Engine Part I – Construction and Working details of every parts, Ignition System

Power unit:

Power unit provides power to the vehicle to create motion. The power units can be

1. Electric power units.

2. Thermal power units.

1. Electric power units:

Electric power units use batteries or direct electric power to create motion.

2. Thermal power units:

Thermal power unit is the engine. In automobiles, internal combustion engines are used which
converts chemical energy to thermal energy and then to mechanical energy. Engine consists of
various parts. Some of them are as follows:
 Cylinder block and the cylinder
 Piston
 Combustion chamber
 Inlet manifold 
 Exhaust manifold
 Inlet and exhaust valves
 Spark plugs or injectors
 Connecting rods
 Crank shaft
 Piston rings
 Gudgeon pin 
 Cam shaft and cams
 Fly wheel

Internal Combustion Engine:

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with
an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid
flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high-temperature and high-
pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine.
The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the
component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.

How an engine works:

Since the same process occurs in each cylinder, we will take a look at one cylinder to see how
the four stroke process works.
The four strokes are Intake, Compression, Power and Exhaust. The piston travels down on the
intake stroke, up on the compression stroke, down on the power stroke and up on the exhaust
stroke.

Intake:

As the piston starts down on the intake stroke, the intake valve opens and the fuel-air mixture
is drawn into the cylinder in petrol engine and only air is drawn in diesel engine (similar to
drawing back the plunger on a hypodermic needle to allow fluid to be drawn into the chamber).

When the piston reaches the bottom of the intake stroke, the intake valve closes, trapping the
air-fuel mixture as in petrol engine or only air as in diesel engine in the cylinder.

Compression:

The piston moves up and compresses the trapped air fuel mixture that was brought in by the
intake stroke. The amount that the mixture is compressed is determined by the compression
ratio of the engine. The compression ratio on the average engine is in the range of 8:1 to 10:1 in
petrol engine and 15:1 to 21:1 in diesel engine. It means when the piston reaches the top of the
cylinder, the air-fuel mixture or only air is squeezed.

Power:

In petrol engine the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed air-fuel mixture and in diesel
engine injector injects the fuel and self-ignition takes due to high compression ratio which
produces a powerful expansion of the vapour. The combustion process pushes the piston down
the cylinder with great force turning the crankshaft to provide the power to propel the vehicle.
Each piston fires at a different time, determined by the engine firing order. By the time the
crankshaft completes two revolutions, each cylinder in the engine will have gone through one
power stroke.

Exhaust:

With the piston at the bottom of the cylinder, the exhaust valve opens to allow the burned
exhaust gas to be expelled to the exhaust system. Since the cylinder contains so much pressure,
when the valve opens, the gas is expelled with a violent force (that is why a vehicle without a
muffler sounds so loud). The piston travels up to the top of the cylinder pushing all the exhaust
out before closing the exhaust valve in preparation for starting the four stroke process over
again.
Turbocharger

Figure 27 : Turbocharger
A
turbocharger is a kind of air pump taking air at ambient pressures (atmospheric pressure),
compressing to a higher pressure and passing the compressed air into the engine via the inlet
valves. At the present time, turbos are used mainly on diesel engines, but there is now a move
towards the turbo charging of production petrol engines.

Working principle of turbocharger:

The waste gases of the engine are utilized to drive a turbine wheel, which is connected to a
compressor wheel by a shaft. The compressor or air wheel sucks in air through the air filters
and passes this into the engine. As the waste gases are expelled from the engine, they are
directed to the turbine wheel of turbo. So the thermal energy of the exhaust gas is converted
into kinetic energy (as turbines blades are so designed exhaust strikes the turbine blades
spinning then at up to 150,000 rpm. As turbine runs the compressor compresses the air and
sends to the engine by passing the compressed air through the intercooler.

Engine Parts:

CYLINDER BLOCK AND CRANKCASE: A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating
engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are commonly arranged
side by side in a bank, or engine block, which is typically cast from aluminum or cast iron before
receiving precision machine work. Cylinders may be sleeved (lined with a harder metal) or
sleeveless (with a wear-resistant coating such as Nikasil). A sleeveless engine may also be
referred to as a "parent-bore engine".

The basic framework of the engine is formed by the cylinder block. It houses the engine
cylinders, which serve as bearings and guides for the pistons reciprocating in them. Around
the cylinders, there are passages for the circulation of coolant. At the top of the cylinders,
these passages end either just below the block's machined joint face, which is then called
'closed deck' or at the level of the joint face, which is then known as 'open deck'. In case of a
closed deck, circulation of the coolant is provided by vertical drilled holes mating with the
corresponding holes in the cylinder head. This is preferred over the open deck on account of
its greater reliability to provide leak proof joint, although the later is relatively easier to
produce.

Cylinder block also carries lubrication oil to various components through drilled
passages called oil galleries. The function of the crankcase is to provide support for the
main journals and bearings of the crankshaft, rigidly maintaining the alignment of their
axes of rotation under various engine loads. Crankcase is shaped simply like a box having
no bottom, its roof being formed by the lower deck of the cylinder block. The bottom of
the crankcase walls is flanged to strengthen the casing and to provide a machined joint
face for the sump to be attached. Crankshaft is supported in the crankcase through a
number of bearings called main bearings. The construction of the crankcase has to be such
as to provide very high rigidity, because it must provide reactions for the heavy forces set
up due to gas pressures in the cylinders. At the top of the cylinder block is attached the
cylinder head. Besides, other parts like timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor;
flywheel, fuel pump, etc. are also attached to it. Mating surfaces of the block are carefully
machined to provide perfect sealing surface for attaching these parts. The function of the
camshaft is to phase the opening and closing of the inlet and the exhaust valves for each
cylinder. Camshaft may be mounted in the cylinder block or head or even above the
cylinder head. It is always placed parallel to the crankshaft. When in the cylinder block, it
is mounted to one side of the cylinders either low down, just above the crankshaft or high,
slightly below the cylinder head. The materials used for cylinder block are grey cast iron
and aluminium alloys.

CYLINDER HEAD

It is attached to the top surface of the cylinder block, called block deck, by means of
studs fixed to the block. The gaskets are used to provide a tight leak proof joint at the
interface of the head and the block.

The cylinder head forms a combustion chamber above each cylinder. It also contains
valve guides, valve seats, ports, coolant jackets and threaded holes for spark plugs or
injections. Besides, there are other threaded holes for attaching various components and a
number of unthreaded holes for attaching the head to the block. There are also some
machined surfaces for leak proof joints. On overhead camshaft engines, the provisions for
mounting the camshaft and related parts also exists.
 Depending upon the valve and port layout, the cylinder head may be classified as
loop-flow type, offset cross-flow type or the in-line cross-flow type. In the loop-flow type,
the inlet and the exhaust manifolds are on the same side, which facilitates preheating of
the intake air. When, however, with the same valve arrangement, the inlet and the
exhaust manifolds are placed on different sides of the cylinder head, it is called offset
cross-flow type. This type gives lower exhaust valve temperatures. In the in-line cross-flow
type, the valves are positioned transversely and usually inclined to each other, while the
inlet and the exhaust manifolds are on different sides of the cylinder head. This
arrangement gives better performance, but is costlier.

The head is almost

universally cast en-block even
for individual cylinder
constructions for the cylinder
block. The cylinder heads cast
integral with cylinder blocks
have also been produced in
very few cases and that too in racing engines, Fig. Loop flow type cylinder head
which obviates the necessity of a gas tight
joint. But this advantages of the integral
construction is not very important, because
use of gaskets gives a reasonably good gas tight joint. Further the detachable head types
have many other advantages over the integral construction:

1. From production point of view, the cylinder block casting with open bore for the
detachable type head, is much more simplified.

2. Operations like decarbonizing and valve grinding are simplified.

3. The compression ratio can be changed slightly by changing the thickness of the
gasket used between the block and the head.

The materials used for cylinder heads are generally cast iron and aluminium alloy.

. OIL PAN

Oil pan or sump forms the bottom half of the crankcase. It is attached to the crankcase through set
screws and with a gasket to make the joint leak-proof. Its functions arc:

1. To store the oil for the engine lubricating system.

2. To collect the return oil draining from the main bearings or from the cylinder walls.
3. To serve as a container in which any impurities or foreign matter, e.g., liquid fuel, condensed
water, blow-by gases, sludge, metal particles etc., can settle down.

4. To enable the hot churned up lubricating oil to settle for a while before being circulated.

5. To provide for cooling of the hot oil in the sump by transfer of heat to the outsider air stream.

The sump has a shallow downward slope at one end which merges with deep, narrow reservoir at the
other end. This is done to ensure that under all conditions of vehicle running, there will be oil in the
reservoir where oil pump is mounted. Inside the sump, baffles are usually provided to reduce oil surging
during running of the automobile. At the bottom of the oil sump a drain plug is provided to drain out the
dirty oil at the time of oil replacement.

