15CE430E – ADVANCED CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

UNIT-3
LARGE SPAN STRUCTURES CONSTRUCTION

 BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure built for the purpose of providing passage over
the obstacle. Following are the types:

 Beam Bridges
 Arch Bridges
 Truss Bridges
 Cantilever Bridges
 Suspension Bridges
 Cable Stayed Bridges

 TYPES OF BRIDGES

1. Beam Bridges:
Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by
substructure units and can be either simply supported when the beams only
connect across a single span, or continuous when the beams are connected
across two or more spans. When there are multiple spans, the intermediate
supports are known as piers. Beam bridges are usually constructed of RCC
or steel or a combination of both RCC and Steel. The concrete elements used
in beam bridges may be reinforced, prestressed or post-tensioned. Types of
beam bridges are girder bridge, box girder bridge, plate girder bridge etc.
2. Arch Bridge:

As the name suggests, arch bridge consists of curve-shaped abutment

at each end. Generally, the roadway of bridge lies on the arch structure. The
arch squeezes together and this squeezing force is carried along the curve to
support at each end. The abutments then push back on the arch and prevent
the arch ends from spreading apart. The span of arch bridges is normally up
to 800 feet and made of stone, steel, or concrete.

3. Truss Bridge:

The superstructure of truss bridge is constructed by using trusses

which are comprised of many small elements forming triangular trusses.
Truss is used because it is very rigid structure and it can transfer the load
from a single point to much wider area.
4. Cantilever Bridge:

Cantilever bridge is constructed using cantilever span, i.e the span is

supported at one end and the other end is opened. Usually, two cantilever
parts are joined to make the roadway

5. Suspension bridge:

In suspension bridge, the deck slab is suspended using ropes, chains

or high tensile strength steel cables. The roadway hangs from massive steel
cables, which are draped over two towers and secured by anchors on both
ends of the bridge. The anchors are made from solid concrete blocks. The
cables transfer the loads into compression in the two towers. usually, this
type of bridge can span 2000 – 7000 feet.
 6. Cable-stayed Bridge:

Cable-stayed bridges are similar to suspension bridges as they also use

cables but in different form. They consist of fewer cables and the height of
the towers is much greater than suspension bridge.

 LOADING STANDARDS
The following are the various loads to be considered for the purpose of
computing stresses, wherever they are applicable.
· Dead load
· Live load
· Impact load
· Longitudinal force
· Thermal force
· Wind load
· Seismic load
· Racking force
· Forces due to curvature.
· Forces on parapets
· Frictional resistance of expansion bearings
· Erection forces
Dead load – The dead load is the weight of the structure and any permanent
load fixed thereon. The dead load is initially assumed and checked after design
is completed.
Live load – Bridge design standards specify the design loads, which are
meant to reflect the worst loading that can be caused on the bridge by traffic,
permitted and expected to pass over it. In India, the Railway Board specifies the
standard design loadings for railway bridges in bridge rules. For the highway
bridges, the Indian Road Congress has specified standard design loadings in
IRC section II.

The dynamic effect caused due to vertical oscillation and periodical shifting of
the live load from one wheel to another when the locomotive is moving is
known as impact load. The impact load is determined as a product of impact
factor, I, and the live load. The impact factors are specified by different
authorities for different types of bridges.

Wind load – Wind load on a bridge may act

· Horizontally, transverse to the direction of span
· Horizontally, along the direction of span
· Vertically upwards, causing uplift
· Wind load on vehicles
Wind load effect is not generally significant in short-span bridges; for
medium spans, the design of sub-structure is affected by wind loading; the
super
structure design is affected by wind only in long spans. For the purpose of the
design, wind loadings are adopted from the maps and tables given in IS: 875
(Part III). A wind load of 2.40 kN/m2 is adopted.
Stresses for design should be calculated for the most severe combinations
of loads and forces. Load combinations are generally considered important
for checking for adequacy of the bridge and are also specified in IS 1915 - 1961
Load combinations

1. Stresses due to normal loads: Dead load, live load, impact load and
centrifugal force
2. Stresses due to normal loads + occasional loads: Normal load as in (1)
+ wind load, other lateral loads, longitudinal forces and temperature stresses
3. Stresses due to normal loads +occasional loads + Extra-ordinary
loads like seismic excluding wind load: Loads as in (2) + with seismic load
instead of wind.

