Environment Australia

Biodegradable Plastics –
Developments and
Environmental Impacts

OCTOBER, 2002
Prepared in association with
ExcelPlas Australia

Ref: 3111-01

NOLAN-ITU Pty Ltd ACN 067 785 853 ABN 23 359 240 890

P.O. Box 393 Level 1, 625 High St, East Kew Victoria 3102
Telephone: (03) 9859 3344 Facsimile: (03) 9859 3411
NOLAN-ITU PTY LTD
ACN 067 785 853
ABN 23 359 240 890

Melbourne
PO Box 393
Level 1, 625 High Street
East Kew VIC 3102
Tel: (03) 9859 3344 Fax: (03) 9859 3411

Copyright © Environment Australia 2002

 CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1 INTRODUCTION TO BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS.........................................1

2 BIODEGRADABLE STARCH-BASED POLYMERS...........................................3
2.1 Thermoplastic Starch Products 3
2.2 Starch Synthetic Aliphatic Polyester Blends 4
2.3 Starch and PBS/PBSA Polyester Blends 5
2.4 Starch-PVOH Blends 6
3 BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS.....................................................................7
3.1 PHA (Naturally Produced) Polyesters 8
3.2 PHBH (Naturally Produced) Polyesters 9
3.3 PLA (Renewable Resource) Polyesters 10
3.4 PCL (Synthetic Aliphatic) Polyesters 11
3.5 PBS (Synthetic Aliphatic) Polyesters 12
3.6 AAC Copolyesters 13
3.7 Modified PET 14
4 OTHER DEGRADABLE POLYMERS................................................................15
4.1 Water Soluble Polymers 15
4.2 Photo-biodegradable Plastics 16
4.3 Controlled Degradation Additive Masterbatches 17
5 EMERGING APPLICATION AREAS IN AUSTRALIA.......................................19
5.1 Coated Paper 19
5.2 Agricultural Mulch Film 20
5.3 Shopping Bags 20
5.4 Food Waste Film and Bags 20
5.5 Consumer Packaging Materials 21
5.6 Landfill Cover Film 21
5.7 Other Applications 21
6 STANDARDS AND TEST METHODS................................................................22
6.1 Biodegradation Standards and Tests 22
6.2 Compost Toxicity Tests 27
6.3 Difference Between Standards for Biodegradation 28
6.4 Development of Australian Standards 28
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Biodegradable Plastics – Developments and Environmental Impacts
 CONTENTS

7 DISPOSAL ENVIRONMENTS............................................................................29
7.1 Composting Facilities and Soil Burial 29
7.2 Anaerobic Digestion 31
7.3 Waste Water Treatment Plants 31
7.4 Reprocessing Facilities 31
7.5 Landfills 31
7.6 Marine and Freshwater Environments 32
7.7 Litter 32
8 PLASTICS SORTING AND REPROCESSING..................................................34
8.1 Key Issues 34
8.2 Recyclable Plastics Sorting Considerations 34
8.3 Reprocessing Considerations 35
9 POTENTIAL POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS.....................................37
9.1 Composting 37
9.2 Landfill Degradation 37
9.3 Energy Use 37
9.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 38
10 POTENTIAL NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS...................................39
10.1 Pollution of Aquatic Environments 39
10.2 Litter 39
10.3 Compost Toxicity 40
10.4 Recalcitrant Residues 40
10.5 Additives and Modifiers 41
10.6 Prodegradants and Other Additives 42
10.7 Source of Raw Materials 43
11 SOLUTIONS, FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RESEARCH.................................44
12 CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................................46

13 REFERENCES....................................................................................................50
14 REPORT LIMITATIONS......................................................................................52
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Glossary
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Biodegradable plastics are a new generation of polymers emerging on the Australian market.
Biodegradable plastics have an expanding range of potential applications, and driven by the
growing use of plastics in packaging and the perception that biodegradable plastics are
‘environmentally friendly’, their use is predicted to increase. However, issues are also emerging
regarding the use of biodegradable plastics and their potential impacts on the environment and
effects on established recycling systems and technologies.

Environment Australia, in consultation with the Plastics and Chemicals Industries Association
(PACIA) has engaged Nolan-ITU, in association with ExcelPlas Australia, to undertake a
national review of biodegradable plastics with the primary aim of identifying and characterising
emerging environmental issues associated with biodegradable plastics to assist industry and the
Commonwealth to develop initiatives to address these issues effectively.

Terms of Reference

The Terms of Reference of the review are to identify issues of relevance including the following:

1. Identify the various types and composition of biodegradable plastics available, and
likely to be available in Australia.
2. Identify standards and test methods for biodegradable plastics in Australia.
3. Examine the range of disposal methods and identify the most frequent disposal
option for each biodegradable plastic application at end of life.
4. Identify current technologies to avoid contamination and sort biodegradable plastics
in Australia and overseas.
5. Describe and assess the current and potential future environmental impacts arising
from the foreseeable increase in use of biodegradable plastics in various applications.
6. Identify possible and existing solutions to identified impacts and limitations.

Key Findings

The range of biodegradable plastics available include:

 Starch based products including thermoplastic starch, starch and synthetic aliphatic
polyester blends, and starch and PVOH blends.
 Naturally produced polyesters including PVB, PHB and PHBH.
 Renewable resource polyesters such as PLA.
 Synthetic aliphatic polyesters including PCL and PBS.
 Aliphatic-aromatic (AAC) copolyesters.
 Hydro-biodegradable polyester such as modified PET.
 Water soluble polymer such as polyvinyl alcohol and ethylene vinyl alcohol.

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  Photo-biodegradable plastics.
 Controlled degradation additive masterbatches.

There is a extensive range of potential applications. Some of these include:

 Film including overwrap, shopping bags, waste and bin liner bags, composting bags,
mulch film, silage wrap, body bags/coffin liners, landfill covers, packaging – incl.O 2
& H2O barriers, bait bags, nappy backing sheet, and cling wrap.
 Flushable sanitary products.
 Sheet and non woven packaging.
 Bottles.
 Liquid paper board.
 Planter boxes and fishing nets.
 Food service cups, cutlery, trays, and straws.
 Loose fill foam.

Whilst several biodegradable plastics are used for these applications in Europe, the current
market penetration into Australia is low.

Several standards and test methods apply to biodegradable plastics internationally, however there
are currently no Australian standards and test methods for biodegradable plastics. There is a need
to establish Australian Standards that match the potential application areas and disposal
environments in Australia.

The major potential disposal environments for biodegradable plastics are:

 composting facilities or soil burial;

 anaerobic digestion;
 wastewater treatment facilities;
 plastics reprocessing facilities;
 landfill;
 marine and freshwater environments; and
 general open environment as litter.

To a large extent, the nature of the biodegradable plastic application should dictate the disposal
environment.
Developments

Lim et al. (1999) studied the properties of an aliphatic polyester blended with wheat starch. The
polyester was synthesized from the poly-condensation of 1,4-butanediol and a mixture of adipic
and succinic acids. The wheat starch–polyester blends were found to have melting points near
that of the polyester alone. A plasticiser was added to the starch, making the blends more flexible
and processable than the polyester itself. Plasticised blends were found to retain a high tensile
strength and elongation at the break point, even at high concentrations of starch.

Blending starch with degradable synthetic aliphatic polyesters such as PLA and PCL has recently
become a focus of biodegradable plastic development. Biodegradable plastics can be prepared by
blending up to 45% starch with degradable PCL . This new material is not strong enough for most
applications, as the melting temperature is only 60°C and it gets soft at temperatures above 40°C.
These drawbacks greatly limit the applications of the starch-PCL blends. Table 2.1 details some
starch-PCL polymers that are commercially available.

Table 2.1 – PCL Polymers (Commercially Available)

Polymer Type Trade-name Supplier Origin
Starch-polycaprolactone Mater-Bi™ Novamont Italy
(PCL) blends
Bioflex™ Biotech Germany

Applications

The applications for starch-synthetic aliphatic polyester blends include high-quality sheets and
films for packaging and other film applications.

Several starch-based plastics are currently available on the Australian market. One of these is the
‘BioBag’, which is produced from the Novamont resin that has been around since 1994, and is
made from corn starches in combination with fully biodegradable plastics or polylactic acid.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

The wheat starch-aliphatic polyester blend studied by Lim et al. (1999) demonstrated excellent
biodegradability. Soil burial tests revealed complete biodegradation within eight weeks. The
excellent properties exhibited by these blends make them ideal as commodity biodegradable
plastics.

2.3 Starch and PBS/PBSA Polyester Blends

Other polyesters that are blended with starch to improve material mechanical properties are
polybutylene succinate (PBS) or polybutylene succinate adipate (PBSA).

A small amount (5% by weight) of compatibiliser (maleic anhydride functionalised polyester) can
be added to impart phase stability to these starch based polymer blends. At higher starch content
(>60%), such sheets can become brittle. For this reason, plasticisers are often added to reduce the
brittleness and improve flexibility.

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Ratto et al.(1999) investigated the properties of PBSA and corn starch blends of varied
compositions. PBSA is biodegradable, and exhibits excellent thermoplastic properties. The
objective of the study was to obtain a mixture that maximised these properties while minimising
cost. Corn starch is an inexpensive polysaccharide that was blended with PBSA at concentrations
of 5–30% by weight for analysis. Tensile strength of the blends was lower than that of the
polyester alone, but there was not a significant drop in strength with increasing starch content.
In addition, melt temperature and processing properties were not appreciably affected by the
starch content.

Applications

Starch and PBS or PBSA blends are used to produce biodegradable plastic sheet which can be
thermoformed into products such as biscuit trays or film products.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

Ratto et al.(1999) investigated the blends the biodegradability properties of PBSA and corn starch
blends by measuring CO2 production in a soil burial test. Addition of only 5% starch showed a
large reduction in half-life from that of the pure polyester. The half-life was found to decline
with increasing starch content until a minimum 20% starch content was reached.

2.4 Starch-PVOH Blends

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) is blended with starch to produce readily biodegradable plastics.

Developments

Propak, a Sydney-based company, produce loose-fill peanuts from a starch-PVOH blend (a grade
of Mater-bi™) that exhibits water solubility in approximately 3 minutes. These expanded
products have a closed cell pore structure and densities ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 g/cm 3. Table 2.2
details some of the starch-PVOH blends commercially available.

Table 2.2 – Starch-PVOH Blends Commercially Available

Polymer Type Trade-name Supplier Origin
Starch-Polyvinyl Alcohol Novon™ Chisso Corp Japan
(PVOH) blends
Novon™ Warner Lambert USA
Mater-bi™ Novamont Italy

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

PVOH is readily water soluble, and the starch-PVOH blends are therefore degraded via
hydrolysis and biodegradation of the sugar molecules.
3 BIODEGRADABLE POLYESTERS
Polyesters play a predominant role as biodegradable plastics due to their potentially hydrolysable
ester bonds. As shown in Figure 3.1 below, the polyester family is made of two major groups –
aliphatic (linear) polyesters and aromatic (aromatic rings) polyesters. Biodegradable polyesters
which have been developed commercially and are in commercial development are as follows:

PHA – polyhydroxyalkanoates PHB – polyhydroxybutyrate

PHH – polyhydroxyhexanoate PHV - polyhydroxyvalerate
PLA – polylactic acid PCL – polycaprolactone
PBS – polybutylene succinate PBSA - polybutylene succinate adipate
AAC – Aliphatic-Aromatic copolyesters PET – polyethylene terephthalate
PBAT – polybutylene adipate/terephthalate PTMAT- polymethylene adipate/terephthalate

Polyesters

Aliphatic Aromatic

Modified PET
PBS PCL PHA PLA AAC

PHB PHV PHH PBAT

PBSA PTMAT
PHB/PHV PHB/PHH Naturally Produced - Renewable
Synthetic - Renewable
Synthetic - Non-Renewable
Figure 3.1 – Biodegradable Polyester Family

While aromatic polyesters such as PET exhibit excellent material properties, they prove to be
almost totally resistant to microbial attack. Aliphatic polyesters on the other hand are readily
biodegradable, but lack good mechanical properties that are critical for most applications. All
polyesters degrade eventually, with hydrolysis (degradation induced by water) being the
dominant mechanism.

Synthetic aliphatic polyesters are synthesised from diols and dicarboxylic acids via condensation
polymerisation, and are known to be completely biodegradable in soil and water. These aliphatic
polyesters are, however, much more expensive and lack mechanical strength compared with
conventional plastics such as polyethylene.

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Many of these polyesters are blended with starch based polymers for cost competitive
biodegradable plastics applications. Aliphatic polyesters have better moisture resistance than
starches, which have many hydroxyl groups.