Generally, the sump is made of pressed steel sheet since it is not expected to have much rigidity.
However, in some cases, sump of aluminium alloy casting is used, which has adequate stiffness and
rigidity. This also provides better oil cooling on account of its higher thermal conductivity. Moreover,
with such a sump, particularly when provided with outside ribs, resonant vibration noise is avoided.
However, cast sump cannot withstand shocks, which may cause cracks. On the other hand pressed steel
sheet sump in such a situation may be dented, but will not crack.

MANIFOLDS

There are separate sets of pipes attached to the cylinder head which carry the air-fuel mixture and the
exhaust gases. These are called manifolds.

Inlet manifold

The inlet manifold carries the air-fuel mixture from the carburetor to the cylinders. The shape and size
of the inlet manifold must be such as to prohibit the formation of fuel droplets without restricting the air
flow. The manifold must be large enough to allow sufficient flow for maximum power. Yet it has to be
small enough to maintain adequate velocities for keeping the fuel droplets in suspension in air. Further,
sharp bends in the inlet manifold tend to increase fuel separation. On account of its relatively lesser
inertia. the air is able to travel through turns more quickly compared to the heavier fuel droplets. Rough
interior surfaces of the manifold runners will increase the resistance to the mixture flow. Although a
circular section runner has the largest cross-sectional area for its wall surface area, yet passenger car
inlet manifold runners are often flat so that any liquid fuel dropping out of the charge may spread evenly
on the manifold floor in a thin layer and evaporate quickly. Ribs and guide vanes are usually employed in
the manifold for a 4-cylinder in-line engine fed by a single carburetor, while the inlet manifold for the
engine fed by two carburetors. Various manifold passages are also called runners. Intake manifolds on
V-8 engines are usually designed with runners on two levels and are fitted between the two heads.
Cylinders, in the sequence of their firing order, are fed successively, alternatively from the upper and the
lower runners.
On in-line engines the inlet manifold is usually mounted on the same side of the engine on which
exhaust manifold is located, to effect the transfer of heat from the exhaust gases in the later to the air-
fuel mixture in the former, to aid its vaporization.

Exhaust manifold

The exhaust manifold is the set of pipes carrying exhaust gases from the cylinder head to the exhaust
system. It is generally made of cast iron so that it is able to withstand the heat of the exhaust gases. A
smoother flow of exhaust gases is provided by the two-in-one manifold as compared to the simple one.
The exhaust manifold is designed to minimize restriction to the flow of exhaust gases. For this
sometimes cast-rib deflectors or dividers are employed inside the muff so that exhaust gases are guided
smoothly towards the outlet. The exhaust manifolds on the modern engines often have the provision for
a thermostatic heat riser valve to direct exhaust gases through the intake manifold cross-over passage
during warming up.

Gaskets

Gaskets are used to provide a tight fitting joint between two surfaces for

example, the joint between cylinder head and block, between crank- case and oil pan, between
the cylinder block and manifolds or coolant pump.

Main requirements of gasket are

Conformity. The gaskets must be able to con-

form to the mating surfaces which may have rough-

ness or warpage.

Resistance. Due to temperature changes or vibrations

the joint may become slightly loose. The
Fig. A typical cylinder head gasket.
gasket should be able to retain its sealing force under this
situation.

Impermeability. The gaskets must be impermeable to the fluid it is expected to seal.

4. Resistance to chemical attack. The gaskets should be resistant to the chemicals with which it
may come into contact, e.g. a cylinder head gasket should be resistant to the fuel, products of
combustion, coolant and engine oil.

5. Resistance to operating conditions. As an example, the cylinder head gasket should be resistant
to widely fluctuating and pulsating internal pressures and temperatures and exposure to flame.

6. Provision of apertures. The gaskets must have apertures for any studs, bolts, opening etc. For
instance, the cylinder head gasket should have apertures for cylinders, coolant and lubrication
passages, studs and bolts and valve push rods.
 Various materials used for different engine gaskets are:

1. Cork: It is one of the oldest gasket materials obtained from the bark of oak and cork pine trees.
Use of cork gaskets is limited to lightly loaded joints with uneven surfaces, e.g. rocker covers, oil pans
etc. However, a cork gasket is highly impermeable and conforms easily.

2. Asbestos: Fibers of asbestos alone or along with fibers of cellulose are bonded together; the
binder used determines the gasket properties. Some such gaskets swell to seal the joint. However, such
swelling gaskets cannot be used where high pressures are present. Generally, asbestos gaskets, instead
of cork gaskets, are used for joints under high pressures. However, these are not as conformable as
cork; which necessitates better parting surface smoothness in case of asbestos gaskets. Such gaskets
are no longer in use due to asbestos being injurious to human health.

3. Rubber: Molded oil-resistant synthetic rubber gaskets are frequently used in oil pan corner
joints and on the end joints of intake manifold.

It is important to remember that each time a joint is assembled, a new gasket has to be used, since
after one time use, a gasket loses most of its sealing properties. Quite commonly, the labour cost of
installing a gasket would be rather high, compared to the cost of the gasket itself.

The most critical gasket on an engine is the cylinder head gasket, which seals the joint between the
cylinder head and the engine block deck. Such a gasket has to seal combustion pressures of upto about
700 kPa in petrol engines and 2000 kPa in turbocharged diesel engines. Besides, it also has to withstand
combustion temperatures of more than 100°C. Besides this, a cylinder head gasket also has to perform

following functions:

I. To seal coolant and hot, thin lubricating oil flowing under pressure between the block and the
head.

Modern coolants and lubricating oils tend to cling to surfaces and soak into gaskets. Hence gasket
materials must be selected carefully.

2. To resist the forces tending to scuff gasket surfaces and preventing proper sealing.

3. To accommodate the uneven expansion/contraction rates in case of bi-metal (aluminum head

and cast iron block) engines, since the aluminum expands almost double than cast iron due to which
uneven expansion rates create a shearing action in the gaskets.

4. To resist crushing due to very high cylinder damping forces unevenly distributed across the
head, which may be as high as 900 kN.

CYLINDER LINERS:
.•
 The problem of cylinder wear in the engines is a very acute one especially when cylinder block is
made from aluminium alloy. The solution to this has been found in the use of cylinder liners, which
can be replaced when these are worn out. Liners are also used to restore to its original size a cylinder
block which has been rebored beyond allowable limits. They are made in the form of barrels from
special alloy iron containing silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium. These are cast centrifugally.
The liners may be further hardened by nitriding or chromium plating. For nitriding, liners are
exposed to ammonia vapour at about 500 degree C and then quenched. Chromium plating improves
their resistance to wear and corrosion.
Aluminium alloy liners with chromium plating on the inside have also been used especially in
combination with aluminium cylinder blocks. The use of aluminium alloy results in increased thermal
efficiency due to better heat conduction. Further, as the pistons used are invariably of aluminium
alloy. the relative thermal expansion between the liner and the piston does not take place, due to
which larger cold clearance is not needed.

In modern higher output engines with small interbore bridges in their light weight aluminium
blocks cylinder bore distortion and potential for affecting performance and causing excessive oil
consumption of major concern. Recently (2012), Federal-Mogul has developed a solution for this
problem in downsize petrol engines, which is a dual-material cylinder liner technology, called 'Hybrid
Liner' by the company.

The 'Hybrid Liner', produced at Federal-Mogul's Friedberg (Germany) factory, consists of

conventional cast-iron sleeve coated on the outside with on AlSi 12 alloy with a melting point below
that the aluminum engine block, using a proprietary Federal-Mogul process. This process employs wire-
ar thermal spray technology which ensures that the coverage, thickness and bonding strength are
uniform ow the complete height and circumference of each liner. The outer layer surface topography
mechanically lock

The liner into the aluminium block casting, structurally and thermally both, unlike alternative
technologies. The cast iron sleeve provides good tribological properties and is compatible with piston-
ring packs. The coating surface roughness is also controlled to provide undercuts and micro-porosities
required for forming a strong intermetallic transition zone between the coating and the cast aluminium
block material.

The advantages claimed for the Hybrid Liner are:

1. Compared to alternative technologies, it reduces bore distortion in a running engine by two-

thirds. Maximum second-order bore distortion in conventional cast-in liners is seen as about 11%.
Cylindrical distortion under operating loads is claimed to be upto three times better, which results in
upto 40% reduction in oil consumption.

2. Use of this liner also results in upto 30% higher heat transfer rates, which can reduce cylinder
wall temperature by upto 40° C.

3. Increased dynamic strength claimed for this liner. Federal-Mogul's cyclic pulsing pressure test
showed the survival of this liner at pressures up to 200 bar, whereas a standard liner block design
cracked at 100 bar.
 4. With this liner, it is claimed that a 3 mm wall thickness between cylinder bores is sufficient on
pressure-die-cast blocks, which means reduced space between adjacent cylinders and hence
improvement in overall engine packaging by OEMs.