 BOWSTRING BRIDGE

The bowstring bridges are the form of bridges cross in which the ribs
lie above the deck freed. The deck is supported means of suspenders. This
type of construction is adopted where the tie room under the bridge, adjacent
to abutment, for arch bridges is insufficient.

Arrangement of Members in Bowstring Bridges

In order to support the deck slab transverse beams are provided,
(cross beams). The spacing of these transverse/ cross beams is governed by
the minimum economical thickness required for deck slab.
 Systems of Bowstring bridges:
The bowstring bridges systems are essentially consists of
1. Top curved beam
2. Lower horizontal member
3. Vertical suspenders (provided between top curved member and
horizontal member at suitable intervals)
4. Cross girders etc.

ADVANTAGES
1. They get stronger over time
2. They provide high resistance
3. They can be made with various materials

DISADVANTAGES

1. They have limited span

2. They take more time to build
3. They require ongoing maintenance

 CABLE STAYED BRIDGE

Cable stayed bridges may look similar to suspension bridges. Both
here roadways that hang from cables and both towers. But the these two
bridges support the load of the roads in very different ways. The difference
lies in how the cables connected to the towers. In suspension bridges, the
cables ride, across the towers, transmitting the load to the anchorages. In
cable stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, alone bear the
load.
Proving popular for spans up to about 800m in and when coupled with
approach roads very broad crossings are possible. Precast in situ concrete
(or) steel box segments may be used for deck, which is supported by cables
and stayed to towers. The cables can be attached to the roadway in variety of
ways and the most used varieties are
1. Parallel attachment Pattern
2. Radial attachment Pattern
In a Parallel Pattern, cables are attached at different heights along the tower,
running parallel to one other.

In a radial pattern, cables extend from several points on the road to a single
point at the top of the tower.

Cable stayed bridges i.e. load transfers, mechanism, the example given here
can help.
Stand up and hold our arms out horizontally at each sides. Imagine then
your arms are a bridge, and our head is a tower in the middle. In this
position, our muscles are holding up our arms. The making cable stayed to
support our arms. To a piece of rope ( about five feet long), and have a part
tie each end of the rope to each of our elbows. Then lay middle of the rope
on top of our head. The rope acts a cable stayed and holds our elbows up.
Have our position tie a second piece of rope (about 6 feet long) to each wrist
lay the second the second rope to our head. See now we have two cable-
stayed. Where we feel pushing force, (or) compression. Notice how the
cable-stayed transfer the load of the bridge (our arms) to the tower (our
head).

ADVANTAGES
1. They are strong
2. They take less time to build
3. They are more economical

DISADVANTAGES

1. They are not too stable

2. They are not ideal for large distances
3. Inspection and maintenance is more difficult
 BRIDGE MAINTENANCE
It is the Department of Transportation's goal to "maintain bridges to
'as constructed' standards, and maintain the adjacent waterways to keep
them clear of obstructions." To do this, Bridge Repair can be divided into
three categories: Maintenance, Rehabilitation, and Replacement.

Maintenance Activities Include:

 Scheduled inspections of all moveable and stationary bridges and culverts.

 Repair and Replacement of bridge railing, decks, approaches and
substructures
 Removal of Drift and Debris
 Erosion protection
 Moveable Bridge Operation and Maintenance
 Guardrail and Retaining Wall Repair and Maintenance

Rehabilitation activities include stringer replacement, deck replacement,

bridge painting, etc.

Reconstruction is the complete reconstruction of the bridge structural section

or replacement with a large capacity culvert.

 INSPECTION OF BRIDGES
A routine inspection is used to determine the physical and functional
condition of the bridge, identify changes in the bridge from the last time it
was inspected and to make certain that the bridge is safe and meets service
requirements .All publicly owned highway bridges receive a
general inspection at least once every two
 years. Bridges are inspected annually if they meet certain condition
deficiency criteria or are posted for limited load weights.