The rate of soil degradation of various biodegradable plastics has been measured by Hoshino
(2001). Poly-(3-hydroxy–butyrate-valerate) (PHB/PHV), PCL, PBS, PBSA, and PLA were
evaluated in soil burial for 12 months and samples were collected every 3 months for the
measurement of weight loss. The rate of degradation of PBSA, PHB/PHV and PCL was found to
be similar; with the rate of PBS and PLA respectively slower.

3.1 PHA (Naturally Produced) Polyesters

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are aliphatic polyesters naturally produced via a microbial
process on sugar-based medium, where they act as carbon and energy storage material in bacteria.
They were the first biodegradable polyesters to be utilised in plastics. The two main members of
the PHA family are polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV).

Aliphatic polyesters such as PHAs, and more specifically homopolymers and copolymers of
hydroxybutyric acid and hydroxyvaleric acid, have been proven to be readily biodegradable.
Such polymers are actually synthesised by microbes, with the polymer accumulating in the
microbes’ cells during growth.

Developments

The most common commercial PHA consists of a copolymer PHB/PHV together with a
plasticiser/softener (e.g. triacetine or estaflex) and inorganic additives such as titanium dioxide
and calcium carbonate.

A major factor in the competition between PHAs and petroleum based plastics is in production
costs. Opportunities exist however for obtaining cheaper raw materials that could reduce PHA
production costs. Such raw materials include corn-steeped liquor, molasses and even activated
sludge. These materials are relatively inexpensive nutrient sources for the bacteria that synthesise
PHAs (Purushothaman, 2001).

The PHB homopolymer is a stiff and rather brittle polymer of high crystallinity, whose
mechanical properties are not unlike those of polystyrene, though it is less brittle. PHB
copolymers are preferred for general purposes as the degradation rate of PHB homopolymer is
high at its normal melt processing temperature. PHB and its copolymers with PHV are melt-
processable semi-crystalline thermoplastics made by biological fermentation from renewable
carbohydrate feedstocks. They represent the first example of a true biodegradeable thermoplastic
produced via a biotechnology process. No toxic by-products are known to result from PHB or
PHV.
Applications

The applications of PHA are blow and injection-moulded bottles and plastic films. Such films
are available in Australia under the Biopol™ trademark.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

PHAs are biodegradable via composting. Optimum conditions for the commercially available
Biopol™ (PHA) degradation during a 10-week composting period were 60°C, 55% moisture, and
C:N ratio of 18:1. Biopol™ reached close to a 100% degradation rate under these composting
conditions. The aliphatic polyesters function like starch or cellulose to produce non-humic
substances such as CO2 and methane. These aliphatic polymers are suited to applications with
short usage and high degradation rate requirements (Gallagher, 2001).

Shin et al. (1997) found that bacterial PHB/PHV (92/8 w/w) degraded nearly to completion
within 20 days of cultivation by anaerobic digested sludge, while synthetic aliphatic polyesters
such as PLA, PBS and PBSA did not degrade at all in 100 days. Cellophane, which was used as a
control material, exhibited a similar degradation behavior to PHB/PHV. Under simulated landfill
conditions, PHB/PHV degraded within 6 months. Synthetic aliphatic polyesters also showed
significant weight losses through 1 year of cultivation. The acidic environment generated by the
degradation of biodegradable food wastes which comprises approximately 34% of municipal
solid waste seems to cause the weight loss of synthetic aliphatic polyesters.

3.2 PHBH (Naturally Produced) Polyesters

Poly-hydroxybutyrate-co-polyhydroxyhexanoates (PHBHs) resins are one of the newest type of
naturally produced biodegradable polyesters. The PHBH resin is derived from carbon sources
such as sucrose, fatty acids or molasses via a fermentation process.

These are ‘aliphatic-aliphatic’ copolyesters, as disctint from ‘aliphatic-aromatic’ copolyesters.

Besides being completely biodegradable, they also exhibit barrier properties similar to those
exhibited by ethylene vinyl alcohol (see Section 3.1.2). Procter & Gamble Co. researched the
blending of these polymers to obtain the appropriate stiffness or flexibility.

Developments

They have been developed by Kaneka Corp. (a Japanese manufacturer) and marketed by Procter
& Gamble Co. under the Nodax™ tradename.

Applications

The applications of the PHBH polymer are film, manufactured via casting or blowing methods.
Potential applications are mono/multilayer film and non-woven paper packaging at costs
comparable to traditional materials such as EVOH.
Degradation Mechanisms and
Properties
PHBH resins biodegrade under aerobic as well as anaerobic conditions, and are digestible in hot
water under alkaline conditions.

3.3 PLA (Renewable Resource) Polyesters

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a linear aliphatic polyester produced by poly-condensation of naturally
produced lactic acid or by the catalytic ring opening of the lactide group. Lactic acid is produced
(via starch fermentation) as a co-product of corn wet milling. The ester linkages in PLA are
sensitive to both chemical hydrolysis and enzymatic chain cleavage.

PLA is often blended with starch to increase biodegradability and reduce costs. However, the
brittleness of the starch-PLA blend is a major drawback in many applications. To remedy this
limitation, a number of low molecular weight plasticisers such as glycerol, sorbitol and triethyl
citrate are used.

PLA does not have full food contact approval due to its fermentation manufacturing method.

Developments

A number of companies produce PLA, such as Cargill Dow LLC. PLA produced by Cargill Dow
was originally sold under the name EcoPLA, but now is known as NatureWorks PLA, which is
actually a family of PLA polymers that can be used alone or blended with other natural-based
polymers.

Table 3.1 details some of the other PLA biodegradable plastics that are commercially available.

Table 3.1 – PLA Polymers (Commercially Available)

Trade-name Supplier Origin
Lacea Mitsui Toatsu Japan
Lucty Shimazu Japan
NatureWorks Cargill Dow USA

Applications

The applications for PLA are thermoformed products such as drink cups, take-away food trays,
containers and planter boxes. The material has good rigidity characteristics, allowing it to replace
polystryene and PET in some applications.

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PLA is fully biodegradable when composted in a large-scale operation with temperatures of 60C
and above. The first stage of degradation of PLA (two weeks) is via hydrolysis to water soluble
compounds and lactic acid. Rapid metabolisation of these products into CO 2, water and biomass
by a variety of micro-organisms occurs after hydrolysis.

PLA does not biodegrade readily at temperatures less than 60C due to its ‘glass transition’
temperature being close to 60C.

3.4 PCL (Synthetic Aliphatic) Polyesters

Polycaprolactone (PCL) is a biodegradable synthetic aliphatic polyester made by the ring-opening
polymerization of caprolactone. PCL has a low melting-point, between 58-60°C, low viscosity
and is easy to process.

Developments

Until recently, PCL was not widely used in significant quantities for biodegradable polymer
applications due to cost reasons. Recently however, cost barriers have been overcome by
blending the PCL with corn-starch.

Table 3.2 details some of the various PCL biodegradable plastics that are commercially available.

Table 3.2 – PCL Polymers (Commercially Available)

Trade-name Supplier Origin
Tone Union Carbide (UCC) USA
CAPA Solvay Belgium
Placeel Daicel Chemical Indus. Japan

Applications

PCL is suited for use as food-contact foam trays, loose fill and film bags.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

Although not produced from renewable raw materials, PCL is fully biodegradable when
composted. The low melting point of PCL makes the material suited for composting as a means
of disposal, due to the temperatures obtained during composting routinely exceeding 60°C.

Rutkowska et. al. (2000) studied the influence of different processing additives on the
biodegradation of PCL film in the compost with plant treatment active sludge. It was found that
PCL without additives, completely degraded after six weeks in compost with activated sludge.
The introduction of processing additives gave better tensile strength of the materials but made
them less vulnerable to micro-organism attack.
The rate of marine biodegradation of PCL has been studied by Janik et. al. (1988) by measuring
the tensile strength and percent weight loss over time in both seawater and a buffered salt
solution. It was found that the weight loss, as a percent of total weight, decreased more rapidly in
seawater than in the buffered salt solution. After eight weeks, the PCL in seawater was
completely decomposed, whereas that in salt solution had lost only 20% of its weight. The same
trend was seen for the tensile strength, where after eight weeks, the PCL in seawater was
destroyed and that in buffered salt solution had decreased to roughly one-sixth its original value.
It is therefore apparent that enzymes in the seawater solution assist to accelerate the
biodegradation of PCL and other biodegradable plastics.

3.5 PBS (Synthetic Aliphatic) Polyesters

Polybutylene succinate (PBS) is a biodegradable synthetic aliphatic polyester with similar
properties to PET. PBS is generally blended with other compounds, such as starch (TPS) and
adipate copolymers (to form PBS-A), to make its use economical.

Developments

Table 3.3 shows some PBS and PBS-A biodegradable plastics which are commercially available.

Table 3.3 – PBS Polymers (Commercially Available)

Trade-name Supplier Origin
Bionelle Showa Highpolymer Japan
SkyGreen BDP SK Polymers Korea

Applications

PBS has excellent mechanical properties and can be applied to a range of end applications via
conventional melt processing techniques. Applications include mulch film, packaging film, bags
and ‘flushable’ hygiene products.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

PBS is hydro-biodegradable and begins to biodegrade via a hydrolysis mechanism. Hydrolysis

occurs at the ester linkages and this results in a lowering of the polymer's molecular weight,
allowing for further degradation by micro-organisms. Data from SK Chemicals (Korea), a
leading manufacturer of PBS polymers, quotes a degradation rate of 1 month for 50% degradation
for 40 micron thick film in garden soil.

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3.6 AAC Copolyesters
Aliphatic-aromatic (AAC) copolyesters combine the biodegradable properties of aliphatic
polyesters with the strength and performance properties of aromatic polyesters. This class of
biodegradable plastics is seen by many to be the answer to making fully biodegradable plastics
with property profiles similar to those of commodity polymers such as polyethylene. To reduce
cost AACs are often blended with TPS.

Although AACs have obvious benefits, their market potential may be affected by legislation, such
as that in Germany, which distinguishes between biodegradable plastics made from renewable
resources and those, like AAC, which use basically the same raw materials as commodity plastics
and petrochemicals. Currently in Germany, biodegradable plastics must contain greater than 50%
renewable resources to be accepted.

Developments

The two main types of commercial AAC plastics are Ecoflex™ produced by BASF and Eastar
Bio™ produced by Eastman. Under each trade name are a number of specific grades. Each
grade of polymer has been designed with controlled branching and chain lengthening to match its
particular application.

Applications

AACs come closer than any other biodegradable plastics to equalling the properties of low-
density polyethylene, especially for blown film extrusion. AACs also can meet all the functional
requirements for cling film such as transparency, flexibility and anti-fogging performance, and
therefore this material has great promise for use in commercial food wrap for fruit and vegetables,
with the added advantage of being compostable.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

Whilst being fossil fuel-based, AACs are biodegradable and compostable.

ACCs fully biodegrade to carbon dioxide, water and biomass. Typically, in an active microbial
environment the polymer becomes invisible to the naked eye within 12 weeks. The extent and
rate of biodegradation, apart from the inherent biodegradability of the polymer itself, depends on
several environmental factors such as:

 moisture;
 temperature;
 surface area; and
 the manufacturing method of the finished product.
3.7 Modified PET
Modified PET (polyethylene tetraphalate) is PET which contains co-monomers, such as ether,
amide or aliphatic monomers, that provide ‘weak’ linkages that are susceptible to biodegradation
through hydrolysis. Depending on the application, up to three aliphatic monomers are
incorporated into the PET structure. Typical modified PET materials include PBAT (polybutylene
adipate/terephthalate) and PTMAT (polytetramethylene adipate/terephthalate).

Developments

DuPont have commercialised Biomax™ which is a hydro-biodegradable modified PET polyester.

Certain Biomax™ grades also contain degradation promoters to provide tailored combinations of
performance properties and degradation rates.

Applications

The options available for modified PET provide the opportunity to produce polymers which
specifically match a range of application physical properties whilst maintaining the ability to
adjust the degradation rate by the use of copolyesters.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

Modified PET is hydro-biodegradable, with a biodegradation steps following an initial hydrolysis

stage. It contains weak linkages which create sites for microbial attack. The mechanism involves
a combination of hydrolysis of the ester linkages and enzymatic attack on ether and amide bonds.

With modified PET it is possible to adjust and control degradation rates by varying the co-
monomers used.
4 OTHER DEGRADABLE POLYMERS

4.1 Water Soluble Polymers

There are two main water soluble polymer types commercially available – polyvinyl alcohol
(PVOH) and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH).

4.1.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVOH)

PVOH is a readily biodegradable, water soluble polymer. Conventional PVOH however, cannot
be processed by traditional extrusion technologies since it decomposes close to its melting point
of 230C. Even partially hydrolysed grades, which melt at 180-190C, undergo some
decomposition during melt processing.

Developments

Until recently PVOH film was prepared by casting films from an aqueous solution. Recently
however, new grades of PVOH have been commercialised which incorporate an internal
plasticiser that are thereby extrudable and retain their water solubility.