5. With a water channel drilled between two cylinders, the Hybrid Liner technology is also claimed
to limit the crack formation, allowing coolant to penetrate only upto the liner coating. In convention
liners, coolant may seep down the joint between the liner and the casting, r aching the crankcase and
contaminating the lubricating oil.

The cylinder liners are of two types, the dry and the wet type.

Piston

Functions:

1. To transmit the force of explosion to the crankshaft.

2. To form a seal so that the high pressure gases in the combustion chamber do not escape into
the crankcase.

3. To serve as a guide and a bearing for small end of the connecting rod.

Apart from its capability to perform the above functions efficiently, the piston must have some
Other desirable characteristics:

1. It should be silent in operation both during warming up and the normal running.

2. The design should be such that the seizure does not occur.

3. It should offer sufficient resistance to corrosion due to some products of combustion, e.g.
sulphur dioxide.

4. It should have the shortest possible length so as to decrease overall engine size.

5. It should be lighter in weight so that inertia forces created by its reciprocating motion are
minimum

6. Its material should have a high thermal conductivity for efficient heat transfer so that higher
compression ratios may be used without the occurrence of detonation.

7. It must have a long life.

Constructional Features and Materials

 The top of the piston is called head or crown. Generally, low cost, low-performance engines have flat
head as shown. In some such pistons which come quite close to

LANDS HEAD OR CROWN

SUPPORTING
RING WEB
GROOVES
ISTON PIN I.C. Engine Piston.
OIL DRAI BOSS
HOLES
the valves, the head is
PISTON provided valve relief.
SKIRT
Pistons used in some
high powered engines
may have a raised dome, which is used to increase the compression ratio as well as to control
combustion. In some other engines, the-pistons may be specially dished to from a desired shape of the
combustion chamber, jointly with cylinder head. In case of a piston containing part of the combustion
chamber in its crown, compression ratio can be controlled very accurately, but the disadvantage is that
in this case much larger amount of heat has to be dissipated through the piston and the rings.

Towards the top of the piston a few grooves are cut to house the piston rings. Properly designed ring
grooves have a small degree of vertical uplift, which compensates for uneven temperature rise as the
piston reaches operating temperature. Ring groove should must also be smooth since any roughness or
waviness would cause poor ring seal and would lead to micro-welding wherein rings attach themselves
momentarily to high spots on the ring groove. To avoid groove distortion and ring land breakage due to
fatigue. The vertical and horizontal surfaces should meet each other at a small radius, thus avoiding the
fatigue crack to initiate harp corners.

The bands left between the grooves are known as 'lands'. These lands support the rings against the gas
pressure and guide them so that they may flex freely in the radial direction. The supporting webs
transmit the force of explosion directly from the crown to the piston pin bosses, thereby relieving the
ring groove portion of large loads and thus preventing deformation of the ring grooves. The part of the
piston below the rings is called 'skirt'. Its function is to form a guide suitable for absorbing side-thrust
due to gas.

The side thrust is produced on account of the inclination of the connecting rod with the cylinder
pressure axis. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the piston pin. It must be of
sufficient length to resist tilting of the piston under load. It is kept quite close fitting in the cylinder, but
even then it is separated from the cylinder walls by means of lubricating oil film, for smooth running.
The combustion pressure from the piston crown is transmitted to the connecting rod throiigh webs
inside the piston. The bosses form a bearing surface for the rocking motion of the connecting rod. The
thick-sectioned webs also form heatpaths from the piston crown to the gudgeon-pin bosses and the
skirt and thus have to be designed so as to avoid expansion problems.

The distance between the axis of the piston pin and the top of the piston crown is called 'compression
height' and determines the compression ratio for a given engine. Thus for the same engine, a piston
with lesser compression height would give lesser compression ratio and vice versa.

The material used for piston at one time was cast iron which has good wearing qualities. However, it had
a big disadvantage due to its high specific weight, which subjected the engine to heavy inertia forces
while the piston changes direction at the dead-centres.

Aluminium has two distinct advantages. Firstly, aluminium is as much as three times lighter than cast
iron, which makes it desirable from inertia point of view. Secondly, it possesses a higher thermal
conductivity, which cause it to run cool. But the aluminium alloy has its own disadvantages, too. It is not
as strong as cast iron and hence thicker sections have to be used, as a result of which the weight of
piston is increased. Further, aluminium alloy is relatively soft, as a result of which tine particles in the
lubricating oil become embedded in it. Aluminium piston with fine particles embedded in it causes a sort
of grinding or abrasion of the cylinder walls, thus shortening cylinder life. Another important drawback
of using aluminium pistons for cast iron cylinders is their unequal coefficients of expansion which causes
engine slap; because if the "cold clearance" is kept just sufficient, there is danger of seizure at operating
temperatures and if the cold clearance is kept large, the engine knocks or slaps when cold. Cast pistons
are quite strong and light, but cannot take much impact due to their lesser tensile strength. Therefore
for high performance engines, say, producing 75 kW per litre and above, usually forged pistons are used,
which are about three times stronger than the cast ones. However, excessive cost prohibits their use in
stock applications where cast pistons can be used.

PISTONS RINGS

Functions

The piston rings in I.C. engine have to perform the following functions:
  To form a seal for the high pressure gases from the combustion chamber against leak into the
crank case.
 To provide easy passage for heat flow from the piston crown to the cylinder walls.
 To maintain sufficient lubricating oil on cylinder walls throughout the entire length of the piston
travel, minimizing the ring and cylinder wear, and at the same time, control the thickness of the
oil film so that satisfactory oil control is maintained. The oil is not to be allowed to go up into the
combustion chamber where eventually it would burn to leave carbon deposits.

Construction

The ring is generally cast individually and machined carefully so that when in position, it is able to exert
uniform pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap has to be cut at the ends so that while inserting the
ring onto the piston, it can be expanded, slipped over the piston head and released into the ring groove.
Further, the gap is almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder, due to which the ring is able to
exert pressure on cylinder walls, which is a must for sealing purpose. Moreover, any circumferential
expansion of the ring at higher operating temperatures may also be accommodated by the end gap.
Some differential expansion of the ring with respect to the cylinder is always likely to occur inspite of the
equal coefficients of cylinder and ring materials due to the fact that the ring is always operating at
higher temperatures than the cylinder walls; that is why direction of heat flow is from the rings to the
walls.

The sealing action of the top ring is due to the fact that the high pressure in the combustion chamber
presses the top ring tightly on the base of the piston ring groove, thus sealing the ring.

. Types of Rings

The piston rings are, generally speaking, of two types:

1. Compression rings
2. Oil control rings
The top compression ring (i.e. the ring nearest to the combustion chamber) has to do the hard work of gas sealing and
transfer of heat from the piston crown to the cylinder walls. The compression rings perform a double role. They seal and
transfer heat, and also assist the oil rings in controlling oil.

How the compression rings perform their primary function of sealing the compression charge and combustion
pressure is made clear by means of figure. When the piston is moving up during compression stroke, the pressure in
the combustion chamber acts on top of the compression ring which forces the ring against the cylinder wall [Fig. 2.62
(a)]. This provides a very effective seal without leakage. However, for this the surface finish of the ring, groove and
cylinder wall must be of adequate quality. A similar situation exists during the power stroke in which the piston
actuates downward. In this case, the upper ring face is flattened against the top of the ring groove.

The function of the oil control rings is evident from their name. To perform this function effectively, they must prevent
excessive amounts of oil from passing:

(i) between the ring face and the cylinder wall.

(ii) through the ring end gap, and
(iii) around behind the ring.
 Expanding g

PISTONMO

(a) (b)

Fig. Action of compression ring when the piston is moving (a) up, (b) down.

PISTON MOTION OIL

RETURN

Causes of Ring Failures

(b)

1. Rapid wear Fig. Action of the oil control ring when the piston is moving (a) up, (b) dow

When the abrasive content in the intake air is very high and particles are also very hard,
wear is very rapid. Excessive ring or ring groove-wear is caused by the scraping action of
abrasive in the engine. This condition is evident from the excessive oil consumption and
poor engine performance. It is found that rapid abrasive wear is the type of ring failure most
commonly experienced.
2. Scuffing
Scuffing or scoring is caused by break-down of protective lubricating oil film on the cylinder
wall. This allows metal to metal contact of the ring faces on the cylinder wall producing heat
duc to friction causing surface welding. The material from the -ring face gets transferred
onto the cylinder wall causing ring scuffing which gets worse. with further additional
running. The factors pro¬moting scuffing may be listed as:
 (a) Overheated engine—This may be due to:
(i) Cooling system, which may be restricted, clogged, or otherwise inefficient.
(ii) Leakage of coolant or defective thermostat valve.
(iii) Incorrect ignition timing, weak air-fuel mixture causing detonation.
(b) Lack of or deficient lubrication—This may be caused by:
(i) Less bearing clearances.
(ii) Low oil pressure.
(iii) Water leaking in cylinders causing breakdown of lubrication film.
(iv) Defective oil pump. •
(v) Dilution of oil in crankcase.
(vi) Low oil level.
(c) Insufficient clearance in cylinder bore. Any or more of the following may be the sources of
the trouble:
(i) Wrong size piston or piston rings.
(ii) Distorted cylinder bores.
(iii) Wrong size cylinder bore.
(iv) Cylinder liner distorted or loose in the cylinder block.
(d) Improper cylinder finish which may be due to honing not having been done after boring.
3. Ring breakage
Sometimes the ring breaks during service. This may be on account of overstressing due to
shock loading, fatigue, etc. The following are the main causes of such overstressing:
(i) Use of ring of incorrect size.
(ii) Ring sticking due to carbon deposits.
(iii) Detonation or preignition.
(iv) Excessive ring side clearance.
(v) Uneven wear of ring grooves.
(vi) Insufficient end gap of rings.
(vii) Excessive ring flutter cased by overspeeding.