VARIOUS TYPES OF INSPECTIONS

 Routine – Maximum every 2 years

 Fracture Critical - Maximum every 2 years
 Fatigue Prone
 Timber Boring
 Moveable Bridge
 Deck Survey

 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE OF BRIDGES

 The towers

Tower foundations are prepared by digging down to a sufficiently firm rock

formation. Some bridges are designed so that their towers are built on dry land,
which makes construction easier.
If a tower will stand in water, its construction begins with lowering a caisson (a
steel and concrete cylinder that acts as a circular dam) to the ground beneath the
water; removing the water from the caisson's interior allows workers to excavate a
foundation without actually working in water.
If the bedrock is too deep to be exposed by excavation or the sinking of a caisson,
pilings are driven to the bedrock or into overlying hard soil, or a large concrete
pad to distribute the weight over less resistant soil may be constructed, first
preparing the surface with a bed of compacted gravel.

The piers are then extended above water level, where they are capped with
pedestal bases for the towers. From where towers of single or multiple columns
are erected using high-strength reinforced concrete, stonework, or steel. Concrete
is used most frequently in modern suspension bridge construction due to the high
cost of steel.

 Saddles

Saddles are large devices, which will carry the main suspension cables, are
positioned atop the towers. Typically of cast steel, they can also be manufactured
using riveted forms, and are equipped with rollers to allow the main cables to shift
under construction and normal loads.

 Anchorages

They are the structures to which the ends of the bridge's cables are secured.
They are massive concrete blocks securely attached to strong rock formations.
During construction of the anchorages, strong eye bars (steel bars with a circular
hole at one end) are embedded in the concrete. Each wire bundle will be secured to
one of the anchorage's eye bars.

 Catwalks

Temporary suspended walkways, called catwalks, are then erected using a

set of guide wires hoisted into place via winches positioned atop the towers. These
catwalks follow the curve set by bridge designers for the main cables. Typical
catwalks are usually between eight and ten feet wide, and are constructed using
wire grate and wood slats. Gantries are placed upon the catwalks, which will
support the main cable spinning reels.

 Cable Spinning

High strength wire (typically 4 or 6 gauge galvanized steel wire), is pulled

in a loop by pulleys on the traveler, with one end affixed at an anchorage. When
the traveler reaches the opposite anchorage the loop is placed over an open anchor
eye bar. Along the catwalk, workers also pull the cable wires to their desired
tension. This continues until a bundle, called a "cable strand" is completed, and
temporarily bundled using stainless steel wire. Then it is brought to shape with
compactor.

 Hangers

Hangers are vertival cables. At specific points along the main cable devices
called "cable bands“(clamps) are installed to carry steel wire ropes called
Suspender cables. Each suspender cable is engineered and cut to precise lengths,
and are looped over the cable bands. In some bridges, where the towers are close
to or on the shore, the suspender cables may be applied only to the central span.

 Deck

After vertical cables are attached to the main support cable, the deck
structure can be started. The structure must be built in both directions from the
support towers at the correct rate in order to keep the forces on the towers
balanced at all times. In one technique, a moving crane that rolls atop the main
suspension cable lifts deck sections into place, where workers attach them to
previously placed sections and to the vertical cables that hang from the main
suspension cables, extending the completed length. Alternatively, the crane may
rest directly on the deck and move forward as each section is placed. Upon
completion of the deck the added load will pull the main cables into an arc
mathematically described as a parabola, while the arc of the deck will be as the
designer intended.

SPECIFIC CASE OF CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE

Cable-stayed bridge is a subcategory of a suspension bridge. The differences are

not big so, we are going to summarize the process in four stages:

Stage 1: The pylon above the main piers are erected.

Stage 2: A balanced free cantilever is initiated by using derrick cranes which

operate on the deck to lift up the girder segments. These are transported to the site
on barges.

Stage 3: As the cantilevers grow, the stay cables are installed and tensioned to
their initial forces to carry the weight of the newly erected segment.