Table 4.1 shows some of the PVOH biodegradable plastics which are commercially available.

Table 4.1 – PVOH Polymers (Commercially Available)

Trade-name Supplier Origin
Vinex Air Products USA
Elvanol DuPont USA
Poval Kuraray Co. Japan
Exceval Kuraray Co. Japan
Hi-Selon Nippon Gohsei Japan
Note: Vinex™ is a copolymer of polyvinyl acetate with poly(alkyleneoxy) acrylate.

Applications

PVOH can generally be utilised in a range of film applications.

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

The degradation of PVOH is influenced by its crystalinity and molecular weight. Testing carried
out by Swinburne University have shown that PVOH does not biodegrade, but simply dissolves
in water. Literature from PVOH manufacturers such as Kuraray Co. Ltd. indicated that PVOH
can be biodegraded by activated sludge treatment. Biodegradation of PVOH in soil is expected
be very slow.
4.1.2 Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH)

EVOH is another water–soluble synthetic plastic, and is used as an oxygen barrier layer in
multilayer film packaging. The high cost of EVOH is a significant barrier to its widespread use
in other biodegradable plastics applications.

4.2 Photo-biodegradable Plastics

Photodegradable plastics are thermoplastic synthetic polymers into which have been incorporated
light-sensitive chemical additives or copolymers for the purposes of weakening the bonds of the
polymer in the presence of ultraviolet radiation. Photodegradable plastics are designed to become
weak and brittle when exposed to sunlight for prolonged periods. Photosensitisers used include
diketones, ferrocene derivatives (aminoalkyferrocene) and carbonyl-containing species. These
plastics degrade in a two-stage process, with UV light initially breaking some bonds leaving more
brittle lower molecular weight compounds that can further degrade from physical stresses such as
wave action or scarification on rocks.

Developments

Photodegradable products can have a positive impact on plastic litter in both land and marine
situations. The effectiveness is dependent on exposure intensity and will vary with factors such
as the season, geography, dirt or water cover, and shading. A new approach to making
photodegradable plastics involves adding catalytic metal salts or chelates to initiate the
breakdown process.

Applications

Photodegradable plastics may be useful in applications where littering is an issue and in those that
pose a threat to animal and marine life (i.e. six-pack plastic beverage rings).

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

In photodegradable systems, biodegradation occurs only after an initial photo-degradation stage.

Degradation of the polymer is triggered by UV light, and assisted by the presence of UV
sensitisers in the polymer. The polymer is initially converted to low molecular weight material
(i.e. waxes), and then converted to carbon dioxide and water by bacterial action.
4.3 Controlled Degradation Additive Masterbatches
Additives that impart controlled degradation behaviour to conventional thermoplastics, as well as
to inherently biodegradable plastics, are becoming a popular strategy due to price competition.
Such additives are known as prodegradant concentrates, and are generally based on catalytic
transition metal compounds such as cobalt stearate or manganese stearate. The additive is
typically used at levels of 1-3% and leads to additional costs of between 10-35% over that of
polyethylene.

Developments

The principal company that has developed these prodegradant additives is EPI Environmental
Technologies (Conroe, TX, USA) and their products are trademarked TDPA™ - an acronym for
Totally Degradable Plastic Additives. Plastic products manufactured with EPI's TDPA
technology progressively degrade to lower and lower molecular weights. They become brittle,
disintegrate and are ultimately digested by microorganisms back to the basic elements of carbon
dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and biomass with no harmful residues. TDPAs have been shown not
to affect bacteria, fungi or earthworms and they leave no hazardous residues. TDPAs can control
the degradation rates of plastics in various degrees, from as short as a few weeks to months or
years, at a competitive cost.

The prodegradants developed by EPI are also known as degradable and compostable polymer
(DCP) additives. Compostable bags and bin liners that utilise polyethylene modified by DCP
additives are claimed to totally degrade within 90 days in commercial composting facilities. Such
prodegradant additives are also being marketed by CIBA under the trade name Envirocare™.

Prodegradant containing films represent a significant development over earlier biodegradable

films based on starch-filled polyethylene. The starch-based bags had significantly inferior
physical and mechanical properties compared with polyethylene; the prodegradant containing
films on the other hand possess the same mechanical properties as polyethylene. A biodegradable
additive marketed under the tradename Bioefect™ is used in polyolefins such as polypropylene.

In Australia a number of companies are using such pro-degradant additives. Enviro Covers
Australia (Nerang, Qld) is distributing degradable polyethylene landfill covers based on the EPI
technology. Valpak (Cromer, NSW) are producing degradable plastic bags called BioBag™ also
based on the EPI technology.

AMCOR Flexibles have licensed this technology from EPI which allows them to produce plastic
film and bags that will degrade in a dry landfill. The films are made by adding a prodegradant
masterbatch to standard polyethylene. The additive, a metal chelate, initiates chain scission
processes that cause the polymer chain to be reduced to molecular weights 20% that of the
original, at which point bacterial degradation takes over. The additive is used at relatively low
levels and contributes little add-on cost. The process begins essentially as soon as the film is
extruded.

Such prodegradant containing films possess the same mechanical properties as polyethylene
which represents a significant development over earlier starch-filled polyethylene films which
had inferior physical and mechanical properties.
Applications

Potential applications include:

 Thin plastic shopping bags. Such bags would contain 1% of the pro-degradant
additive and would take approximately 18 months to fully degrade in landfill.
 Daily landfill covers.
 Compostable bags and bin liners for food waste such as that from major catering
events and commercial premises. Such bags would contain approximately 3% of the
additive and would take 8-10 weeks to fully degrade.
 Plastic films used in fresh food wrapping and plastic wrap used in catering industries.
The reason that a biodegradable film is advantageous in these areas is that a
significant amount of food waste from catering companies and shopping centres can
potentially go to commercial composting facilities. In such applications the current
plastic wrap over vegetables for example, is a non-degradable contaminant in the
compost.
 Agricultural mulch film where removal of the film after the growing season is
expensive (30% that of the film cost).

Degradation Mechanisms and Properties

The addition of a ‘masterbatch’ (i.e. concentrate) to a plastic base resin allows for degradation
behaviour to be controlled. Polyethylene containing 3% of the additive is claimed to degrade to a
95% weight loss after 4 weeks at 60C. Such environmentally degradable plastic compositions
are not strictly biodegradable but rather ‘bioerodable’.

DCP-containing polymers do not initially biodegrade, but rather chemically oxidise to lower and
lower molecular weights, become brittle and fragment. The fragments are then ingested slowly
by microorganisms, ultimately leaving carbon dioxide, water and biomass. As a consequence,
DCP-containing plastics do not meet the ASTM D6400-99 standard, due to their degradation
through chemical oxidation before the onset of biodegradation and because the mineralisation
occurs at a slower rate than is acceptable.

Envirocare™ additives promote oxidative degradation of plastics such as standard polyethylene.

Although the additives promote an oxidation process of the polymer, neither light nor heat is
essential, and the additives can work at ambient temperature. When the molecular weight of the
plastic drops sufficiently, the plastic is effectively converted to wax and at this point it will
naturally biodegrade.
5 EMERGING APPLICATION AREAS IN AUSTRALIA
Until recently, the high cost associated with biodegradable plastics meant that they had limited
penetration into the Australian markets of conventional commodity polymers. With the advent of
new more affordable biodegradable plastics and prodegradant additives, it is predicted that by
2005 many biodegradable plastics will be cost competitive with conventional plastics, both in
Europe and North America, over a broad range of applications (Kitch, 2001, p.74). Therefore,
biodegradable plastics are potentially poised to expand their entry into the Australian market.

In general, biodegradable plastics are most suited to applications where the biodegradable plastic
alternative has been shown through life cycle assessment (LCA) or other methods to achieve the
following:

 Meets the overall needs of the application with additional technical and potential
environmental benefits;
 Reduces labour or energy required to manage solids (e.g. composting facilities); and
 Reduces the environmental and social impact of other conventional products.

With the development of various biodegradable plastics with differing structures, properties and
degradation behaviours, a range of potentially suitable application areas are emerging. For
example, starch-based polymers may be suitable in agricultural and horticultural applications
where no in-organic residues can result, and polymers with prodegradant additives, which
maintain their structural integrity until they undergo composting, may be suitable for food waste
bags.

Biodegradable plastics are well placed to substitute conventional plastics in low-weight,

miscellaneous packaging applications that are not currently mechanically recycled. For example,
certain streams of packaging such as take-away food containers, thermoformed biscuit trays and
plastic food wrap are not collected and sorted for mechanical recycling at present and therefore
may lend themselves well to substitution by biodegradable plastics that can be bioassimilated in
compost. Furthermore, their high level of food residues enables such products to be compostable.

Some of these emerging application areas in Australia are outlined below.

5.1 Coated Paper

Coated (or laminated) paper products represent a significant market for biodegradable plastics.
The present paper products for hamburger wrappers and disposal cups are extrusion-coated with
low-density polyethylene film that is resistant to biodegradation. It also retards the biodegradation
of the paper substrate since it acts as an impervious barrier.
5.2 Agricultural Mulch Film
Agricultural mulch films are utilised in some agricultural applications, such as tomato cropping,
as a mulch soil cover to inhibit weed growth and retain soil moisture. These films could be
potentially made from biodegradable plastics to eliminate the need for mechanical removal, as the
mulch films could be ploughed into the soil. These films could also prevent the loss of topsoil
humus that can be removed along with the waste film, and also enrich the soil with additional
carbon.

A range of the biodegradable plastics available may be suitable for this application - such as TPS,
AAC and controlled degradation masterbatches. Degradable starch-filled conventional
polyethylene films may be unacceptable due to residuals that can build up in the soil over time
(Kitch, 2001).

5.3 Shopping Bags

Plastic bags and other packaging films have a high profile in the Australian waste stream, as these
materials are currently not widely accepted in the kerbside recycling system. Biodegradable
plastics present a potential alternative to these materials in some applications.

5.4 Food Waste Film and Bags

Film, wrap and bags for food scraps, food residuals and food products destined for composting in
commercial composting facilities, is a potential application area for biodegradable plastics.
Conventional plastics are a significant contaminant in organics processing and they reduce the
marketability of the compost produced (Goldstein & Block, 2000). These applications depend on
the disposal environment being a commercial composting operation which provides the necessary
conditions for the polymers to degrade.

An application for biodegradable plastics is for plastic films used in fresh food wrapping and
plastic wrap used in catering industries. The reason that a biodegradable film could be
advantageous in these areas is that a significant amount of food waste from catering companies
and shopping centres can potentially be diverted to commercial composting facilities.

If composting of municipal solid waste and food waste becomes more prevalent, this may
dramatically increase demand for biodegradable plastics in the form of compost bags and food
scrap bags. For example, numerous towns in Northern Italy have been using biodegradable bags
for transporting food residuals since 1998 (Kitch, 2001) and a major European producer of
biodegradable plastics, Novomont, receives the majority of its revenue from compostable food
bags and has a 10,000 tpa production plant servicing this market. Such bags would take 8-10
weeks to fully degrade in a commercial composting operation.
5.5 Consumer Packaging Materials
One of the major potential application areas for biodegradable plastics is consumer packaging. A
wide range of plastic consumer packaging materials are not currently mechanically recycled, and
may therefore be suited to the use of biodegradable plastics; however, life cycle assessment
studies are needed to determine the impacts of biodegradable and conventional polymers for these
uses. The various uses and likely disposal environments of different packaging products would
require the use of different biodegradable plastics with appropriate mechanical and degradation
properties.

Another strategic fit for biodegradable plastics is the beverage six-pack rings market. In the USA
almost all plastic six-pack rings have been made of photodegradable LDPE plastic since the early
1990’s. At least 16 US states—including Massachusetts, New York and Rhode Island - have
passed laws requiring six-pack holders be biodegradable (these are marked by a small diamond
between the rings). Pepsi for example, has a policy to purchase only photodegradable plastic six-
pack rings. It should be noted that photodegradable plastics are not a complete solution in
themselves as they require 6-8 weeks of sunlight to degrade and will not degrade if buried.

Other related applications include bread bags, bait bags, disposable food preparation gloves,
drinking straws, and loose fill packaging.

5.6 Landfill Cover Film

The use of biodegradable plastic films as degradable daily landfill covers could considerably
extend landfill life. Landfills require a daily cover, currently usually soil, to discourage flies and
other disease carriers, control odour, minimise windblown litter and discourage scavenging birds
and other animals. Using soil for the daily cover typically results in a 25% loss of available
landfill space.

5.7 Other Applications

Other potential applications for the range of biodegradable plastics include:

 Bait bags;
 Fishing line and nets;
 Silage wrap;
 Body bags and coffin liners;
 Nappy backing sheet;
 Various sanitary product applications; and
 Cling wrap.
6 STANDARDS AND TEST METHODS
Australia at present has no standards, or test methods, that specifically apply to biodegradable
plastics. There are however a range of international standards, and test methods, developed
specifically for biodegradability, product safety, and also for compost derived products.