CONNECTING ROD
 The function of
the connecting rod is to
convert the reciprocating
motion of the piston into
the rotary motion of the
crankshaft. To reduce the
obliquity of the rod with
the cylinder axis, its
length should be kept as large as possible. Reduced obliquity decreases the oscillating angular
motion of the rod about its small end, thereby decreasing the piston side-thrust and improving
the reciprocating balance of the engine. However, on account of the current practice to reduce
the overall height of the engine, the length of the connecting rod has been decreased from 4 to
4.5 times the crank throw to about 3.5 times. This has been made possible on account of the
Fig: Connecting Rod
improved design. A combination of axial and bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The
axial stresses are produced due to cylinder gas pressure (compressive only) and the inertia force
arising on account of reciprocating motion (both tensile as well as compressive), whereas
bending stresses are caused due to the centrifugal effects. To provide the maximum rigidity with
minimum weight, the main cross-section of the connecting rod is made an I-section. This I-
section is made to blend smoothly into the two rod-ends, called the small end and the big end.
The small end of the rod has either a 'solid' eye or a 'split' eye; this end holding the piston
between pin. The big end works on the cranks pin and is always split. In some connecting rods, a
hole is between two ends for lubrication of piston pin.
On the front of the crankshaft are mounted:

1. Timing gear or sprocket which drives the crankshaft.

2. Vibration damper.

3. Pulley for driving the water pump, fan and the generator.

On the rear end is mounted the flywheel, which serves as energy reservoir. Though them is one working
stroke in two revolutions of the crankshaft, the flywheel absorbs excess energy during the power stroke
and gives out the absorbed energy during the other three strokes. Thus it is the flywheel which keeps
the crankshaft rotating at the uniform speed throughout inspite of uneven power impulses of engine
cylinders. The flywheel also has a ring gear mounted on its periphery having teeth which mesh with the
pinion of the starting drive to start the engine.

The flywheel also provides the frictional drive surface for a clutch-type mechanical drive. Besides, the
timing marks are also usually located on the flywheel. These marks indicate the TDC piston position in
degrees for cylinder no. I and are used to determine ignition or injection timing. Flywheels are made
from cast iron alloys or cast or rolled steel.

The crankshafts are generally of two types, viz., one piece and built up. In the built up construction the
crank pins and journals are bolted to crankarms, which also serve as flywheels.

VIBRATION DAMPERS
Vibration damper is also called a harmonic balancer. It is mounted on the front end of the crankshaft. In
consists of a damper flywheel-cum-crankshaft pulley and a driving flange connected together with a
rubber ring in between.

During the power stroke in an engine cylinder, a force is applied to its crankpin, which tends to twist the
crankshaft. This force disappears during the other strokes, while during the next power stroke it again
reappears due to which the crankshaft is

untwisted and again twisted. The same cycle is repeated at every crankpin on the engine crankshaft.
This twisting and untwisting of crankshaft sets up torsional vibrations, which may become amplified if
their frequency becomes equal to the natural frequency of the vibrating parts due to resonance.

The vibration damper reduces the torsional vibrations by means of the dragging effect produced by the
inertia of damper flywheel. On account of this dragging effect the rubber ring is also flexed which tends
to avoid the vibrations and keep the crankshaft speed uniform. Engines with belt-driven crankshafts do
not need vibration damper. The belt acts as a damper.

ENGINE BEARINGS

Requirements
1. Engine bearings should support the operating loads with minimum friction using lubricant.

2. They should have a long life. Bearing metals tend to fatigue with use; which shows as fine cranks in
the bearing surface. Harder bearing materials have longer fatigue life. However, softer bearing materials
are less costly and therefore are used in light duty bearings.

3. The bearings should have adequate conformability, which may be defined as the ability of a bearing to
flow slightly so as to match the small variations in the shaft. Such a bearing would conform to the shaft
during running-in period.

4. The bearings should have score resistance that prevents the bearing materials from seizing to the
shaft during boundary lubrication.

5. Corrosion resistance is another property which is required in engine bearings which are subject to
acids formed due to the oil additives breaking down and combining with moisture.

Bearing materials
A modern engine bearing consists of bearing proper and a backing. The backing is usually of steel which
provides support against the shaft load. The three bearing materials in use are:

1. Babbitt: It may be lead or tin based and contains small quantities of copper and antimony. It is
the oldest bearing material for automobile engines and is still used in applications where soft material
shaft under moderate loads and speeds is employed.

2. Copper-lead: It is stronger and costlier than Babbitt. However, this material is easily corroded by
acid accumulated in the engine oil.

3. Aluminium: Alloyed with small quantities of tin and copper, aluminium is the latest bearing
material for automobile engines. Aluminium bearings are used for high load and speed conditions.
However, it is more expensive due to which such bearings are sometimes used alongwith bearings of
some cheaper material. For example, the lower shell of main bearing is more heavily loaded compared
to the upper shell. As such aluminium bearing may be used for the lower shell while babbit metal may
be used for the upper shell on the same bearing journal.

Main Bearings
Crankshaft is supported in main bearings which are located in the lower portion of the engine block. The
number of bearings depends upon the number of cylinders in the engine, their arrangement and on
engine size. For example in the Hindustan Ambassador car engine which is 4-cylinder in line type, there
are three main bearings, whereas V-type 8-cylinder engines generally have five main bearings.

The main bearings used are mainly of two types. One is the precision insert type which is available both
in finished as well as semi-finished condition. This type is installed directly in the bearing saddle cores
with the crankshaft removed or even when the crankshaft is in position in the engine. The finished type
is installed when the crankshaft journals are of the standard size. When the journals have worn out and
are ground to some undersize so that available standard size bearings do not give the bearings clearance
within the permissible limits, the semi-finished bearings are used which are rebored to the desired size.
The second type of Main bearings available are the cast type in which the -bearing metal is sprayed
directly onto the saddle bores and the inside of the bearing caps after which they are line-bored to the
desired dimensions. A number of shims on each side of the bearing, within it and the cap are also
provided in the cast type for adjustment of clearances. Taking out a number of shims reduces the
bearings clearance.

To prevent the crankshaft from moving to and fro in the endwise direction, one of the bearings is made
a thrust bearing i.e., it is provided with flanges on both sides, which fit accurately with the sides of the
crankweb on which it is installed.

Modern bearing of the insert type usually has a back of steel on which there is lining of suitable bearing
material. For example, Sealed Power bearings are of the following types:

1. Standard duty: Babbit lining with steel or bronze back. Babbit metals or white metals are
basically either antimony-tin or antimony-lead alloys. They have very good conformability,
embeddability and corrosion resistance, but a low fatigue strength. A typical composition for a tin-based
babbit metal is, antimoncy 7.5%, lead 0.2%, arsenic 0.1%, copper 3.0% and tin remainder.

2. Medium duty: Copper alloy lining with steel back. Copper-based alloys are harder and have a
higher fatigue strength than babbit metals, but less conformability, embedability and corrosion
resistance.

3. Heavy duty: Tin flash coating, babbit overplate, brass barrier plate, copper alloy lining and steel
back.

4. Extra heavy duty. Tin flash plate, babbit overplate, aluminium alloy lining and steel back. A
typical aluminium alloy used for turbo-charged heavy duty diesel engines contains 11% silicon. 1%
copper and the remainder aluminium. These alloys do not suffer from corrosion as is the case with
copper-based alloys.