Stage 4: The bridge is closed at mid span and the additional loading is applied.
 LAUNCHING AND PUSHING TECHNIQUES
There are three launching and pushing techniques for bridge: construction:

1. Balanced cantilever method

2. Span by span method
3. Progressive placement method

BALANCED CANTILEVER METHOD

• Balanced cantilever construction consists of building a bridge superstructure from

both sides of the pier table in a scales-like fashion.
• The pier table element, serving as a base from which cantilevering is begun, is
usually between 6 and 12 m long.
• To balance the weight of both arms of superstructure - cantilever, the segments
will be equally placed at both ends.
• Actual placement of new segments will hardly proceed exactly at the same times.
Therefore, the pier can undergo overturning bending moments and needs to be
designed accordingly. Temporary towers with vertical pre-stressing or
counterweights can provide additional support.
• Balanced cantilevering can be carried out with cast-in-place or pre-cast segments.
For cast-inplace balanced cantilevering a set of two form travelers is required, one
for each arm of the cantilever.
• For multi-span bridges the form travelers can be dismantled after finishing
cantilevering from one pier and can be set up for new use on the next pier.
• In case of a bridge with variable box girder depth the pier table segment will be
the most massive segment of the superstructure. This segment needs to be
constructed prior to cantilevering to provide a working platform from which the
two form travelers can start. The pier table segment will take a considerable
amount of time to construct, put into place either as large precast segments or as
cast-in-place with formwork

SPAN BY SPAN METHOD

• Characteristics of the span-by-span method is assembling all segments for a span

in a set, which is then aligned, jointed, and longitudinally post-tensioned together
to make a complete span.
• Span-by-span erection is typically limited to bridges that consist of box girders
with constant depth.
• The actual construction can have several variants, the segments can be assembled
on the ground and lifted in place as a group by a heavy-duty crane or they can all
be put into their final position on erection girders along the spans to be completed.
• Erection girders were supported at their ends by steel falsework resting on the
footings at each pier. After completion of a span the erection girders were set
forward to the next span and adjusted.
• Fine adjustments of the segments on the erection girders were possible by means
of variable individual supports. Finally, post-tensioning would be performed to
link all the segments together to form a complete span. With the method
described, an erection speed of one span per about 3.5 days could be achieved.
• Erection girder need not rest on the ground, but can also be supported by already
existing substructure or superstructure, e.g. piers of a span to be constructed.
• Project specific design of substructure and superstructure and considerations as
e.g. for traffic clearances set the boundaries for erection with erection girders.

PROGRESSIVE PLACEMENT METHOD

• The progressive placement method, in comparison with the balanced cantilevering

method, is a one-directional process.
• All cantilever segments are subsequently placed at the tip of a cantilever that is
built across all spans.
• Both cast-in-place and precast construction can be used.
• Often stay cables from the tip of a temporary tower on the superstructure support
the cantilever. With growing cantilever superstructure this support mechanism has
to be advanced. Another method of support is use of temporary towers.
• This method is competitive for spans between 30 to 50 m in length, whereas
incremental launching and balanced cantilevering are used for much longer spans.

ADVANTAGES

• First of all, the placement process does not have to switch sides as it occurs in the
balanced cantilevering method. Thus process control is simplified.
• In addition to this, good access to the placement location is given on the already
completed part of the bridge superstructure.
• With the progressive placement method horizontal curves can easily be
accommodated.
• From a structural point of view the progressive placement method is advantageous
in substructure design. Only vertical forces from the dead load of the
superstructure under construction are experienced.
• In comparison with incremental launching and balanced cantilevering, a simpler
flow of forces takes place between superstructure and the piers. No horizontal
forces are introduced in the piers and no unbalanced bending moments have to be
withstood by the piers. It is therefore possible to immediately install the permanent
bearings
DISADVANTAGES

• As construction only progresses at the tip of one cantilever, progress is slower than
in balanced cantilevering.

 DOMES
DEFINITION- Dome is a self supporting structural element architecture that
resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere.

INTRODUCTION- it is the most efficient shape suitable for covering large areas.
It encloses a maximum amount of space with a minimum surface and can be
economical in terms of material. Domes are suitable for space with multiple
functional application

TYPES OF DOME- 1. SINGLE LAYER DOMES

2. DOUBLE LAYER DOMES

SINGLE LAYER DOMES:

1. RIBBED DOMES
2. SCHWEDLER DOMES
3. STIFF JOINTED FRAMED DOMES
4. THREE WAY GRID DOME
5. FOUR WAY GRID DOMES
6. PARALLEL LAMELLA DOMES
7. GEODESIC DOMES
RIBBED DOMES- ribbed domes consist of a number of identical radial truss or solid
ribs inter connected at the crown and usually stiffened by a tension at the foundation.