The main international organisations that have established standards or testing methods are:

 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (www.astm.org);

 European Standardisation Committee (CEN) (www.cenorm.be);
 International Standards Organisation (ISO) (www.iso.org);
 Institute for Standards Research (ISR),
 German Institute for Standardisation (DIN); and
 Organic Reclamation and Composting Association (ORCA) (Belgium).

These standards and testing methods are summarised below.

6.1 Biodegradation Standards and Tests

6.1.1 American Society for Testing and Materials

A family of ASTM standards addresses physical property deterioration in a variety of specific

environmental conditions including simulated composting (D5509, D5512), simulated landfill
(D5525), aerobic microbial activity (D5247) and marine floating conditions (D5437).

A second group of ASTM standards addresses CO 2 generation in aerobic environments including

sewage sludge (D5209), activated sewage sludge (D5271), and controlled composting (D5338).

A third group of ASTM standards addresses CH 4/CO2 evolution in anaerobic environments such
as anaerobic sewage sludge (D5210), anaerobic biodegradation (D5511), and accelerated landfill
(D5526). D6400 differentiates between biodegradable and degradable plastics, and D5152-
addresses environmental fate.

The test methods for the key ASTM standards are summarised below,

ASTM D5338-93 (Composting)

For biodegradable plastic materials to be accepted in composting plants, both biodegradability

and disintegration are important. Disintegration is the physical falling apart of the biodegradable
plastic material, or more precisely of the product that has been made from it, into fine visually
indistinguishable fragments at the end of a typical composting cycle.
A compostable material is understood to be a material in which:

 the polymer chains break down under the action of micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi,
algae);
 total mineralisation is obtained (conversion into CO 2, H2O, inorganic compounds and
biomass under aerobic conditions); and
 the mineralisation rate is high and is compatible with the composting process.

Those materials having a degree of biodegradation equivalent to that of cellulose (maximum

permissible tolerance of 5%) are considered to meet the compostability criteria under these
standards.

To measure compostability, the ASTM in the United States has developed the key standard
ASTM D5338-93. This is a standard test method for determining aerobic biodegradation of
plastic materials under controlled composting conditions. In this method the plastic is mixed with
stabilised and mature compost derived from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste. The
net production of CO2 is recorded relative to a control containing only mature compost. After
determining the carbon content of the test substance, the percentage biodegradation can be
calculated as the percentage of solid carbon of the test substance which has been converted to
gaseous carbon in the form of CO 2. In addition to carbon conversion, disintegration and weight
loss can be evaluated.

To meet the ASTM D5338-93 standard, 60% of single polymer materials must mineralise in six
months, and 90% must do so in blends. Materials should give way to intense microbial activity
and be converted from carbon to carbon dioxide, biomass and water. Materials also should begin
to fragment, at which point disintegration begins. In this phase, the material must completely
physically and visually disintegrate. Ninety percent of the disintegrated material must not
adversely affect the quality of the compost. Finally, even after land application, remaining
materials should be safely converted into carbon dioxide by microorganisms. The resultant
compost should not be toxic and should not deter plant growth.

ISO CD 14855 and the CEN test procedures are similar to the ASTM D 5338-92. The only
difference is the temperature profile which is continuously at 58C in both ISO and CEN
procedures while it follows a temperature profile of 35-58-50-35C in the ASTM test.

ASTM D5209-91 (Aerobic, Sewer Sludge)

The Sturm test (ASTM D5209-91) was developed to measure the biodegradability of both water-
soluble and insoluble compounds in an aquatic environment. As with ASTM D5338-93 these
tests are based on the measurement of CO 2 produced during biodegradation of the plastic test
material. The percentage biodegradation is calculated from the CO 2 produced by the plastic
sample compared to the total theoretical amount. Continuous aeration ensures that there is
sufficient oxygen in the bioreactor at all times. The measurement of carbon dioxide evolved
during degradation gives direct information on the bioconversion of the carbon backbone of the
polymer to metabolic end products.
A 10 mg plastic sample is used in the test. For this reason it gives an artificially high breakdown
rate. While the measurement of evolved CO 2 is very accurate the rate of biodegradation can have
an error of up to 80%.

The Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) have developed a ‘headspace test’, which like
the Sturm test, is also based on the measurement of carbon dioxide under aerobic conditions. The
VTT test is performed in ‘headspace’ bottles (volume 125 mL) containing 50 mL of a mineral
nutrient medium and sewage sludge. The benefits of the VTT test are its simplicity and the
ability to conduct an extensive number of samples simultaneously and thereby perform statistical
evaluation. The carbon dioxide evolved during biodegradation is determined from the gas and
liquid phases at weekly intervals.

ASTM D5210-92 (Anaerobic, Sewage Sludge)

Anaerobic degradation is biodegradation in the absence of oxygen. A mixed population of

microorganisms is needed for complete degradation of the polymer. In the first stage, acidogenic
bacteria convert organic substances into lower molecular weight components such as alcohols
and short chain fatty acids. Subsequently acetogenic bacteria further degrade these substances to
acetone, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. In the final phase, methane and carbon dioxide are the
end products of anaerobic degradation.

The standard test method for determining the anaerobic degradation of plastic materials is ASTM
D5210-92. This test measures the amount of biogas released during polymer biodigestion by
microorganisms. The biodegradation percentage is the ratio of biogas produced by the test
sample compared with the theoretical amount produced in the case of complete mineralisation.

ASTM D5511-94 (High-solids Anaerobic Digestion)

ASTM D5511-94 is the standard test method for determining anaerobic biodegradation of plastic
materials under high-solids anaerobic digestion conditions. This method determines the inherent
biodegradability of plastic in an anaerobic solid waste digester or a sanitary landfill under optimal
conditions. In this case the total volume of biogas produced per unit weight of sample is
measured. Knowing the carbon content of the test material, the percentage of biodegradation can
be calculated as the percentage of solid carbon in the sample which has been converted to gaseous
carbon in the form of CH4 and CO2.

ASTM Tests for Specific Disposal Environments

Tests to evaluate the generation and quality of humic substances in landfills, composting or
terrestrial or aquatic environments are beginning to appear. Aerobic composting with activated
vermiculite provides the opportunity to recover and quantify the polymeric residues, allowing
more complete carbon balances as well as assessments of toxic compound generation and humus
quality.
The property of disintegration of biodegradable plastics can be measured in a pilot-scale or full-
scale composting test. The test substance is subjected to a spontaneous composting process for a
duration of 12 weeks. At the end, a sieving over 2 mm followed by a precise sorting analysis is
executed. It may be that a bioplastic passes the test at a specific thickness but fails the test at a
higher thickness. It must also be demonstrated that the bioplastic materials have no negative
effect on compost quality. This involves chemical analyses (e.g. heavy metals), required to
evaluate conventional compost quality. In addition, ecotoxicity tests are advised, including plant
germination tests as well as animal toxicity tests. The purpose of these tests is to make sure that
small additives (e.g. from the plastics) do not have an adverse effect on compost quality.

6.1.2 International Standards Research

The performance of biodegradable plastics in composting facilities and under laboratory

conditions has been studied by International Standards Research (ISR). ISR has determined that
plastics need to meet the following three criteria in order to be compostable:

 They must biodegrade at the same rate and to the same extent as known compostable
material such as garden waste and paper, and leave no persistent or toxic residues.
 They must disintegrate during active composting so there are no visible or
distinguishable fragments found on the screens.
 They must have no ecotoxicity or phytotoxicity that may impact on the ability of the
compost to support plant growth.

6.1.3 International Standards Organisation

Three International Standards Organisation (ISO) standards have set the criteria by which
European biodegradable plastics are currently assessed. These are:

 ISO 14855 (aerobic biodegradation under controlled conditions);

 ISO 14852 (aerobic biodegradation in aqueous environments); and
 ISO 15985 (anaerobic biodegradation in a high solids sewerage environment).

ISO 14855 is a controlled aerobic composting test, and ISO 14851 and ISO 14852 are
biodegradability tests specifically designed for polymeric materials.

An important part of assessing biodegradable plastics is testing for disintegration in the form in
which it will be ultimately used. Either a controlled pilot-scale test or a test in a full-scale
aerobic composting treatment facility can be used. Due to the nature and conditions of such
disintegration tests, the tests cannot differentiate between biodegradation and abiotic
disintegration, but instead demonstrates that sufficient disintegration of the test materials has been
achieved within the specified testing time.
6.1.4 European Committee for Normalisation

The European Committee for Normalisation (CEN) established the norm standard (CEN prEN
13432) in 1999. The norm provides the European Commission’s European Directive on
Packaging and Packaging Waste with appropriate technical regulations and standards. This norm
is a reference point for all European producers, authorities, facility managers and consumers.

The standard specifies requirements and procedures to determine the compostability of plastic
packaging materials based on four main areas:

 biodegradability;
 disintegration during biological treatment;
 effect on the biological treatment process; and
 effect on the quality of the resulting compost.

Importantly, the packaging material that is intended for entering the bio-waste stream must be
‘recognisable’ as biodegradable or compostable, by the end user.

The strictest European standard for biodegradability is CEN 13432. This standard can apply to
other packaging materials in addition to polymers, and incorporates the following tests and
standards:

 ISO 14855;  ASTM D5152-92;

 ISO 14855 (respirometric);  ASTM E1440-91;
 ISO 14852;  Modified OECD 207; and
 ASTM D5338-92;  CEN TC 261/SC4/WG2.
 ASTM D5511-94;

For a material to pass the standard, it must not persist for longer than 6 months under any of the
conditions stipulated in the above tests and have a pass level of 90%. In addition, the material
must not exceed a heavy metals content above 50% of that for ‘normal’ compost, as follows:

Zn 150 ppm Ni 25 ppm Pb 50 ppm

Cr 50 ppm Se 0.75 ppm F 100 ppm
Cu 50 ppm Cd 0.5 ppm Hg 0.5 ppm
Mo 1 ppm As 5 ppm

‘OK Compost’ Certification and Logo

The ‘OK Compost’ logo can be used on the labelling of biodegradable plastics and other
materials to signify that the material is 100% compostable and biodegradable. The logo is owned
and managed by AVI, and is based on the CEN – 13432 standard.
6.2 Compost Toxicity Tests
For a comprehensive assessment of toxicity associated with compost applications, plastics can be
tested on both plant and animal species.

Toxicity screening of some commercial degradable plastics using cell culture testing has been
reported by Dang et al. (1997). A number of polyester types were tested including a plasticized
cellulose acetate, an aliphatic polyester (Bionolle), polyhydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate
(Biopol™), and polycaprolactone (TONE™ polymer). Cell culture medium with serum was used
as the extraction medium. The relative MTT activity of cells cultured in fresh extracts indicate
that TONE™ polymer (all shapes) and Bionolle (test bars and films) are comparable to materials
currently used in food with no toxic effects on cells (Dang et. al; 1997).

Plant Phytotoxicity Testing

While a product may not negatively impact plant growth in the short term, over time it could
become phytotoxic due to the build-up of inorganic materials, which could potentially lead to a
reduction in soil productivity. For this reason some manufacturers use plant phytotoxicity testing
on the finished compost that contains degraded polymers.

Phytotoxicity testing can be conducted on two classes of flowering plants. These are monocots
(plants with one seed leaf) and dicots (plants with two seed leafs). Representatives from both of
these classes are typically used in toxicity testing - summer barley to represent monocots and
cress to represent dicots. Tests involve measuring the yield of both of these plants obtained from
the test compost and from control compost.

Animal Toxicity Test

Animal testing is generally carried out using earthworms (as representative soil dwelling
organisms) and Daphnia (as representative aquatic organisms). Earthworms are very sensitive to
toxicants. Since earthworms feeds on soil, they are suitable for testing the toxicity of compost.

In the acute toxicity test, earthworms are exposed to high concentrations of the test material for
short periods of time. The toxicity test is a European test (OECD guideline #207) in which
earthworms are exposed to soil and compost in varying amounts. Following 14 days of exposure,
the number of surviving earthworms is counted and weighed and the percent survival rate is
calculated. The earthworms are exposed to several mixture ratios of compost and soil mixtures.

Compost worms (Eisenia fetida) are used for testing the toxicity of biodegradable plastic
residues. These worms are very sensitive to metals such as tin, zinc, heavy metals and high
acidity. For this test worms are cleaned and accurately weighed at intervals over 28 days. The
compost worm toxicity test is considered to be an accurate method.