VALVE TIMING
Theoretically the inlet valve should open at top dead centre and close at bottom dead centre. Similarly
the exhaust valve should open instantaneously at bottom dead centre and should remain open till the
piston reaches top dead centre, where it must close. But in practice, due to inertia the valves cannot
open instantaneously and also the air-fuel mixture has its own inertia; consequently more time has to be
allowed for the intake and exhaust processes to complete. The inlet valve is generally opened about 50°
before T.D.C. (Called valve lead) and closed after about 45° of B.D.C. (called valve lag). Similarly the
exhaust valve is opened before about 60° of B.D.C. and closed after 20° of T.D.C. The condition when
both the inlet and the exhaust valves are open simultaneously during so many degrees of crankshaft
rotation, is called valve overlap. The diagram representing this opening and closing of the valves is
known as valve timing diagram. The inlet valve is made to open early to make use of the depression
formed by the outgoing exhaust gases in their wake, due to which the fresh charge in the induction port
is drawn in the direction of the escaping exhaust gases. In this way the fresh charge sweeps out the
remaining combustion products and occupies the combustion chamber space. In fact, if the inlet valve
opening lead is excessive, some of the exhaust gases will be pushed back through the inlet valve into the
induction manifold. This may occur particularly under part-throttle conditions, when the average
depression in the induction manifold is far higher than in the cylinder, as the piston is approaching TDC
towards the end of the exhaust stroke.

The internal EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) as above will be detrimental to full load engine
performance as it takes up space which could otherwise be taken by fresh charge. However, this EGR
may be beneficial at part load conditions in terms of efficiency and emissions.

The later opening of the intake valve, on the other hand, would restrict the entry of air/fuel mixture
from the manifold which can cause lowering of the cylinder pressure as the piston starts to descend
after TDC, consequently resulting in EGR, if the exhaust valve is still open as the exhaust gases would be
drawn hack into the cylinder. The effect of this EGR would be same as discussed above in case of early
opening of the intake valve. However, in case the exhaust valve is closed, late opening of intake valve
would not directly influence the amount of fresh charge in the cylinder, due to which it would not be
particularly significant.

In fact, the opening of the intake valve is timed generally by full-load optimisation, to avoid internal EGR.
Typical timing is about 0 to 10° before TDC, which results in fairly symmetrical valve overlap around TDC.

The effect of delaying the closure of the inlet valve until after BDC, when the piston has already started
its compression stroke, is to improve the cylinder volumetric efficiency in the medium to high engine
speed range. However, at lower engine speeds there is insufficient density and momentum of air (in

C.I. engine) or air and petrol mixture (in S.I. engine), to pile into the cylinder to boost the 40° mass of the
charge.

One measure of the torque an engine can produce is the volumetric efficiency variation curve over the
engine’s speed range, due to which inlet and exhaust tuning of the valve timing for the highest possible
overall volumetric efficiency is a must for optimum engine performance. It is seen that with a large inlet
valve lag, say 80°, there would be a lowering of volumetric efficiency at lower engine speed due to
reduction in charge velocity ramming, causing an increasing amount of flow back to the inlet valve, to
occur. On the other hand, with a smaller inlet valve closing lag, say 400, the volumetric efficiency at
lower engine speeds will be highest, falling gradually with the increasing speed, due to the progressive
decrease in the cylinder filling time which the ram effect is not able to compensate. Thus the most
effective volumetric efficiency improvement over the mid-speed range of an engine is achieved by
selecting a moderate inlet valve closing.

A typical timing for the closing of intake valve is in the range 50-60° after BDC which results from a
compromise between high and low speed requirements. At lower engine speeds, a tendency to flow
back the mixture into the intake manifold just before closing would be present, whereas at higher
speeds, there would still be inflow of oil/fuel mixture when the intake valve closes.

The timing of exhaust valve opening depends upon two conflicting considerations. On the one hand, it is
desirable for the pressure in the cylinder to drop to its lowest possible value, i.e. the exhaust back

Pressure before the piston starts rising, i.e., before BDC so as to minimize the work done by the piston in
expelling the exhaust before the intake of a fresh charge. On the other hand it would be desirable not to
open the exhaust valve before the piston reaches BDC so as to extract maximum work from the
expansion of gas in the cylinder. Moreover, in actual valve train, the inertia of its components causes the
valve to lift relatively slowly, so that it becomes necessary to open the exhaust valve some time before
BDC. A typical exhaust valve opening is about 50-60° before BDC. The optimum timing for exhaust valve
opening depends upon the engine speed and load and the pressure of gases in the cylinder. Under part
load conditions, lower cylinder pressure takes less time to escape through the valve, contrary to the full
load conditions, where engine cylinder pressure is higher. Thus, it is better to delay the exhaust valve
opening under part load and advance it under full load conditions. However, in a conventional valve
train, this cannot be changed due to which reason ideal timing is seldom achieved.

The delay in closing the exhaust valve until the piston has moved past TDC encourages the fresh charge
to enter the combustion chamber even when the inlet valve has partially opened and piston speed is
also very low, due to the partial vacuum created in the exhaust port by the out-rushing exhaust gases.
However, excessive closing lag of the exhaust valve will cause the fresh charge to chase the last of the
exhaust gases across the combustion chamber and even out of the exhaust port. It is seen that for full
load operation, it is desirable to retain minimum possible quantity of exhaust gas in the cylinder so that
maximum volume of fresh air/fuel mixture can enter during the intake stroke, which means exhaust
valve should close at or shortly after TDC. On the other hand, for part-load operation it is desirable to
retain some of the exhaust gases so that lesser fresh air/fuel mixture is drawn. This is done by delaying
further the exhaust valve closing after TDC, which increases the level of internal EGR with a
corresponding reduction in exhaust emissions. However, there is a limit to maximum permissible EGR,
beyond which combustion becomes unstable. Typical exhaust valve closing timings arc in the range 5-
15° after TDC, wherein internal EGR is almost eliminated so as not to affect adversely the full-load
performance,

In an ideal situation, the valve overlap should allow the leaving exhaust gases to draw the fresh charge
into the cylinder without any of the charge passing straight into the exhaust system. In such a situation,
the exhaust gases in the combustion chamber at TDC are replaced by the intake charge, which now
exceeds the quantity of charge drawn into the cylinder only by the swept volume of the piston.
However, it must be noted that the above mentioned advantages of valve overlap, i.e., delaying the
exhaust closing and opening the inlet valve earlier arc pronounced in the mid to upper speed range of
the engine. Also, these are accompanied by increase in the pollutants (hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide) in the exhaust, which is more marked at lower engine speeds. Accordingly, representative
values of valve lead and lag ranges for various types of auto engines are as follows:
Inlet valve opening before TDC 10°-30°

Inlet valve closing after BDC 40°-75°

Exhaust valve opening before BDC 40°-75°

Exhaust valve closing after TDC 10°30°

Valve overlap at TDC 20°-60°

Valve overlap at BDC 80°-150°

MAXIMUM VALVE OPENING

Maximum valve opening depends directly on 'Valve Peak Lift', on which directly depend the ability of the
air/fuel mixture to flow into the cylinder and the exhaust to leave the cylinder. Due to this, valve peak
lift directly affects the engine performance. Thus, maximum power output of the engine would generally
be increased by increasing the peak valve lift. However, excessive value of valve peak lift would cause
the low-speed performance to deteriorate. Moreover, for maximum torque at a given speed, lift should
be kept as low as possible, but again limited by the point where the intake of fresh charge becomes
restricted. However, part-load fuel economy will improve by the intake charge restriction by valve lift,
since it decreases the necessity of throttling by the engine throttle, thereby reducing pumping losses.
Inspite of this advantage, lift amount is not decided by part-load considerations since this would
severely limit the maximum engine power output. Thus, the design value of valve lift is usually selected
by striking a compromise between low-speed and high-speed full-load considerations and is kept usually
in the range 8-10 mm.

ENGINE VALVES

To admit the air-fuel mixture in the engine cylinder and to force the exhaust gases out at correct
timings, some control system is necessary, which is provided by the valves.

The engine valves may be broadly divided into 3 main categories:

1. Poppet valve

2. Sleeve valve

3. Rotary valve

Out of these three, poppet valve is the one which is being universally used for automobile engines.

Poppet Valve:

The poppet valve derives its name from its motion of popping up and down. This is also called
"mushroom valve" because of its shape which is similar to a mushroom. It consists of a head and a stem
It possesses certain advantages over the other valve types because of which it is extensively used in the
automotive engines:

1. Simplicity of construction
2. These are self-centering
3. These arc free to rotate about the stem to new position.
4. Maintenance of scaling efficiency is relatively easier in their case.

Generally inlet valves arc larger than the exhaust valves, because speed of incoming air-fuel mixture
is less than the velocity of exhaust gases which leave under pressure. Further because of pressure,
the density of exhaust gases is also comparatively high. Moreover, smaller exhaust valve is also
preferred because of shorter path of heat flow in this case and consequent reduced thermal loading.
Generally inlet valves and exhaust valves are 45% and 38% of the cylinder bore respectively. Further,
to improve heat transfer to the cylinder head, the stem diameter of the exhaust valve is generally 10
to 15% greater than that o the inlet valve. Moreover, the valve lift in both inlet and exhaust valves
should be at least equal to 25% of the valve head diameter which would provide the annular valve-
opening area to the port throat area. If the valve lift is less, the volumetric efficiency of the engine
will be decreased. On the other hand if it is excessive, the inertia of the valve actuating mechanism
would be unduly large resulting in excessive noise and wear.

