximum economy in the quantity of materials, the slopes should be as

steep as possible. However, from the stability considerations, the slopes should
90 not be excessively steep. Therefore, a compromise is made.
Cont’d…

Settlement allowance: Earth dams are constructed to a somewhat greater height than the

required height to have a suitable settlement allowance.

Settlement of an embankment is caused by consolidation in the foundation and in the fill. A

settlement allowance of 2% of the height is considered adequate and is generally provided.

However, in case of dams of more than 30 m height, an extra 1% allowance is provided to
account for the settlement due to earthquake.

The extra height of the dam is provided in the form of a longitudinal camber over the top of

the dam.

The camber varies from zero at the abutments to a maximum value at the center of the

valley where the height of the dam is the maximum and the settlement is the largest.
91
 Cont’d…

Cutoff in foundation: To reduce seepage through the foundation and to avoid piping failure,

a cutoff is usually provided when the foundation is pervious to a moderate depth.

Protection of slopes: Usual type of surface protection for the upstream slope is stone

riprap either dry dumped or hand placed. When a thin layer is used, hand riprap may be
more economical than dumped riprap.

There are several empirical methods to find out the thickness of the riprap. These methods

take into account the wave height, embankment slope, weight of average size stone and its
specific gravity.

The size of stones used for hand placed riprap may be determined with the following

formula.

92
Cont’d…

93
Cont’d…

The design of slopes of earth fill embankments depends on the nature of the

materials of construction and the type of dam (i.e., zone, homogeneous &
diaphragm).

It depends on the nature of the material used for the core and the shells and, in

the case of zoned embankment, on the relative proportion of them.

The pervious shell must be compacted such that excess post-construction

settlement is absent. Well-compacted pervious embankments are quite stable &

upstream and downstream slopes of 2H: 1V or steeper may be used.

94
3.7. Stability of Earth Dams
3.7.1. Stability of Slopes

The side slopes of an earth dam should be safe against shear failure. The soil mass

in an earth dam, because of its slope, is subjected to actuating (or driving) forces
which tend to cause movement (or sliding) of the soil mass.

This movement is resisted by the stabilizing (or resisting) forces, which develop at

the potential sliding surface because of the shear strength of the soil.

The side slopes of the earth dam will remain stable if the sum of the resisting

forces on every possible surface of failure (or surface of slippage) is greater than
the sum of the actuating forces.
95
Cont’d…

The Swedish circle method is one of the various methods of stability analysis of

slopes. In this method, the potential failure surface is assumed to be cylindrical

(i.e. circular in cross section).

The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of the resisting moments to the

actuating moments acting on the assumed failure surface.

It is also equal to the ratio of the resisting forces to the actuating forces. Thus, the

factor of safety,

96
Cont’d…

Procedure for analysis of slope stability: Consider the stability of

slopes of the earth dam shown in Figure 2.1a. To check the stability of
the slope, a trial slip surface AB is considered.

The soil mass in the trial wedge above the assumed slip surface is

divided into a convenient number of vertical strips (or slices) by

drawing vertical lines.

Consider the equilibrium of one slice shown hatched. This slice, No. 4,

is subjected to the following forces:

97
Cont’d…

(1) Weight, W4, acting vertically downwards through its center of gravity.

(2) Cohesive force C4 acting along the curved surface, in the direction opposite

to the direction of probable movement of the wedge. C4 is equal to c∆L, where c

is the unit cohesion and ∆L the length of the base of the strip.

(3) Reaction R4 at the base of the slice, acting along a line inclined at an angle Φ

to the normal, where angle Φ is the angle of shearing resistance of the soil. It is
assumed that the slippage is imminent and the full shear strength of the soil has
been mobilized. Therefore, the inclination of the reaction with the normal is equal
to Φ.
98
Cont’d…
(4) The soil reactions ER and EL acting on the vertical sides of the slice exerted by
the adjacent slices on the right and left sides, respectively.

(5) The forces due to pore water pressure UL, UR and UB acting on the left face,
right face and at the base of the slice, respectively.

The force UB acts in the normal direction. In the conventional Swedish circle

method, it is assumed that the reactions ER and EL are equal and opposite and
cancel each other and do not affect the equilibrium.

Thus there are only four forces considered, viz. W4, C4, R4 and UB.

99
 Cont’d…

From Figure 2.1 b,

after resolving W into its
normal and tangential
components,

N = W cos θ --------(1)

T = W sin θ ---------(2)

100
Cont’d…

Where θ is the angle, which the normal makes with the vertical.

Resolving all the forces in the normal (or radial) direction,

N – UB = R cos Φ --------------------------------(3)

BResolving all the forces in the tangential direction,

T – C = R sin Φ ------------------------------------(4)

Substituting the value of R from equation (3) into equation (4),

T – C = [(N – UB)/cos Φ] sin Φ or

T – C = [(N – UB)] x tan Φ or

101

T = (N – UB) tan Φ + c∆L -----------------------------------(5)
 Cont’d…

Equation (5) indicates that the tangential component T of the weight is just balanced

by the frictional resistance (N - UB) tan Φ and the cohesion resistance c∆L.