The Daphnia toxicity test can establish whether degradation products present in liquids pose any
problem to surface water bodies. In the test, Daphnia are placed in test solutions for 24 hours.
After exposure the number of surviving organisms is counted and the percent mortality is
calculated.
6.3 Difference Between Standards for Biodegradation
The main point of differentiation between the various international standards is the percentage of
biodegradation required for compliance. This is an important issue that is under discussion at
ISO level. The compliance requirements for the key standards are shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 – Standards Compliance Requirements

Standard Biodegradation Requirement
DIN 60% 6 months
ASTM 60% 6 months
CEN 90% Nil
OECD 60% (for chemicals) 28 days

A 60% biodegradation of a chemical (that is, small molecules) will generally represent a strong
modification of its original chemical structure. On the other hand, if a copolymer is formed by
two monomers statistically distributed, say 60% A and 40% B, where A is biodegradable and B is
recalcitrant, a 60% biodegradation may mean a 100% biodegradation of one component but a 0%
biodegradation of the other.

6.4 Development of Australian Standards

There is a need for the adoption of Australian Standards for biodegradation which match the
potential application areas and disposal environments in Australia. These Standards may be
developed with reference to the existing international standards.

A number of products presently being imported into Australia are purported to be biodegradable
plastics, but are simply hydrocarbon polymers such as polyethylene. It is currently difficult to
verify whether polymers comply with relevant overseas standards other than by conducting
expensive testing. For example, the knives and forks from the Sydney Olympics have been tested
in laboratory compost vessels and were found not to breakdown after 6 months. The
development of Australian Standards that address local requirements and circumstances may
alleviate these problems.
7 DISPOSAL ENVIRONMENTS
The rate of biodegradation of biodegradable plastics is dependent on the disposal environment
and its conditions.

The major disposal environments for biodegradable plastics are:

 composting facilities or soil burial;

 anaerobic digestion;
 wastewater treatment facilities;
 plastics reprocessing facilities;
 landfill;
 marine and freshwater environments; and
 general open environment as litter.

To a large extent, the nature of the biodegradable plastic application should dictate the disposal
environment.

7.1 Composting Facilities and Soil Burial

Most biodegradable plastics lend themselves well to composting systems. Composting and soil
burial is the preferred disposal environment for most biodegradable plastics. Many cities around
the world now compost garden organics, food wastes, cardboard, paper products, mixed
municipal solid waste and sewage sludge.

The degradation mechanism of biodegradable plastics in a composting environment is primarily

hydrolysis combined with aerobic and anaerobic microbial activity. Composting technologies
range from windrowing to in-vessel and trench composting.

In composting, material is turned or an air blower distributes air under the pile to maintain
aerobic conditions for faster degradation, redistribute material and moisture and to maintain
porosity of the compost. The mechanical stress imposed by turning the compost piles often
facilitates the initial physical disintegration of plastic items to a primary dimension of about one-
inch. Typically for full degradation, composting occurs over a 10 to 12 week period. The
degradation products of aerobic composting are compost and CO2.

The following pre-treatment steps are required before beginning the composting process:

 Removal of bulky non-compostable items;

 Particle size reduction;
 Moisture addition; and
 Mixing.
Compost increases soil organic content. Humus results from the degradation of lignin,
carbohydrate and proteins, and is also formed when many biodegradable plastics degrade.
Humus is beneficial to the soil as:

 the dark colour improves springtime warming of the soil;

 the physical structure keeps the soil light and fluffy, which improves air penetration
into the soil and root growth;
 the physical structure increases soil moisture retention; and
 the complex chemistry creates a colloidal system that controls pH, retains necessary
minerals such as Ca, Mg, and K, and traps heavy metal toxins to limit availability to
the plants.

Key Factors Defining Compostability

The four main factors which are generally considered as fundamental in order to define the
compostability are outlined below.

(1) Physical Persistence

The physical persistence of a plastic material in compost derived product is unacceptable. The
initial plastic material must not be physically recognisable in the final compost. The total
disappearance of a plastic material can be achieved by disintegration, dissolving or melting.

(2) Chemical Persistence

In nature, organic materials are recycled through mineralisation, a process by which the carbon
atoms of organic materials are incorporated into the microbial biomass and then, under aerobic
conditions, oxidised to CO2. Compostable synthetic materials are expected to behave in the same
manner. Their biodegradability is necessary to avoid accumulation of man-made materials in the
soil. If this were not the case, composting would simply be the process of transformation of
‘visible’ solid waste into ‘invisible’ waste by its dissemination into the soil.

(3) Toxicity

Synthetic polymeric materials should not release toxic compounds into the final compost in order
to prevent negative effects on the environment, organisms and humans via the food-chain. This
issue is strictly linked to chemical persistence.

(4) Effect on Quality of Compost

The addition of biodegradable plastics to composting processes must not affect the quality of the
final compost product. The assessment for the quality of compost should not be confused with
toxicity (i.e. a compost can be a good plant fertiliser and yet be contaminated with toxic
molecules).
7.2 Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion, using thermophilic microbes to produce methane and compost, is also
gaining support as an alternative to landfills. Methane production may be faster, more efficient
and more predictable in this system and a useful end-product, compost, is also produced.

7.3 Waste Water Treatment Plants

Sewage is an excellent environment for biodegradation of biodegradable plastics as there is a
preponderance of microbes and high levels of nitrogen and phosphorous. Activated sewage
sludge will convert approximately 60% of a biodegradable polymer to carbon dioxide while the
remaining 40% will enter the sludge stream where, under anaerobic digestion, it will be converted
to methane.

Any biodegradable polymer that meets the compostability criteria will degrade even faster in a
sewage environment. A rapidly degradable (or soluble) polymer that will not restrict sewer
systems is needed if it is to be disposed through wastewater treatment plants.

Biodegradable plastics have the potential to be used in various flushable sanitary product
applications such as sanitary towels, colostomy bags and other absorbent products. In addition,
effluent from recycling activities must be treated in wastewater treatment plants and may contain
biodegradable plastics.

Flushable biodegradable plastics can have an adverse impact on wastewater treatment plants due
to the very fast throughputs, typically 4 to 8 hours, from the drain to the plant. This length of
time is insufficient for many biodegradable plastics to lose their structure. Such plastics can foul
the wastewater treatment plant primary screens. Ill conceived biodegradable plastics would only
contribute to this problem. Flushable biodegradable plastics can be evaluated in a laboratory
using activated sludge as the test medium.

7.4 Reprocessing Facilities

It is to be expected that if biodegradable plastics began to occupy a significant market share of the
plastics market in Australia that some material would end up in plastics reprocessing facilities.
This could have significant effects on the sorting procedures required and the quality of recycled
end products. These issues are covered in more detail in Section 9.

7.5 Landfills
A recent study by Japanese researchers found that when conventional low-density polyethylene
film was under bioactive soil for almost 40 years, the surface of the film showed signs of
biodegradation with the molecular weight dropping by half the original. The inner part of the
sample was almost unchanged with the molecular weight being retained (Ohtake, 1998).
Although the majority of biodegradable plastics are more easily degraded in composting and soil
disposal environments than conventional plastics, environmentally degradable polymers could
increase the capacity of landfill sites by breaking down in a relatively short time and freeing other
materials for degradation, such as food scraps in plastic bags. Biodegradable plastics will not
degrade appreciably in a dry landfill, however, unless they contain sensitisers and pro-oxidants
(Garcia et al, 1998), which are transition metal catalysts such as manganese stearate or cobalt
stearate.

Biodegradable plastics also make a contribution to landfill gas production, and in landfills where
gas is collected for use as an alternative energy source this can be a positive outcome.
Conversely however, where gas utilisation systems are not in place, the presence of
biodegradable plastics will increase greenhouse gas emissions. Anaerobic microbes in the
presence of water in the landfill will consume natural products and produce methane, CO 2, and
humus. Typical landfill gas contains 50% methane and 45% CO 2, with the balance composed of
water and trace compounds. To compliment landfill gas production, degradable polymers need to
be consumed by anaerobic microbes to produce methane at rates comparable to those generated
by degradation of natural products (i.e. lignin and cellulose in paper and garden waste).

Biodegradable plastic films can also be used for degradable landfill covers (see Section 6.6).

7.6 Marine and Freshwater Environments

The rate of biodegradation in marine environments is affected by the water temperature. In cold
waters, the plastic material may still be in a form that could endanger marine life for an extended
period of time. In some initial trials carried out by Plastral Fidene, a starch-PCL blend was found
to degrade in 20 weeks in Queensland waters and 30 weeks in South Australian waters;. the same
sample was found to fully degrade in 20-30 days in a compost environment (pers. comm. W.
Hall, Plastral Fidene, 2002). Thus seasonal and climatic effects on biodegradation rates need to
be considered in relevant applications.

As biodegradable plastics have degradation behaviours based on particular environmental

conditions, many biodegradable plastics may not degrade rapidly in the intestines of marine
species, and injury is likely to remain an outcome (see Section 10.1). No studies have been done
to date on the rate of degradation of biodegradable plastics in the gut of marine species and
indeed ethics approvals for such work would be very difficult to obtain.

7.7 Litter

Plastic litter causes aesthetic problems as well as trauma to wildlife resulting from entanglement
and ingestion of plastic packaging materials and lightweight bags. Wildlife losses are an issue for
the conservation of biodiversity, and losses due to litter have caused public concern.
Biodegradable plastics should not be regarded as a panacea to the visible plastic litter problem.
The breakdown of biodegradable plastics is not instantaneous, and at the least requires the
presence of microbes in order to biodegrade. For instance, shopping bags hanging from branches
above the waterline of streams and rivers is a much publicised form of plastic litter. The visual
impact of this will not be lessened by biodegradable shopping bags since plastic in such
environments is not exposed to microbes and may take more than a year to begin to decompose.
Where photodegradable plastics are utilised, similar problems can occur where the conditions
required for full degradation are not met.
8 PLASTICS SORTING AND REPROCESSING
The plastics recycling collection, sorting and reprocessing industry is well established in
Australia, from pre-consumer industrial scrap right through to post-consumer domestic packaging
materials. This situation has led to the development of a viable plastics reprocessing industry in
Australia, and a high level of plastics waste export to Asian reprocessing markets. The National
Plastics Recycling Survey undertaken by Nolan-ITU for PACIA (2002) showed a total of
164 000 tonnes of plastics recycled in 2001.

Most plastics are sorted and reprocessed as specific polymer types. Over the past decade, a
polymer identification code has been added to many products to assist consumers and
reprocessors to identify which plastics can be recycled. Advice to consumers on the scope of
recycling is often a combination of reference to the polymer identification code and the product
or packaging application (eg. beverage bottles marked with a 1, 2 or 3).

8.1 Key Issues

The plastics reprocessing industry and policy makers are concerned about the potential impact of
biodegradable plastics on the current mechanical recycling industry and its continued expansion.
One of the challenges faced by the plastics recycling sector over the past decade has been to build
confidence in the technical integrity of the reprocessed material and to demonstrate its ability to
perform as a viable alternative to virgin plastics.

Of greatest concern is the possibility that a proportion of reprocessed plastic will contain
biodegradable material. This could result in changing the characteristics of the material (flow
rates, strength etc). Most importantly it may lead to a failure of products as degradation occurs.
Even a minor increase in failure would be significant in applications such as pipe fittings or liquid
packaging. The growing confidence in recycled plastics will be eroded if this technical integrity
is comprised.

8.2 Recyclable Plastics Sorting Considerations

Plastic sorting and separation is required to produce quality end products and maximise economic
return. Most plastics are mutually incompatible with each other. If incompatible plastics are melt
blended (by extrusion) then on cooling the mixture phase separates and the resultant products
usually have low mechanical properties since cracks develop through the plane of weakness
between the immiscible phases. Plastic enrichment and purification to a level to enable
marketability of the recyclate is therefore necessary.

A range of measures are used to sort different plastics. Manual sorting is the most basic form of
separating plastic categories. This is then backed up at some plastics reprocessors with sorting
technologies based on specific gravity or optical sorting equipment.
Perhaps the best current technologies to sort biodegradable plastics from non-biodegradable
plastics is near infra-red (NIR) detection. In recent years a number of such systems have been
commercialised including one wholly developed in Australia by Rofin Pty. Ltd. The basis of this
plastics sorting system is the use of a near infra-red light beam that impinges on the plastic whilst
it is moving rapidly (2 m/s) on a conveyor belt. The reflected light beam is collected and sent to a
detector which can then positively identify the plastic type. An air jet then deflects the plastic
article into a collection bin. This sorting technology is usually used for positive sorting - that is
the plastics of interest are positively removed from the mixed stream and the unwanted plastic
types remain on the conveyor and fall off the line into a waste bin that is generally landfilled.

NIR sorting systems are almost all used for rigid plastic packaging (bottles, jars trays, etc.).
Since biodegradable plastics have a characteristically different NIR signature to commodity
polymers such as PE, PET, PP they will not cross-contaminate the recycling processes for these
polymers. In addition, the NIR system can be tuned, for example to positively sort starch-based
polymers and in this way a pure biodegradable stream could be segregated for composting.
Where cross-contamination is more likely, is in plastic film recycling. Presently plastic film is
being collected and recycled (such as commercial pallet wrap, stretch and shrink wrap). Due to
the nature of film it does not lend itself well to automated sorting techniques.