SCHWEDLER DOMES- these domes are one of the most popular types of braced
dome, consists of meridional rib connected together to a number of horizontal
polygonal rings. These domes are ribbed domes with diagonal extending for
intersection between ribs and rings on one horizontal ring and those on the next. To
stiffen the resulting structure so as to take the unsymmetrical load each trapezium
formed by intersecting meridional ribs with horizontal rings into two triangles it
stiffens the resulting structure.

STIFF JOINTED DOMES- continuous meridional ribs and polygonal horizontal

rings rigidly connected by welding at their intersection. In layout and form it is
similar to schwedler domes

THREE WAY GRID DOMES- It consists of circular tubular rings inter connected
with curved diagonal tubular members which are place one on top of the other.
Connection between the three intersection layers at tubes are made by means of U
shaped rods and specially shaped bars which are placed respectively beneath and
over the tubes and are drawn together by means of two nuts screwed on to the
threaded end of the bar.

FOUR WAY GRID DOMES- In addition three way grid domes an additional ring
which is perpendicular to the third one is running and connected to each other.

PARALLEL LAMELA DOMES- It consist of large number of similar units

arranged in a diamond pattern. Lamella domes has a diagonal pattern and may involve
one or more rings. Each lamella unit has a length which is twice the length of a side
diamond. Roof covering or purlins used to triangulate the diamond completes the
stability requirement of the surface of the dome.

GEODESIC DOMES- Special domes based on the mathematical principles

embodying force distribution similar to those found in atoms, molecules and crystals.
In this type of dome the bracing member lie on great circles of a sphere thus following
the geodesic lines of the surface.

DOUBLE LAYER DOMES- It consists of two layer connecting each other

 ERECTION METHODS OF DOMES
The erection method of domes can be done by the following method:

1. Element method
2. Block method
3. Lift up method (a)
4. Lift up method (b)
5. Pentadome system
  ELEMENT METHOD- This is a direct erection method applied for single
unit member. Here the separate components of the structural frame work are
directly erected.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Little wastage in the transportation of the members.

2. No facility needed for ground assembly.
3. Large span can be easily constructed using light hoisting method.
DISADVANTAGES:

When height of the work increases the cost of construction also increases.

 LIFT UP METHOD (A)- In this method the skeleton is assembled on the

ground and then raised into position. The hoisting devices such as jacks and
winches are employed to raise the whole system.
ADVANTAGES:

1. Improves the work efficiency.

2. Better work control than others

 LIFT UP METHOD (B)- In this method the skeleton is assembled and fitted
with covering and services on the ground and then raised into position. The
greater part of the roofing, ceiling and miscellaneous fixture excluding the
parts to the lift up are finished near the ground level.

 BLOCK METHOD- In this method the members are kept near the ground
level and the members transported from the work shop are assembled on the
ground to reduce the volume of assembly in the air.
ADVANTAGES:

1. Better work control as erection work at high level can be minimized.

2. Work efficiency can be increased.

DISADVANTAGES:

1. Provision of special devices for making fine adjustment and assembling

required.
2. Longer duration for high level work.
3. The use of temporary jig is indispensable for securing high precision in ground
assembly.
  ERECTION SEQUENCE
1.] 2.] 3.]

Element Block
Liffins
method method
method

Transport of Transport of
Transport of
members members
members

Erection Assembling
Preliminary overall
of elements
Assembling of
ground
Measurement
Measurement
of dimensions
of dimensions
Measurement
of dimensions
Final Final
correction correction
Final
correction
Completion Completion

Completion
Finishing Erection of
equipment block
work
Lifting up Installation of
Measurement finishing material
of dimensions and equipment
Final
correction
Final Lifting up
correction Completion
Final correction
Completion Finishing
equipment work Completion

Finishing
equipment Lift up Remaining
work method (a) finishing work

Lift up
method (b)
  BASIC CONCEPT OF PRESTRESSING TECHNIQUES
(Principle)
Pre-stressed concrete is basically concrete in which internal stresses of a suitable
magnitude and distribution are concentrated to a desired degree. In reinforced concrete
members the pre-stressed is commonly introduced by tensioning the steel reinforcement.

Example: The earliest examples of wooden barrel construction by force-fitting of metal

bands and shrink fitting of metal tyre on wooden wheels indicate that the art of pre-
stressing has been practiced from ancient times.