The valve face angle (with the plane of the valve head) is generally kept 450 or 30°. A smaller face
angle provides greater valve opening for a given lift, but poor sealing because of the reduced seating
pressure for a given valve spring load. Due to this reason in some engines, the inlet valve face angle
may be kept 30° or 45° whereas the exhaust valve face angle is only 45°, as this increases its heat
dissipation. In some cases, a further differential angle of about 1/2 deg to 1 deg is provided between
the valve and seating, which results in better sealing conditions.

Valve Seats
The valve seats must be faced very accurately, so that there is complete contact between the valve
and the valve scat when the former closes. Valve scat face is thus ground to the same angle to which
the valve face is ground. This may have any value from 30° to 45°.

For cylinder blocks or heads made of grey iron, the inlet valve seats machined on the cylinder blocks
or heads as the case may be are directly because working conditions are not severe. These are called
integral seats. However, where aluminium blocks or heads are used, separate valve seat inserts are
employed even for inlet valves. For the exhaust valves, always the separate valves seat inserts are
used, the operating conditions being very severe. Insert seats are also used as salvage procedure
when badly damaged integral seats are reconditioned.

Valve seat inserts are simply rings made of alloy steel consisting of chromium, silicon, tungsten or
cobalt with a conical seat on one of the inside edges. These are force-fitted in the recesses machined
in the cylinder head. When worn, these inserts can be easily replaced.
Valve guides

The stem of the poppet valve needs a guide for the alignment of its up and down motion so that the
face of the valve is maintained in a central position with respect to the valve seat while opening and
closing. The simplest valve guide is a reamed hole in the cylinder block or head in which the valve
stem moves. This type of integral valve guide is cheaper to provide, reduces weight and the heat
transfer is also better.

However, the modern tendency is to provide separate valve guides, which are inserted into the
holes in the cylinder block or head as the case may be. These are particularly required where the
valve stem and cylinder head materials are not compatible. These inserts are of cylindrical shape
and they arc made from pearlitic cast iron having minimum hardness of the order of 220 Brinell
Hardness Number. Sometimes alloy irons containing nickel and chromium are also used. Silicon,
aluminium or bronze guide offer maximum resistance to fatigue, corrosion and heat. Both the types
of valve guides.

For optimum sliding between the valve stem and the guide, the operating clearance should be just
sufficient to maintain a lubricant film around the stem. Excessive clearance would hinder the
conduction of heat transfer from the stem to the guide, Moreover, it would also produce a side
rocking motion whenever the rocker arm contacts the valve tip, ultimately causing the ben-mouth
wear of the guide at its ends and localized wear of the valve stem where the tilting stem contacts
the guide bore.

Valve Springs
Helical springs are used to keep the valve in constant contact with the tappet and the tappet with
the cam. Since the spring is subject to compressive loads, it is ground flat at each end to ensure even
distribution of pressure. The coil ends are also placed diametrically opposed to avoid the bending
tendency of the spring under compression. The arrangement for the retention of the springs is
simple. A ring split into two halves with internal projection to lit into the valve spring retaining
groove and the outer surface tapered is employed. Over the split ring, another ring is inverted which
supports the spring.

The valve springs are subject to heavy service. These are, therefore, made from high grade spring
steel wire, the materials being generally hard-drawn carbon steel or chrome-vanadium steel. Valve
springs are often shot peened to make them fatigue resistant.

VALVE ROTATORS

If the exhaust valve is rotated slowly about its own axis, it will not stick in guides. Moreover the
rotation results in uniform temperature all along its circumference, due to which reason becomes
less liable to warping. Thus slight rotation of the valve ensures even wear distribution on the seat,
valve and helps in removing small particles between the valve and the seat. Consequently better
 longer valve life are obtained. On some engines, valve rotators are used both on the inlet and the
exhaust valves, while in others these are installed only on the exhaust valves.

Valve rotators are of two types, i.e. free type and the positive type. When the valve lifter moves up
to open the valve it presses tip cup which moves the spring retainer up, thereby making the valve
free from spring pressure. Because it is now free, it can rotate On account of engine vibration and
turbulence of gases.

A positive type valve consists of a ball cup base fixed outside the valve guide. There are a number of
grooves arranged circumferentially on the ball cup base. In each of these groves there is a spring-
loaded ball on top of which is placed a spring washer. The top ends of these Washers touch the
rotator cover which supports the valve retaining spring. When the valve is closed, the ends of spring
washers are just touching the ball cup base and the rotator cover so that it is just pressing the balls,
with a very small force due to which reason, the balls are pushed by the balls at the ends of their
races which have got higher base level towards the ball ends. On the other hand, when the valve tip
is pressed to open up, the rotator cover is also pressed through the valve spring. The valve rotator in
turn presses the upper end of the spring washer which presses the balls against their springs to
move down in their races. Since the rotator cover, connected to the valve through the valve
retainer, is also connected to the balls through the spring washer, this movement of the balls causes
the valve to rotate in the counterclockwise direction. On closing the valve, the balls become almost
free so that their springs move them up the incline causing the rotator cover and hence the valve to
rotate in the clockwise direction.

VARIABLE VALVE TIMING (VVT) TECHNOLOGIES

VVT is a generic term for an automobile engine technology which allows the lift or duration or timing
(some or all) of the intake on and exhaust valves to be changed when the engine is working.

Due to the variation in behavior of the air-fuel mixture before combustion and the gases after
combustion, the optimal valve timing, lift and duration settings at low engine speeds are quite different
from those at high engine speeds. Any optimal setting of the valve lift, duration and timing at low speeds
would cause lesser amount of air and fuel at higher speeds, resulting in loss of engine power output.
Similarly, valve setting at higher engine speeds would result in difficult idling and very rough engine
operation at low speeds.

For an engine with fixed valve timing, compromises have to be made between emissions, high/low
speed torque and full/part-load efficiency. To avoid making such compromises, the following
technologies are gradually becoming common, although still limited to high-end cars due to cost
considerations. These technologies basically enable the valve timing and lift to be varied automatically
depending upon the engine operating conditions. Some of these are currently in use, while others are
still under development.

1. Phase changing systems

With these systems, the timing of the camshaft is changed relative to the crankshaft which causes the
timing of the valve opening or closing to be advanced or retarded. With a single camshaft, all the valve
events for both intake and exhaust valves are shifted by the same amount, whereas if separate
camshafts are used for intake and the exhaust valves, such a phase changing system can change the
valve events either for the intake or the exhaust valves. But, with two camshafts and two phase-
changing systems valve events can be changed independently for the intake and the exhaust valves.
However, such systems cannot change the peak valve lift or the duration of the valve events. More
advanced phase-changing systems, allow optimization of camshaft phase for different engine speeds
and loads, and also permit the phasing of exhaust camshaft phasing to be used for internal EGR control.

2. Profile switching systems

These can change independently the valve-event timing and the valve lift. There are two camshafts with
separate cam-profiles. The system enables the valve-operation to be switched between these camshafts
at a particular engine speed. With such a capability very high power output can be obtained, while
keeping the emission level also low. However, these are not suitable for optimizing valve-timing
parameters under different load conditions, e.g., control of internal EER.

3. Variable event-timing systems

Such systems can change both the phase and duration of the valve events and can be optimized for
different engine speed and load conditions due to which it is possible to obtain:

1. Increase in full-load torque.

2. Reduction in part-load emissions.

3. Fuel economy, i.e., decrease of exhaust emissions.

However, these systems cannot change peak valve lift.

4. Variable lift systems

The main advantage of such systems is reducing the pumping losses due to conventional throttle.

5. Electronic valve-actuation systems

Due to their precise control, these have the maximum potential for optimising the valve events. Besides,
all the valve events including the lift can be directly controlled.

MUFFLERS

When the exhaust valve opens, high-pressure exhaust gas is released, which causes a pressure wave in
the air causing an explosion. Since high pressure gases are released rapidly one after the other in an
engine, the explosions occurring very fast combine together to form a steady noise. This noise consists
of different notes of various frequencies. The predominant notes out of these have been found in two
groups, viz., low frequency notes from 50 to 500 hz and high frequency notes from 3,000 to 10,000 hz.
Thus any ideal silencer for absorbing this noise must effectively reduce both the low and the high
frequency notes. To reduce the noise, the engine exhaust is connected via exhaust pipe to the silencer,
which is also called muffler. A tail pipe carries the exhaust gases from the muffler to the rear or side of
the vehicle near the near wheel. The mufflers used are of the various types.

1. Baffle type 2. Wave cancellation type

3. Resonance type 4. Absorber type

5. Combined resonance and absorber type.

ENGINE SERVICE
1. INTRODUCTION
Before the engine is disassembled for service, it is desirable to ascertain whether the overhauling is
really necessary or not. Generally the overhauling is required in the following events:

1. Power loss due to poor engine compression. Loss of power also results due to other factors such
as slipping clutch, dragging brakes or defective fuel system. In such cases, the power loss can be
remedied simply by rectification of the concerned system. In case power loss is not due to such other
factors, the compression pressure may be measured and comparing the value with those given in the
shop manual, it may be decided whether the engine requires overhauling or not.