8.3 Reprocessing Considerations

Almost all biodegradable plastics are based on polar polymers such as polyesters, polyketones
and polyalcohols. In each case, oxygen-containing functional groups are present in the polymer
to provide sites for microbial attack. Common conventional packaging plastics on the other hand,
such as polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene, are non-polar and are thus not compatible
with biodegradable plastics.

Another consequence of the polar nature of biodegradable plastics is that they absorb moisture
from the atmosphere and can have equilibrium water contents as high as 6% by weight. In
thermoplastic starch biodegradable plastics, water is often deliberately added as a plasticiser to
induce flexibility. During reprocessing in an extruder, recycled biodegradable plastics will
liberate this water as steam and this will cause problems such as bubbles, blisters and broken
strands during pelletisation and downstream fabrication. A key issue for consideration in this
context is the likely variance in the quantities of biodegradable plastics within the recyclate,
which would decrease the ability to produce an end product with consistent characteristics and
quality.

Polyolefin Reprocessing

The likelihood of cross-contamination of polyolefins such as polyethylene and polypropylene by

biodegradable plastics is high, given the fact that biodegradable plastics for film and flexible
packaging applications have been designed to match, as far as possible, the appearance and
characteristics of these polymers.
During recycling and extrusion of polyolefins both starch and PCL-based biodegradable plastics
will tend to degrade and caramelise causing discoloration of the resultant recyclate. This is due to
the limited thermal stability of biodegradable plastics - for example PCL begins to degrade at just
200°C. Starch materials begin to caramelise at slightly higher temperatures.

Given that polyethylenes and polypropylenes are reprocessed at temperatures of 220 - 240°C
respectively, it is clear that melt degradation of biodegradable plastics is an issue. This is
exacerbated by the fact that biodegradable plastics usually contain no thermal stabilisers or
antioxidants.

Polyethylene Reprocessing

Biodegradable plastics containing prodegradant additives (such as the EPI films) could have a
major impact on existing plastic recycling operations. Since the prodegradant-containing plastics
are indistinguishable from conventional polyethylene they will almost certainly enter the
polyolefin recycling stream. The prodegradant catalysts are so effective at sensitising polyolefins
towards oxidative degradation that even low levels of such cross-contamination has the potential
to destabilise large volumes of polyethylene recyclate.

Polyethylene recyclate is commonly used in strength critical applications such as builders film,
dam liners, garbage bags, etc. In this way biodegradable plastic contamination in the
conventional plastic recycling stream can undermine the integrity and mechanical properties of
polyethylene recyclate. Since there is a time delay before the onset of accelerated degradation
and concomitant loss of mechanical properties, failures would most probably be detected not
during fabrication, but rather in the field where the loss potential and consequential damage
would be highest.
9 POTENTIAL POSITIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Full life-cycle assessment studies of biodegradable plastics in comparison to conventional
petroleum-based plastics are required. However, environmental benefits that may be derived
from the use of biodegradable plastics compared to conventional materials are outlined below.

9.1 Composting
Compost derived from biodegradable plastics along with other organic products increase soil
organic carbon, water and nutrient retention, while reducing fertiliser inputs and suppressing
plant disease. The composting of biodegradable plastics also cycles matter rather than ‘locking’
it up in persistent materials, particularly when the non-degradable plastics are destined for
landfill.

9.2 Landfill Degradation

The use of biodegradable shopping and waste bags may have the potential to increase the rate of
food degradation in landfills, and therefore have the potential to enhance methane harvesting
potential where infrastructure is in place and decrease landfill space usage. The use of
biodegradable plastic film as daily landfill covers has the potential to considerably extend landfill
life, as they could replace traditional soil cover material which use approximately 25% of landfill
space.

9.3 Energy Use

The energy required to synthesise and manufacture biodegradable plastics is shown in Table 9.1,
along with values for high density and low density polyethylene. PHA biopolymers presently
consume similar energy inputs to polyethylenes. New feedstocks for PHA (see Section 3.1)
should lower the energy required for their production.

Table 9.1: Energy for Production of Biodegradable Plastics

Polymer Energy (MJ/kg)
LDPE 81
PHA – fermentation process 81
HDPE 80
PCL 77
PVOH 58
PLA 57
TPS + 60% PCL 52
TPS + 52.5% PCL 48
TPS 25
TPS + 15% PVOH 25
Source: ‘Review of Life Cycle Assessments for Bioplastics’ by
Dr. Martin Patel, Utrecht University, Netherlands, Nov. 2001.
9.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions
An important environmental impact of biodegradable plastics is their contribution to greenhouse
gas (GHG) generation when they biodegrade.

In the manufacture of hydrocarbon polymers, carbon is taken from one carbon sink (e.g. an oil
deposit) to another carbon sink (plastic) with no net production of atmospheric carbon other than
that generated during energy production for the conversion process.

Carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is 'fixed' during the growth of the plants, and can be used in
the production of some biodegradable polymers. This carbon is then returned to the air when the
polymers degrade. The EPI polymers on the other hand, convert carbon from petroleum deposits
ultimately into atmospheric carbon. In this case, they are removing carbon from a carbon sink
and contributing to greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gas emissions include manufacturing
emissions as well as emissions from end-of-life waste treatment of biodegradable plastics are
shown in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Biodegradable Plastics

Polymer GHG Emission x
10[kgCO2eq./kg]
PCL 53
LDPE 50
HDPE 49
PVOH 42
TPS + 60% PCL 36
TPS + 52.5% PCL 33
TPS + 15% PVOH 17
Mater-Bi™ film grade 12
Thermoplastic Starch (TPS) 11
Mater-Bi™ foam grade 9
PLA NA
PHA – ferment NA
Source: ‘Review of Life Cycle Assessments for Bioplastics’ by Dr.
Martin Patel, Department of Science, Technology and Society, Utrecht
University, Netherlands, Nov. 2001.

As shown in Table 9.2, biodegradable plastics result in relatively low greenhouse gas emissions
in comparison to some polyethylenes. This is particularly obvious for starch-based plastics.
10 POTENTIAL NEGATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

10.1 Pollution of Aquatic Environments

Increased Aquatic BOD

Pollution from high nutrient levels in waterways, determined by high biological oxygen demand
(BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), lead to the degradation of aquatic ecosystems and
algal blooms. The breakdown of starch-based biodegradable plastic materials can result in
increased BOD if the plastics make their way into water ways.

Water Transportable Degradation Products

Plastic degradation by-products, such as dyes, plasticisers or catalyst residues, in landfills or

compost can potentially migrate to groundwater and surface water bodies via run-off and
leachate. Organisms inhabiting these water bodies could thereby be exposed to degradation
products, some of which may be toxic.

Groundwater contamination from pigments, catalyst residues and isocyanate coupling agents may
also occur. Liberated plastic additives and polymer degradation products in landfills or compost
heaps can potentially migrate to nearby bodies of water through liquids percolating in the ground
(leaching) or via rainfall run-off. If current metal-based pigments continue to be used in
biodegradable plastics, then the potential for release and accumulation in soil and water is high.

Risk to Marine Species

Plastic pollution in marine environments can result in the death of marine species who ingest it in
the belief that it is a jellyfish, squid or other translucent, amorphous organism. In the animals gut,
biodegradable plastics will not degrade rapidly and injury to the animal is likely to remain an
outcome. Turtles can die of starvation as plastic bags block the alimentary canal.

10.2 Litter
The visual impact of littering is unlikely to decrease with the use of biodegradable plastics since
windblown plastic litter and plastic films/bags snagged on branches and bushes will not be
exposed to sufficient level of microbes for proper biodegradation to take place. Consequently
biodegradation of such litter may take many years. This problem may potentially be combined
with the possibility that conspicuous littering by plastic may actually increase due to the belief by
consumers that biodegradable plastics will disappear quickly in the environment.
10.3 Compost Toxicity
Composted biodegradable plastics will expose plants, soil dwelling organisms (such as worms)
and aquatic organisms to polymer degradation products such as manufacturing residues or
additives used in their formulation. Due to the complex nature of polymer breakdown, it is not
possible to identify all the compounds present in a mix of degradation products, some of which
may be toxic. Hence, the possible toxicity of biopolymer degradation products is assessed using
toxicity tests (see Section 6.2).

10.4 Recalcitrant Residues

There is currently little evidence to show that recalcitrant polymer residues in the soil are
harmful. Some results suggest that pure polymeric fragments may function like the long-lived
components in humus and may provide useful properties as a soil additive.

Grass growing studies using municipal waste derived compost in combination with chopped
plastic fibres demonstrated improved growing rate and root structure development to accelerate
sod production (Gallagher, 2001). German studies indicate that crushed polystyrene foam
improves the aeration of soil (Styropor Technical Information Bulletin, 1994), and is widely used
in German orchards, vineyards and potting mixes as a soil conditioner.

However, fragments from partially biodegraded plastics will accumulate in cultivated soils and
fragments such as polyethylene (which has a specific gravity less than one) could float and
potentially block drains.

Further work is required to understand the fate and consequence of recalcitrant residues in the
environment.

Aromatic Compounds

While the aliphatic portion of AAC polymers are biodegradable, the aromatic segments will form
small molecules such as terephthalic acid (TPA) whose biodegradation is less certain. In other
cases the residual compounds will be bishydroxyethylene terephthalate (BHET). Some new AAC
are being made from bishydroxyethylene terephthalate (BHET), capralactone (CL) and tetra-n-
butyl titanate (Ti(OBu)4 as a catalyst. Accordingly their breakdown can result in the production
of BHET which is the aromatic segment. Both TPA and BHET are also formed from the
glycolysis of PET - the difference being PET does not undergo glycolysis or hydrolysis in the
natural environment at appreciable rates.
10.5 Additives and Modifiers

Biodegradable polymers are rarely used on their own to make biodegradable plastics. A range of
additives and modifiers (e.g. coupling agents, plasticisers, fillers, catalysts, dyes and pigments)
are generally added to obtain useful performance properties that approach those of conventional
plastics. Once the biodegradable polymer matrix degrades, the additives and modifiers become
liberated into the environment. These compounds and their potential negative impacts are
outlined below.

Isocyanate Coupling Agents

Starch and PLA do not have readily reactive functional groups, so their mutual compatibility is
poor. To overcome this shortcoming a chemical with isocyanate functional groups such as
methylene-diisocyanate, (MDI) is reactively blended with the starch and PLA. MDI is
recognised as a toxic substance, however further studies are required to assess the problems that
could occur if MDI entered the environment.

Plasticisers

Plasticisers are often added to increase biodegradable plastic flexibility. Typical plasticisers used
in biodegradable plastics include:

 Glycerol;
 Sorbitol;
 Propylene glycol;
 Ethylene glycol;
 Polyethylene glycol;
 Triethyl citrate; and
 Triacetine.

Most of these are organic and readily fully break down in the environment.

Ethylene glycol, however, is a recognised environmental pollutant. Direct exposure to the

compound can cause skin and eye damage in humans, with a lethal dose if ingested of 100mL.
The lethal concentration for fish has been found to be 100mg/L. (Material Safety Data Sheet –
Ethelyne Glycol, 2001).
Fillers

Fillers are often added to biodegradable plastics to reduce cost. Since fillers are generally
inorganic, they have the potential to accumulate over time in soil or other disposal environments.
Fillers are, however, often inert and of mineral origin, thus posing no toxicity concerns at the
levels found in biodegradable plastics (Hohenberger, 2000, p.901). Typical fillers include:

 calcium carbonate (most common);

 titanium dioxide;
 talc; and
 silicon dioxide.

Catalyst Residues
Monomers are generally polymerised in the presence of certain catalytic metals in order to
achieve sufficient commercial productivity. Remnants of the catalysts remain in the final
polymers. In non-biodegradable plastics these catalyst residues remain encapsulated with the
polymer matrix and are not mobile or leachable. In biodegradable plastics these catalyst residues
are liberated and can enter the disposal environment. Table 10.1 shows the typical catalytic
metals present in biodegradable plastics.