The tangential component is the actuating force, and the frictional and cohesion

resistance are resisting forces. When the forces just balance, the failure is imminent.

For a margin of safety, the mobilization of the resisting forces should be less than

that given by R.H.S. of equation (5), which gives the maximum possible resistance.

For a margin of safety, the soil reaction R would be inclined to the normal at an angle

less than Φ. As soon as the reaction becomes inclined at an angle Φ, the maximum
resistance is developed and the failure is imminent.
102
Cont’d…

On any trial surface, the factor of safety, which is the ratio of the maximum

possible resisting moment to the actuating moment, is given by

Forces are computed for all the slices above the assumed slip surface and the

corresponding actuating and resisting moments can be computed. Thus, if the

radius of the slip circle is equal to r,

103
 Cont’d…

104
 Cont’d…
3.7. 2. Location of the most critical slip circle

For location of the most critical slip circle, a number of trial slip surfaces are

assumed and the factors of safety are found.

The circle, which gives the minimum factor of safety, is the most critical circle.

To reduce the number of trials, the Fellenius line is usually drawn (Figure 2.2).

Fellenius has shown that for a homogeneous slope, the center of most critical

circle lies on line AB, called the Fellenius Line.

105
 Cont’d…

The center of most critical circle may lie anywhere on the line AB or its extension. However, its
exact position can be obtained only after conducting the stability analysis for different slip
surfaces.

The centers of the trial circles are marked as O1, O2, etc. on the line AB. The corresponding factors
of safety F1, F2, etc. are plotted at the corresponding centers as perpendicular ordinates on the line
AB.

The curve of factor of safety is obtained by joining the ends of these ordinates. The center O
corresponding to the minimum factor of safety is the center of the most critical circle.

106
 Cont’d…

The above construction is for a C-Φ soil. For a purely cohesive soil (Φ = 0),
the point A itself represents the center of the most critical circle.

The Swedish circle method is used for checking the stability of the earth dam
for the following critical conditions.
(1) Stability of d/s slope during steady seepage condition
(2) Stability of u/s slope during sudden drawdown condition
(3) Stability of both slopes during construction.

107
 3.7.3. Stability of downstream slope during steady seepage condition

For the d/s slope of an earth dam, the most critical condition occurs when the reservoir
is full and the steady seepage conditions have established.

A well-defined phreatic line is formed at that stage. The soil below the phreatic line is
saturated and is subjected to the pore water pressure, which reduces the effective
stresses in the soil and consequently the shear strength is also reduced

In Figure 2.3, for the computation of the weight of the soil in the strips, the moist unit
weight is taken for the soil mass above the phreatic line and the saturated unit weight
below the phreatic line.

For convenience, sometimes an average value of the unit weight is taken for the whole
slice.

For the determination of the forces ∑U due to the pore water pressure acting on the
base of the slices, the pore water pressure diagram (shown hatched) is drawn from the
flow net..
108
 Cont’d…

Figure (2.3 c) shows an enlarged view of the

portion of the slip surface below the phreatic line.

The pore water pressure u1 at point 1 where an
equipotential line cuts the slip surface is equal to
the vertical intercept 1-2 between point 1 and
point 3 where that equipotential line cuts the
phreatic line.

Because the pore water pressure always acts

normal to the slip surface, a line equal to u1 is

drawn normal to the slip surface at point 1 to
indicate the pore pressure. The factor of safety is
109
determined from the previous equations.
 3.7.4. Stability of upstream slope during sudden drawdown condition

For u/s slope of an earth dam, the most critical
condition occurs when there is a sudden drawdown
of the reservoir on its upstream.

If the soil on the upstream portion of the dam is of
low permeability, no appreciable drainage takes
place at the time of sudden drawdown and the soil
remains saturated.

The weight of the water, which is still present in the
pores of the soil on the upstream slope tends to
cause the sliding of the slope because the water
pressure, which was acting on the upstream face
when the reservoir was full and which was balancing
the water pressure in the soil is removed after the
sudden drawdown.
110
3.7.5. Stability of slopes during construction

When an earth dam is constructed of a soil of low permeability, excessive pore

water pressure develops in the air as well as water voids due to compaction
carried out during construction and also because of the weight of the soil.

The pore pressures depend upon the placement water content, method of

compaction, weight of overlying layers of the soil, the rate of dissipation of the
pore pressure during construction and the rate of construction.

The slopes may fail during or just after construction if the pore pressures are

quite high. Therefore, the stability of slopes should be checked taking into account
the pore pressure developed.
111
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115
116
117
118
119
120
121