2. Excessive consumption of lubricating oil, which should be determined accurately.

3. Lubricating oil pressure too low, provided the same is not due to external leakage, less oil in the
sump, defective oil pump or faulty oil pressure gauge.

4. Mechanical failures, such as excessive clearance in main or big end bearings or in the valve
tappets, piston slap or some broken component indicate that the overhauling is required. However, if
excessive noise is due to defective ignition or injection or faults in generator, water pump, etc., the
engine overhauling is not necessary.

The servicing procedure for the following engine parts has been given in this chapter.

1. Cylinder head 2. Valves and valve mechanism

3. Piston-connecting rod assembly 4. Cylinder

5.Crankshaft and main bearings.

2. ENGINE REMOVAL
Before deciding finally whether it is necessary to remove the engine from the chassis, it is a good
practice to clean the engine externally thoroughly so as to remove all surface grime. This makes it easier
to visible inspect the engine and to work on it and also helps to keep the dirt out of it while
disassembling. While cleaning, it is necessary to take special care not to damage electronic and fuel
injection components. Cover any part that can be damaged with a plastic bag. Special attention should
be paid to any physical damage, leaks at gaskets, external contamination etc. If it is found necessary to
remove the engine the same will have to be lifted after removing components that come in the way of
its removal and also those that are likely to be damaged while removing. First of all the battery is
removed and the oil and coolant are drained off. The hood of the engine compartment is then removed.
All coolant hoses are disconnected, the radiator mounting bolts are removed and the radiator is lifted
from the engine compartment. If the vehicle is air conditioned, the compressor is then disconnected
from the engine and removed. All air-conditioning lines should be plugged to prevent the dirt and
moisture going inside. All wires, tubing and controls connecting the engine to the automobile are
removed and tagged. It is better that spark plugs, distributor, carburetor, alternator and fan are then
removed to avoid damage during removal of engine. After that the drive shaft and the exhaust pipes are
disconnected. On some vehicles it may be necessary to remove the steering linkage also to make
adequate space for engine removal. A hoist is then moved near the vehicle engine compartment and its
sling connected to the manifold or a lifting eye bolt on the engine top. The mounting bolts are then
removed and the hoist operated to lift the engine. The engine is then swung clear and lowered onto the
engine stand on the blocks placed on the floor and the hoist sling is disconnected.

3. CYLINDER HEAD

3.1. Removing cylinder head

If various components, e.g., the air cleaner, carburetor, head cover, spark plugs, ignition coil, distributor,
etc., were not removed earlier, remove them from the cylinder now in proper sequence, exact
procedure for removing should be as given in the shop manual. It is important to remember, however'
that an aluminium cylinder head must be allowed to cool completely, before removing the same, failing
which the same may get distorted.

On L-head engines, the manifolds need not be removed, but in I-head engines, these have to be
removed in some cases while in others there is no such need. In case the gasket is sticking, the same
may be loosened with the help of a flat blade, taking care that parting surfaces are not damaged. The
parting surfaces may then be inspected for leakage. In case the manifold is not removed and the
carburetor is also left mounted on it, the same must be covered with a clean cloth before proceeding
further. After removal of manifolds, remove the rocker arm assemblies and keep them in proper
sequence so that abnormalities can be pinpointed and also the rocker arm assemblies have been
removed, check the rocker area for any sludge, excessive build-up of which may indicate a poor oil
change schedule which may, later, be corroborated from similar wear patterns on other components.

After disconnecting the required components, loosen the head bolts or nuts. Starting from the centre,
gradually out-wards loosen slightly, all the bolts and nuts. Repeat the loosening operation all over again
after which loosen them completely one by one and take them off. The purpose of all this is to avoid
uneven stresses on the head. After removing all the head nuts ( or bolts) the head can be lifted up. It
happens sometimes that at this stage, the head does not separate from the block easily. In such a case
do not try to separate the head by inserting screw driver or any other sharp object in the joint, because
this is likely to damage the machined surface of the head or the bloc. Instead, tap each side of the head
with a wooden hammer or with an ordinary hammer interposing a block of wood in-between hammer
and the head. This will facilitate breaking of joint. Use may also be made of the lifting screws. Two of
these may be inserted in the extreme spark plug holes and the head lifted vertically.

In case of overhead valve engines, now remove the timing cover, after which camshaft should be
removed. While doing so take care to avoid dragging lobes over the bearing surfaces, which may
damage the lobes as well as bearings. After removing the camshaft, examine the same visually for any
signs of wear. In case either the camshafts or the lifters are worn, both will have to be replaced. Never
install old valve lifters with a new camshaft or a used camshaft with new valve lifters.

3.2, Cleaning and Inspection

The first thing to do after the head is lifted off is to observe the nature of carbon deposits which would
indicate the cause of excessive oil consumption or overheating if present. The combustion chamber of
the engine which has been running under normal conditions would be coated with a layer of light
coloured but hard carbon. In case of combustion chamber which has been running too hot, the carbon
layer would be thin and of lighter colour. The carbon deposits in the combustion chamber which has
been running cold, would be black, thick and dry. The excessive oil entering the combustion chamber
causes heavy wet carbon deposits. A careful examination would reveal the exact entry point for the oil.

Next step is to clean the head. Before proceeding to do this cover all the water ports, etc. with a clean
cloth. Then remove the carbon from the combustion chamber, valve seats, etc. with the help of the
carbon scraper. It must be ensured that no metal is removed during scraping. Stud holes and valve
guides may be cleaned with a wire brush fitted in an electric drill. This arrangement, however, should
not be used for cleaning pistons. Remove all traces of carbon dust by blowing out with air under
pressure. In case compressor is not at hand, use may be made of a tyre pump. Subsequently clean the
complete head with kerosene and let it dry.

After cleaning, inspect the cylinder head visually. Look out for warpage, damaged machined surfaces
and cracks. Warpage will misalign the seats and guides when the head is installed and tightened on the
block. The warpage may be checked by means of a straight metal rule placed against machined surfaces
in a number of directions. The head surface has to be ground or milled flat if a thickness gauge of more
than 0.025 mm per cylinder fits between the straight metal rule and head. To detect small cracks, wet
the head with kerosene with a clean cloth and strike again lightly. The cracks will show up clearly. Badly
burnt or poor seating valves are clearly visible in the head.

3. INSTALLING CYLINDER HEAD GASKETS

Various steps involved are as follows:
1. Allow the engine to cool to room temperature before disassembling.

2. Loosen the bolts and remove them in reverse torque sequence.

3. Clean the mating surfaces thoroughly. Scraper and wire brush can be used on cast iron surfaces,
while on aluminium use a non-metallic scraper.

4. Inspect the old gasket, which would provide clue to any engine problems, which must be
rectified before replacing the gasket.

5. Check for warpage and distortion as explained in the Art. 3.2. Resurface the head or block if the
surface flatness exceeds the specifications of the manufacturer. However, excessive removal of surface
metal should be avoided to prevent any possible valve/piston interference.

6. Check the new gasket for proper fit on the head and the block. The gasket should meet the most
recent OEM recommendations for the replacement use.

7. Check the finish of the mating surfaces. Too smooth surfaces would not allow the gasket to grip
properly to provide durable combustion seal. On the other hand if the mating surfaces are too rough,
the gasket would not conform to the surface. A micro inch finish of 60 to 100 RA is preferred for cast
iron and 50 to 60 RA for aluminium.

8. Clean and prepare bolt holes and check for correct bolt lengths. ,If the bolts enter the coolant
passages, coat their threads with a non-hardening sealer. This would prevent coolant seepage around
the bolt threads.

9. Tighten the head bolts in the proper sequence with the specified torque.

10. Run the engine after complete reassembly and check for any fluid and combustion gas leaks.

11. In case the cylinder head gasket used needs retorquing, run the engine to normal operating
temperature for 10 to 15 minutes and tighten the cylinder head bolts again with the specified torque. In
case of a cast iron engine, retorquing can be done while the engine is still warm. However if the head or
block is of aluminium, allow the engine to cool to room temperature before retorquing.

VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISM

5.1. Valve Removal

Before proceeding to remove valves, certain precautions have to be taken. Firstly mark the sequence of
the valves with a dot punch or number punch, if not already marked. This is very important because the
valves must be fitted back to their original positions after servicing. Note the difference in size of the
inlet and exhaust valves, if any. It is better to place the valves along with other components of the valve
assembly in proper sequence so that, it is easier to locate and assemble while fitting. Secondly, it is
advisable to plug any holes near the valve chests with pieces of clean cloth so that any component does
not fall down through the hole into the sump while the valves are being removed.
The valves may be removed from the cylinder head or block, as the case may be, by means of valve
lifters. The function of the valve lifter is to compress the spring and remove the spring retainer lock after
which the valve may be taken out.