Table 10.1: Typical Metals in Biodegradable Plastics

Metal type Polymer type
Tin PLA, PCL
Antimony Modified PET
Cobalt Modified PET
Chromium PE-blends
Cobalt Manganese Prodegradant Polyethylenes
Titanium Copolyesters

10.6 Prodegradants and Other Additives

Biodegradable plastics based on conventional thermoplastics that contain prodegradant additives
(refer to Section 4.3) may cause negative environmental impacts because they:

 are not based on renewable resources;

 have the potential to disperse catalytic metals in to the environment;
 convert carbon from a carbon sink (oil) to atmospheric carbon and thus contribute to
net greenhouse gas inventories; and
 disintegrate into tiny particles and do not truly biodegrade and the small fragments
that remain still have too high a molecular weight to break down to low molecular
weight materials.
10.7 Source of Raw Materials
The source materials for biodegradable plastics include both petroleum raw materials and starch
produced by agricultural methods. In the Australian context, LCA studies are needed to
determine the environmental impacts of biodegradable polymers including their production from
raw materials.
11 SOLUTIONS, FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RESEARCH

Development of Australian Standards and Testing

For the successful introduction of degradable plastics into Australia it is essential that for any new
application that the following are clearly identified:

 disposal route;
 appropriate recovery systems;
 processing infrastructure required; and
 the product has been tested against nationally agreed standards to ensure that the
disposal route is appropriate and is environmentally sustainable.

For this to be achieved it will be necessary to establish a national framework for standards and
testing. This could be based upon appropriate international standards.

Life-Cycle Assessment

Further work is also required to understand the fate and consequence of recalcitrant residues such
as small aromatic compounds, small polymer particles and other residues in the environment from
the degradation and incomplete degradation of biodegradable plastics.

Full Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) work on the production, use and disposal of biodegradable
polymers, with reference to conventional polymers, should be carried out to determine the real
environmental and social benefits and impacts of their introduction into a range of applications.
This would cover:

 Sources of raw materials (renewable resources, energy and water useage, farming
practices, greenhouse gas emissions etc);
 Production of materials;
 Uses and reuses; and
 Disposal environments (including residuals and greenhouse gas potentials).

Comprehensive LCA data and analysis would assist in the development of appropriate policy.

Minimisation of Impact on Reprocessing

The introduction of competing products to those which are currently recovered and reprocessed
via sorting facilities, such as some plastics bags, HDPE and PET bottles, should only occur after
industry is fully satisfied that failsafe sorting systems are available. As with other plastics,
biodegradable polymers could be given a unique polymer identification code to minimise
confusion and assist in sorting.
Research on the impacts of the incorporation of biodegradable plastics into established plastics
reprocessing systems may be required. Small variations in the ratio of biodegradable to non-
biodegradable material could significantly alter the quality of the end material and failure rate in
uses reliant on strength. Further research would allow for appropriate policies, labelling, sorting
procedures and mechanisms to be developed to minimise the impact on this industry.

Determination of Appropriate Disposal Environments

Extensive consultation with the product supply chain and potential disposal chain, including
sorting, reprocessing, and composting bodies, will be necessary before the widespread
introduction of biodegradable products that may impact on existing recycling and composting
systems. This could be carried out in a similar manner to the National Packaging Covenant and
incorporate COAG (Council of Australian Governments) principles.

Composting as a planned disposal route, particularly for film and sheet, should only occur once a
system is in place to identify these materials as distinct from non degradable products. One
possible solution is to introduce a unique standard colour (i.e. bright lime green) so they can be
easily differentiated from non-biodegradable plastics in a composting environment. This way
non-biodegradable plastics can still be manually removed while the biodegradable plastics can be
left in situ.

Unique colour-based identification of biodegradable plastics would also assist plastic recyclers in
identifying those plastics that are not compatible with mechanical recycling processes. A parallel
identification system involving a logo such as the ‘Compost OK’ mark would allow consumers to
identify these products

There does not appear to be any significant impediment, however, to the introduction of
biodegradable products destined for landfill disposal, such as garbage bags, landfill covers, and
non-recycled shopping bags, provided that they meet the appropriate testing standards.

Education

With the introduction of biodegradable plastics into the consumer packaging market, effective
education is essential. It will be important to educate the public that biodegradable plastics do not
degrade instantaneously to avoid the potential to increase the incidence of littering.

In addition, clear disposal routes must be identified and available to consumers to appropriately
manage this waste stream. For example, to stipulate that an item should be disposed of to the
consumer’s green organics bin which is destined for a commercial composting operation would
result in issues where residents are not provided with these services.
12 CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions to the national review of biodegradable plastics are presented below against the
Terms of Reference.

Identify the various types and composition of biodegradable plastics available, and likely to be available in
Australia

Over the last few years there has been a significant expansion in the range of biodegradable
plastics which are commercially available or are under commercial development. This trend is
expected to continue. The range of biodegradable plastics available include:

 Starch based products including thermoplastic starch, starch and synthetic aliphatic
polyester blends, and starch and PVOH blends.
 Naturally produced polyesters including PVB, PHB and PHBH.
 Renewable resource polyesters such as PLA.
 Synthetic aliphatic polyesters including PCL and PBS.
 Aliphatic-aromatic (AAC) copolyesters.
 Hydro-biodegradable polyester such as modified PET.
 Water soluble polymer such as polyvinyl alcohol and ethylene vinyl alcohol.
 Photo-biodegradable plastics.
 Controlled degradation additive masterbatches.

There is an extensive range of potential applications. Some of these include:

 Film including overwrap, shopping bags, waste and bin liner bags, composting bags,
mulch film, silage wrap, body bags/coffin liners, landfill covers, packaging – incl.O 2
& H2O barriers, bait bags, nappy backing sheet, and cling wrap.
 Flushable sanitary products.
 Sheet and non woven packaging.
 Bottles.
 Liquid paper board.
 Planter boxes and fishing nets.
 Food service cups, cutlery, trays, and straws.
 Loose fill foam.

Whilst some biodegradable plastics are used for some of these applications in Europe, the current
market penetration into Australia is low. This is generally limited to some films including landfill
cover, food service cups, cutlery and trays, and loose fill foam. There have also been trials of
other applications such as shopping bags, mulch film, EVOH bottles and bait bags.
Identify standards and test methods for biodegradable plastics in Australia

There are currently no Australian standards and test methods for biodegradable plastics. There is
a need to establish Australian Standards that match the potential application areas and disposal
environments in Australia.

Internationally, there are several standards that could be applied, or adapted, to meet the
requirements of the Australian market place. The most comprehensive appears to be the various
ASTM standards and test methods. These address the various degradation methods and a range
of disposal environments.

There are also several standards for compost derived products including the Australian Standard
AS 4454-1999 Compost Soil Conditioners and Mulches, as well as standard testing procedures
for plant and animal toxicity.

Examine the range of disposal methods and identify the most frequent disposal option for each
biodegradable plastic application at end of life

The major disposal environments for biodegradable plastics are:

 composting facilities or soil burial;

 anaerobic digestion;
 wastewater treatment facilities;
 plastics reprocessing facilities;
 landfill;
 marine and freshwater environments; and
 general open environment as litter.

To a large extent, the nature of the biodegradable plastic application should dictate the disposal
environment. Further LCA studies are required to determine appropriate disposal routes for
different polymers and products.

The most common, and perhaps desirable, method of disposal is composting as this results in the
production of a useful end product. Landfill disposal, particularly for garbage bags is also a
significant disposal route. Wastewater treatments plants are only suitable for flushable products
that have an extremely rapid degradation rate. There has been some development work with bait
bags and fishing lines although the results are not conclusive. As with flushable products a rapid
degradation rate is required.

Despite community education programmes and enforcement, litter will continue to be a disposal
route for biodegradable as well as degradable plastics.
Identify current technologies to avoid contamination and sort biodegradable plastics in Australia and
overseas

The risk of contamination by biodegradable plastics of conventional plastics which are currently
recycled and reprocessed, from both kerbside and industrial recycling systems, is a significant
one. This could result in changing the characteristics of the material and may lead to a failure of
products as degradation occurs. Even a minor increase in failure would be significant in many
applications. The growing confidence in recycled plastics could be eroded if technical integrity is
comprised.

There are a range of measures to sort different polymers. Initially this is a manual exercise
relying on sorting staff being able to recognise and differentiate items based on knowledge of
material use in different product categories. This is then backed up at some plastics reprocessors
with sorting technologies based on specific gravity or optical sorting equipment. This is difficult
when biodegradable plastics have similar physical properties to reyclable plastics.

The best technology to sort biodegradable plastics from non-biodegradable plastics may be near
infra-red (NIR) detection which can be used in a positive sort system. The NIR system can be
tuned for example to positively sort starch-based polymers and in this way a pure biodegradable
stream could be segregated for composting. The viablity of NIR detection systems at a
commercial scale is beyond the scope of this review.

Describe and assess the environmental impacts arising from the foreseeable increase in use of
biodegradable plastics in various applications

There are several identifiable environmental benefits that may potentially be derived from the use
of biodegradable plastics compared to conventional petroleum-based plastics. These are:

 Compost derived in part from biodegradable plastics increases the soil organic
content as well as water and nutrient retention, while reducing chemical inputs and
suppressing plant disease.
 Biodegradable shopping and waste bags disposed of to landfill may increase the rate
of organic waste degradation in landfills while enhancing methane harvesting
potential and decreasing landfill space usage. Biodegradable landfill covers may also
considerably extend landfill life.
 The energy required to synthesise and manufacture biodegradable plastics is
generally much lower for most biodegradable plastics than for non-biodegradable
plastics. The exception is PHA biopolymers which consume similar energy inputs to
polyethylenes. New feedstock for PHA should lower the energy required for their
production.
 Biodegradable plastics also offer important environmental benefits through, in many
cases, the use of renewable energy resources and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
Biodegradable plastics also pose some adverse environmental risks. These include:

 Pollution in waterways due to high BOD concentrations resulting from the

breakdown of starch-based biodegradable plastic.
 Migration of plastic degradation by-products such as residual pigments, catalyst
residues and isocyanate via run-off and leachate from landfills and composting
facilities to groundwater and surface water bodies.
 Trauma and death of marine species resulting from only partial or slow degradation
of biodegradable plastic products in marine environments.
 Possible increase in the incidence of littering due to the belief that biodegradable
plastics will disappear quickly.
 Soil and crop degradation resulting from the use of compost that may have
unacceptably high organic and or metal contaminants derived from biogegradable
plastic residuals, additives and modifiers such as coupling agents, plasticisers, fillers,
catalysts, dyes and pigments.

Identify possible and existing solutions to identified impacts and limitations

For the successful introduction of degradable plastics into Australia it is essential that for any new
application that the following are clearly identified:

 disposal route;
 appropriate recovery systems;
 processing infrastructure required; and
 the product has been tested against nationally agreed standards to ensure that the
disposal route is appropriate and is environmentally sustainable.

For this to be achieved it will be necessary to establish a national framework for standards and
testing. This can be based upon appropriate international standards. It is recommended that the
Federal Government, through Environment Australia and in consultation with the plastics
industry, take an initiating role in undertaking further research and developing these standards.

Further research focus areas include:

 Life-cycle assessment;
 Minimisation of the impacts on reprocessing;
 Determination of appropriate disposal methods; and
 Consumer education.
13 REFERENCES
Abou-Zeid, D. M., Muller, R. J. and Deckwer, W. D., Journal of Biotechnology, 86, 113 (2001).

Dang MH. Birchler F. Wintermantel E., ‘Toxicity Screening of Biodegradable Plastics .2.
Evaluation of Cell Culture Test with Medium Extract’, Journal of Environmental Polymer
Degradation, 5, 49, 1997 Jan. 9.

Degli Innocenti, F., Compostability of Biodegradable Plastics -Standard Test Methods presented
at International Workshop on Environmentally Degradable Plastics; Smolenice / Slovak
Republic, October 4 - 8, 1999

Dewilde B. and Boelens J., Polymer Degradation & Stability, 59, 7, 1998

Fish, R.B.; Gallagher, F.G.; McKenna, J.M.; Tietz, R.F.; US Patent 5354616-A (1994).

Garcia, R.A. and Gho, J.G., ‘Degradable/compostable concentrates, process for making
degradable/compostable packaging materials and the products thereof’, US Patent 5 854 304,
1998.

Goldstein, N & Block, D. ‘Sorting out the Plastic’, Biocycle – Journal of Composting and
Organics Recycling, The JG Press, Vol. 41, No.8, August 2000.

Hiroshi, Y.; KenJi, C.; Japanese Patent J11247060-A (1999).

Hoshino, A., Sawada, H., Yokota, M., Tsuji, M., Fukuda, K. and Kimura, M., Soil Science &
Plant Nutrition, 47, 35 (2001).

Janik, H., Justrebska, M., Rutkawska, M., ‘Biodegradation of Polycaprolactone in Sea Water’,
Reactive Functional Polymers, 38 27, (1998).

Kitch, D., ‘Global Overview – Biodegradable Polymers and Organics Recycling’, Biocycle –
Journal of Composting and Organics Recycling, The JG Press, February 2001.

Lim, S.W.; Jung I.K.; Lee, K.H.; Jin, B.S (1999). Structure and Properties of Biodegradable
Gluten/Aliphatic Polyester Blends. Eur. Polym. J. 1999, 35, 1875–1881

Materials Safety Data Sheet, Ethylene Glycol, Mallinckodt Baker, 2001.