The development of early cracks in reinforced concrete due to incompatibility in

the strains of steel find concrete was perhaps the starting point in the development of a
material like “pre-stressed concrete”

The application of permanent compressive stress a material like concrete which is strong
in compression but weal in tension, increase the apparent tensile strength of that material
because the subsequent application of tensile stress must first nullify the compressive pre-
stresses.

The use of pre-stressed concrete spread rapidly from 1935 onwards and many long span
bridges were constructed between 1945 and 1950 in Europe and the US. During the last
25-35 years, pre-stressed concrete has been widely used for the construction of-

 Long-span bridges,
 Industrial shell roofs,
 Marine structures,
 Nuclear pressure vessels,
 Water-retaining structures,
 Transmission poles,
 Railway sleepers and
 Host of other structure

In situ pre-stressing in high rise structure

 Beams can girders which are to be pre-stressed in first transported from
factories/industries using heavy duty multi axle transporters.
 Beams and tendon lifted and placed using 2 telescoping mobile cranes.
 The beams and girder segments are positioned using erection gantries which
span between adjacent columns.
  Individuals pre-cast segments are assembles on gantry span by operating crane.
 Lifting brackets are used to accommodate problem due to eccentric centre of
gravity.
 The tendons are installed prestressing is started.
 Self weight of segment is transferred fom gantry to column.
 Temporary stabilizing towers are secured to precast cross heads using 36mm
diameter prestressing bars together with a combination of mechanical and
hydraulic jacks and props to support and adjust each beam individually to final
alignment.
 The gantry is then launched onto the next place as erection is repeated .

 CONVEYORS
If the path for the flow of the material is fixed, then the provision of the conveyor
at suitable level eliminate a good level eliminate a good deal of lif6ting and lowering
of material. Conveyors require no stopping or starting but is continuous in operation.
In these transportation is effected by friction between materials being transported and
the belt. These conveyors have the advantage that they largely save labour cost, but
have disadvantage that they take considerable, space are relatively fixed and in most
cases the investment cost is high. Conveyors may used for horizontal, vertical (also
known known as elevators) or inclined conveying of materials.

There are several kinds of conveyors, such as:

(i) Belt conveyor,

(ii) Elevating conveyor,

(iii) Roller conveyor,

(iv) Chain or cable conveyor,

(v) Pipe line conveyor, and

(vi) Screw conveyor.

(i) Belt conveyor:

A belt conveyor, which consists of moving endless belt and carries materials within
supporting frames. This has a power driven pulley at one end which moves the belt.
Belt is made from rubber fabric or leather.

This conveyor is mostly used for handling large quantities of material such as cement,
fertilizer, coal, ore and other similar materials.

The main advantages of belt conveyor are as follows:

(i) It is capable of handling light or heavy, fine or coarse, wet or dry material. .

(ii) It can handle, thousands of tons of material per hour. for several kms.

(iii) It can handle hot materials upto 16°C or so.

(iv) It operates without noise.

(ii) Elevating conveyor:

This is used for transporting dry granular materials in the vertical direction with
the help of buckets and trays.

It consists of:

1. Buckets to contain the material;

2. A belt to carry the buckets and transmit the pull;
3. Means to drive the belt;
4. Accessories for loading the buckets or picking up the material, for receiving
the discharged material, for maintaining the belt tension and for enclosing and
protecting the elevator.
(iii) Roller conveyor:
This is used to transport products of various shapes such as boxes or material
which extend over several rollers. This type consists of roller supported in frames
over which materials are allowed to move. They are driven by power or gravity.
These are of different varieties and can move materials in horizontal direction as well
as from the upper floor to lower floor etc.
(iv) Cable conveyor:
This is moved by chains or cables in horizontal direction and installed flush
with floor or a little above it. This is used for moving barrels and heavy boxes.
This is also used for moving grates of big boilers.
(v) Screw conveyor:
Screw conveyor is a mechanism that uses a rotating helical screw blade, called a
"flighting", usually within a tube, to move liquid or granular materials. They are used in
many bulk handling industries. Screw conveyors in modern industry are often used
horizontally or at a slight incline as an efficient way to move semi-solid materials,
including food waste, wood chips, aggregates, cereal grains, animal feed, boiler ash, meat
and bone meal, municipal solid waste, and many others.