Ohtake, Y., Kobayashi, T., Asabe, H., Murakami, N. and Ono, K., ‘Oxidative degradation and
molecular weight change of LDPE buried under bioactive soil for 32-37 years’, Journal of
Applied Polymer Science, 70, 1643 (1998).

Purushothaman, M., Anderson, R. K. I., Narayana, S. and Jayaraman, V. K., Bioprocess &
Biosystems Engineering, 24, 131 (2001).
Ratto, J.A.; Stenhouse, P.J.; Auerbach, M.; Mitchell, J.; Farrell, R.(1999). Processing,
Performance and Biodegradability of a Thermoplastic Aliphatic Polyester/Starch System,
Polymer 1999, 40, 6777–6788

Rutkowska M; Krasowska K; Heimowska A; Smiechowska M; Janik H, 'The influence of

different processing additives on biodegradation of poly(epsilon-caprolactone', Iranian Polymer
Journal, 9, 221 (2000).

Shin, P. K., Kim, M. H., and Kim, J. M., Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation,
5(1):33-39, Jan 1997.

Styropor Technical Information Bulletin T10/1/2-810 E, BASF (Germany), May, 1994.

Toyohiko, M.; Japanese Patent J2000045124-A (2000).

Yoshihiro, S.; Kimio, T.; Kiyoo, I.; Tetsuya, I.; Japanese Patent JP 2000129646-A (2000).
14 REPORT LIMITATIONS
This report has been prepared in accordance with an agreement between Environment Australia
and Nolan-ITU.

The services performed by Nolan-ITU and Exel Plas have been conducted in a manner consistent
with the level of quality and skill generally exercised by members of its profession and consulting
practices.

This report is solely for the use of Environment Australia and any reliance of this report by third
parties shall be at such party’s sole risk and may not contain sufficient information for purposes
of other parties or for other uses. This report shall only be presented in full and may not be used
to support any other objectives than those set out in the report, except where written approval
with comments are provided by Nolan-ITU.

52
3111-01EA rpt1-3.doc Environment Australia
Biodegradable Plastics – Developments and Environmental Impacts
 Appendix A
GLOSSARY

3111-01EA rpt1-3.doc Environment Australia

Biodegradable Plastics – Developments and Environmental Impacts
Abiotic disintegration
Disintegration of plastic materials by means other than by biological process such as dissolution
(dissolving), oxidative embrittlement (heat ageing) or photolytic embrittlement (UV ageing).
Activated Sludge
Sludge with active, live degradation micro-organisms.
Aerobic degradation
Aerobic degradation is degradation in the presence of air (oxygen). Essentially aerobic
degradation is composting. Aerobic degradation of plastics under controlled composting
conditions is described in ASTM 5338-92.
Aliphatic-aromatic Copolyesters (AAC)
These copolymers combine the excellent material properties of aromatic polyesters (e.g. PET)
and the biodegradability of aliphatic polyesters. They are soft, pliable and have good tactile
properties. Melting points are high for a degradable plastic (around 200°C).
Aliphatic polyesters (e.g. PCL)
Aliphatic polyesters are biodegradable but often lack in good thermal and mechanical properties.
While, vice versa, aromatic polyesters (like PET) have excellent material properties, but are
resistant to microbial attack. Typical aliphatic polyesters include polyhydroxy butyrate,
polycaprolactone, polylactic acid and polybutylene succinate. Aliphatic polyesters degrade like
starch or cellulose to produce non-humic substances such as CO 2 and methane. They can be
processed on conventional processing equipment at 140-260 °C, in blown and extruded films,
foams, and injection moulded products.
Amylose
A component of starch consisting of a chain polymer of linked D-glucopyranosyl structures.
Thermoplastic starch polymers consist largely of amylose.
Anaerobic degradation
Degradation in the absence of air (oxygen) as in the case of landfills. Anaerobic degradation is
also called biomethanization. Anaerobic degradation of plastics can be determined by measuring
the amount of biogas released as described in ASTM 5210-91.
ASTM
The American Society of Testing and Materials
Bioassimilation
Chemical assimilation of a substance into the natural environment (see also mineralization)
Biodegradable
The ASTM defines biodegradable as “capable of undergoing decomposition into carbon dioxide,
methane, water, inorganic compounds, or biomass in which the predominant mechanism is the
enzymatic action of microorganisms, that can be measured by standardized tests, in a specified
period of time, reflecting available disposal condition.” It is important to note that the definition
of biodegredation should specify a time limit. If the biodegradation process is sufficient to
mineralise organic matter into carbon dioxide or methane respectively, water and biomass, the
material can be termed “biodegradable”.
Bioerodable
Polymers that exhibit controlled degradation through the incorporation of prodegradant additive
masterbatches or concentrates. Such polymers oxidize and embrittle in the environment and
erode under the influence of weathering.
Biomass
The weight of all the organisms in a given population, trophic level or region.
Compostable
Compostable is defined as ‘capable of undergoing biological decomposition in a compost site as
part of an available program, such that the plastic is not visually distinguishable and breaks down
to carbon dioxide, water, inorganic compounds, and biomass, at a rate consistent with known
compostable materials (e.g. cellulose).’ A polymer is “compostable” when it is biodegradable
under composting conditions.
Compostable Plastics
A polymer is ‘compostable’ when it is biodegradable under composting conditions. The polymer
must meet the following criteria:
a) Break down under the action of micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi, algae).
b) Total mineralisation is obtained (conversion into CO 2, H2O, inorganic compounds and
biomass under aerobic conditions).
c) The mineralisation rate is high and is compatible with the composting process.
The degree of degradability of the material shall be measured under controlled composting
conditions as per ASTM D 5338-92. Those materials having a degree of biodegradation
equivalent to that of cellulose (maximum permissible tolerance of 5%) will be considered to meet
the compostability criteria.
Composting
Breaking down of plant and animal material using micro-organisms under aerobic conditions. For
successful composting there must be sufficient water and air to allow the micro-organisms to
break down the material. The U.S. EPA defines composting as ‘the controlled decomposition of
organic matter by microorganisms into a stable humus material.’
Copolyesters
Copolyesters combine aromatic esters with aliphatic esters or other polymer units (e.g. ethers and
amides) and thereby provide the opportunity to adjust and control the degradation rates.
Decomposer organism
An organism, usually a bacterium or a fungus, that breaks down organic material into simple
chemical components, thereby returning nutrients to the physical environment.
Degradability
Ability of materials to break down, by bacterial (biodegradable), thermal (oxidative) or ultraviolet
(photodegradable) action. When degradation is caused by biological activity, especially by
enzymatic action, it is called ‘biodegradation’.
Degradable PET
Up to three aliphatic monomers can be incorporated into the PET structure to create weak spots in
the polymeric chains that make them susceptible to degradation through hydrolysis.
Ecotoxicity
Ecotoxicity refers to the potential environmental toxicity of residues, leachate, or volatile gases
produced by the plastics during biodegradation or composting
Foamed starch
Starch can be blown by environmentally friendly means into a foamed material using water
steam. Foamed starch is antistatic, insulating and shock absorbing, therefore constituting a good
replacement for polystyrene foam.
Functional Group
A particular grouping of elements in a molecule or compound which gives it particular properties,
such as physical properties or the ability to undergo certain chemical reactions.
Humus
The organic substance that results from decay of plant or animal matter. Humus results from the
degradation of lignin, carbohydrate, and proteins. Biodegradable plastics can form humus as they
decompose. The addition of humus to soil is beneficial.
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis refers to the cleavage or breakage of bonds by reaction with water or moisture. All
polyesters degrade eventually, with hydrolysis being the dominant mechanism.
LCA
Life Cycle Assessment.
Masterbatch
A concentrate of additive in a polymer-based carrier resin. A masterbatch is generally added to a
polymer in order to introduce various additives at a known level.
Mineralisation
Conversion of a biodegradable plastic to CO 2, H2O, inorganic compounds and biomass. For
instance the carbon atoms in a biodegradable plastic are transformed to CO 2 which can then re-
enter the global carbon cycle.
Modified PET
Polyethylene Tetraphalate (PET) id a rigid polymer to which alphatic monomers can be added to
enhance biodegradability, such as PBAT (polybutylene adipate/terephthalate) and PTMAT
(polytetramethylene adipate/terephthalate).
Monomer
A molecule that can join with other molecules to form a large molecule called a polymer. A
monomer is the smallest repeating unit in a polymer chain.
Organic Recycling
Organic recycling is defined as aerobic (ie. composting) or anaerobic (bio-methanisation)
treatment of the biodegradable parts of plastic packaging under controlled conditions using
micro-organisms to produce stabilised organic residues, methane and carbon dioxide.
Photo-biodegradation
Degradation of the polymer is triggered by UV light and assisted by the presence of UV
sensitisers. In this process the polymer is converted to low molecular weight material (waxes)
and in a second step converted to carbon dioxide and water by bacterial action.
Photodegradable
A process where ultraviolet radiation degrades the chemical bond or link in the polymer or
chemical structure of a plastic.
Phytotoxicity
Phytotoxicity refers to toxic effects on plants. Plant phytotoxicity testing on the finished compost
that contains degraded polymers can determine if the buildup of inorganic materials from the
plastics are harmful to plants and crops and if they slow down soil productivity.
Plastified Starch
See Starch Composites (50 % Starch)
Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and polybutylene suucinate adipate (PBSA)
Biodegradable synthetic aliphatic polyesters. Adipate co-polymers are added to the PBS polymer
to make its use more economical.
Polycaprolactone (PCL)
Polycaprolactone is a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer derived from the chemical synthesis
of crude oil. Although not produced from renewable raw materials, it is fully biodegradable.
Polyesters
Polymers with ester groups in their backbone chains. All polyesters degrade eventually, with
hydrolysis being the dominant mechanism. Degradation rates range from weeks for aliphatic
polyesters (e.g. polyhydroxyalkanoates) to decades for aromatic polyesters (e.g. PET).
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)
PHAs are linear aliphatic polyesters produced in nature by bacterial fermentation of sugar or
lipids. More than 100 different monomers can be combined within this family to give materials
with extremely different properties. They can be either thermoplastic or elastomeric materials,
with melting-points ranging from 40 to 180°C. The most common type of PHA is PHB (poly-
beta-hydroxybutyrate).
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)
PHB has properties similar to those of polypropylene, however it is stiffer and more brittle.
Polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate copolymer (PHBV)
Polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate is a PHB copolymer which is less stiff and tougher, and it is used
as packaging material.
Polylactic Acid (PLA)
A biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid. PLA resembles clear polystyrene, it provides
good aesthetics (gloss and clarity), but it is stiff and brittle and needs modification for most
practical applications (e.g. plasticisers increase its flexibility).
Polylactic acid aliphatic copolymer (CPLA)
Biodegradable CPLA is a mixture of polylactic acid and other aliphatic polyesters. It can be either
a hard plastic (similar to PS) or a soft flexible one (similar to PP) depending on the amount of
aliphatic polyester present in the mixture.
Polymer
A long molecule that is made up of a chain of many small repeated units (monomers).
Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVOH)
Polyvinyl alcohol is a synthetic, water-soluble and readily biodegradable polymer.
Prodegradant
An additive that can trigger and accelerate the degradation of a polymer. Typically prodegradants
(or degradation promoters) are catalytic metal compounds based on iron, cobalt and manganese.
Recalcitrant Residues
Non-biodegradable residues that remain after partial or incomplete biodegradation of a
‘biodegradable’ plastic. The recalcitrant organics are the compounds that show resistance to
biodegradation. Most of the synthetic polymers exhibit the phenomenon of recalcitrance because
of dissimilar chemical structures to those of naturally occurring compounds
Starch Composites (10 % Starch)
Starch can be used as a biodegradable additive or replacement material in traditional oil-based
commodity plastics. If starch is added to petroleum derived polymers (e.g. PE), it facilitates
disintegration of the blend, but not necessarily biodegradation of the polyethylene component.
Starch accelerates the disintegration or fragmentation of the synthetic polymer structure.
Microbial action consumes the starch, thereby creating pores in the material which weaken it and
enable it to break apart.
Starch Composites (50 % Starch)
Also called plastified starch materials. Such materials exhibit mechanical properties similar to
conventional plastics such as PP, and are generally resistant to oils and alcohols, however, they
degrade when exposed to hot water. Their basic content (40-80%) is corn starch, a renewable
natural material. The balance is performance-enhancing additives and other biodegradable
materials.
Starch Composites (90 % Starch)
Usually referred to as thermoplastic starch. They are stable in oils and fats, however depending
on the type, they can vary from stable to unstable in hot/cold water. They can be processed by
traditional techniques for plastics.
Thermoplastic Polymers
Becomes soft and ‘plastic’ upon heating and firm when cool, with this process able to repeated
without the material becoming brittle.
Thermosetting Polymers
Sets firmly and cannot be heated plastic again.
Thermoplastic Starch
See Starch Composites (90 % Starch)