A valve of this type is removed by means of a bar lifter, which is inserted through the spring and libel the
flange of the valve guide and is pushed down sufficiently so as to release the valve guide retainer to take
it out. The valve assembly, along with the guide, is then taken out from above as a whole and various
components dissembled later.

If during valve removal process it is found that a valve is sticking in its guide, it may be due to its having a
ridge around it. In such a case do not drive the valve through the guide; doing so may score,' crack the
valve guide or head. Simply raise the valve stem and file off the excess metal till the stem slide, easily
through the guide.

After disassembly, clean the valves, guides, springs and other parts of the valve actuating mechanism,
Then inspect various parts to determine if they require any service or replacement after which the
desire action may be taken.

5.2. Valves

Carbon can be removed from the valves by scraping or even chipping whenever required, though cart
must be taken to avoid any damage to the valve while chipping. A wire brush mounted in an electric drill
may be used to remove carbon from the valves and the valve guides. Valve stems may also be cleaned
safely with a tine abrasive cloth. The valve is rotated in a lathe chuck and the abrasive cloth held around
the stern After scraping, chipping or abrasion, wash the valves in kerosene and dry by wiping with a
clean cloth.

Subsequent to cleaning, inspect the valves carefully and replace them if—

1. they are burnt, cracked, distorted or badly pitted.

2. they arc worn to the extent that the margin has been reduced to a thin edge.

3. they are excessively bent so that the valve stem is not true and square relative to the head. Iv
radial runout may be checked with a dial gauge and V-block (Fig. 4.8).

4. the valve stems arc worn out excessively at the ends due to striking of the rocker arm end
intermittenly in operation.

5. the stem clearances is 0.03 mm or more.

If the valves do not need replacement, the same should be refaced before reinstalling them in the
engine. This may be done on a special valve refacing machine. The machine consists of a grinding, wheel
operated by an electric motor. The valve is held in chuck which is also rotated with electric motor. r
There is a provision to set the valve chuck at any desired angle. Generally the valve angles are 30° to 45°.
After starting the machine, a light cut is taken first, the machine stopped and the valve face inspected. If
the cut was taken only on one side of the face it means the valve is bent and should be discarded. No
attempt should be made at straightening the stem. If the valve is not bent, restart the machine and
reface the valve taking light cuts till there are no more pits or scratches in the face. Before starting
refacing operation, it must be ensured that the grinding wheel is properly dressed. The wheel dressing
may be done on the machine itself, with the diamond dressing tool. While refacing the valve it should be
ensured that the margin should never be less than 1.5 mm. Moreover, aluminized valves should never
be ground since they will lose their corrosion resistance properties when ground. Such valves must be
replaced. if it is found that they require refacing.

Another method of refacing valves and valves seats, which has become obsolete now, is the valve
lapping. which may still be used if the special refacing or grinding machines are not available. After
thoroughly cleaning the valves, valve seats and guides, a small quantity of the special lapping compound
which is in the form of a paste, is applied on the valve face and valve is slipped into the guide hole. The
lapping stick which has a hollow rubber casing at its end, is pressed lightly onto the valve so that the
hollow rubber casing gets attached to the valve top because of the vacuum thus introduced inside it
(casing) The valve is now given reciprocating rotary motion with the palms of the hands on the stick.
While doing so, the valve is lifted off its seat every now and then so as to spread the grinding paste
properly evenly on the valve face and seat. Sometimes, to facilitate this lifting up, a small spring is kept
in between the valve seat and valve. Then for lifting up, you simply have to relieve the stick, of the slight
vertical pressure which you put all the time during lapping operation. The process is continued till pit
free smooth surface is obtained.

5.3 Camshaft

Failure of camshaft is indicated by excessive wear of cam lobes, although camshaft in modern engines
normally run for the engine life of the engine and need not be replaced. The same may, however, be
checked for straightness when the engine is dismantled, by placing it on V blocks or holding it between
centres and using a dial indicator. In many cases a bent camshaft may be straightened in a hydraulic
press.

Pistons

Before the inspection of the pistons can be carried out, it is very important that they arc cleaned
thoroughly, so as to remove all traces of carbon or other deposits. With the rings already removed, the
pistons arc cleaned on both sides, inner and the outer. Piston crown and the inner side can be cleaned
with a carbon scraper, whereas ring grooves are cleaned with a special groove

Cleaner. Particular care is needed, however, in cleaning the piston skirt as the carbon scrapper is not
recommended for this. The pistons may, therefore, the soaked in some suitable cleaning solution (which
does not adversely affect the piston material) so as to soften the carbon deposits after which a stiff wire
brush is used to remove the deposits. Any blocked oil holes in oil ring grooves may be cleaned with a
drill. However, the size of the drill bit used must be so selected as not to enlarge the holes.
After cleaning thoroughly, the piston is inspected for pitting, scratches, cracks, scuffing, collapsed skirt,
fit in the cylinder bore etc. A piston found badly pitted, cracked or otherwise damaged should be
replaced. Scuffing of piston occurs when a newly installed piston is loaded heavily without sufficient
lubrication due to which it expands and takes up the small clearance between itself and the cylinder
bore. In case of heavily scuffed piston, replacement is the only alternative available.

For checking whether the piston has collapsed skirt or not, measure the diameter of the skirt at its top
and bottom ends. If the bottom dimension is less than the top, it means the skirt is collapsed. This
however, can be remedied by means of skirt expanders, shot blasting against the inner surface of the
thrust sides of the piston, peening the skirt by a mechanical hammer at high speeds or knurlizing.

The wear of the ring grooves is checked with a new piston ring and feeler gauge. The new piston ring is
installed or placed with its outer side anywhere in the piston ring groove and clearance between the
new ring and the side of the ring groove is measured with feeler gauge. If the clearance is more than
0.15 mm, the piston would need replacement. In some cases, it is also possible to remachine the
grooves to next oversize and to install oversize rings.

The fit of the piston in the cylinder bore can be tested by placing a feeler gauge on the thrust face of the
cylinder and inserting the piston upside down. A spring balance is attached to the outer end of the feeler
gauge and is pulled. The force on the spring scale is noted while the gauge is being pulled For
satisfactory clearance this pull should be about 30 to 50 N. (The exact amount is specified by the
manufacturer for which the shop manual of the vehicle may he consulted). If the pull is more, repeat
with a thinner gauge and if it is less. try with a thicker gauge. After a number of trials, the gauge will be
found to give the pull within the specified range. The thickness of this gauge gives the clearance. The
shop manual of the vehicle should be then consulted to find whether with the clearance thus
determined. the piston needs replacement or not. The oversize pistons generally available are in steps
of 0.010 inch (0.25 mm) above the standard size.

Piston Rings

The piston rings should be examined for uneven wear, loss of tension, scratches, etc. However, as a rule,
new rings are always fitted once rings are removed from the piston. In case the engine has to be
dismantled at low mileage, due to some other defect, the rines should not be removed from the piston;
then they can be retained. While fitting new rings, select the proper ring for the riston to be used, i.e.,
standard size rings should be used for a standard size piston and oversize rings for the oversize piston.
However, before fitting new rings, the following checks may be made:

1. Side clearance. Place the new ring with its outer side in the piston ring groove and roll it
throughout the circumference. The ring should not stick, neither should it be excessively free. The side
clearance may be checked using a feeler gauge placed between the new ring and the ring groove side
and it should be within limits specified by the manufacturer, which are generally from 0.025 to 0.100
mm for all grooves except the top one for which both the limits are higher, i.e., from 0.040 to 0.150 mm.
2. End clearance. The clearance or the gap between the ring ends when fitted in the cylinder
should be more than the minimum specified, which is generally taken as 0.001 mm per mm of
circumference. If the gap is less than this amount, the ring ends will come together, butt against each
other and will ultimately break at higher temperatures.

To check the end clearance, the ring is placed in the cylinder bore slightly above the lowest point of ring
travel. Then the piston in the inverted position is placed on the ring and the ring moved down till it
comes to the position of lowest ring travel. By so doing, the ring becomes square with the cylinder sides.
The point of lowest ring travel is selected because it is here that the wear and hence the cylinder
diameter is minimum in the region of ring travel. The end clearance is then measured with a thickness
gauge. If the clearance is found to be less than the specified one, the same may be rectified by filing in a
special ring filing tool. In case of newly rebored cylinders, however, the cylinder diameter will be
uniform and, therefore, the end clearance may be checked at any convenient point.

CRANKSHAFT AND MAIN BEARINGS

Crankshaft

The crankshaft should be inspected for alignment and for wear of journal and the crankpin. For checking
the alignment, the crankshaft is supported at its end journals on V-blocks and the alignment is checked
by means of a dial gauge whose base is fixed at some suitable place. Instead of V-blocks, the crankshaft
may also be supported on lathe centres. But in this case care must be taken to ensure that the centres
and the centre holes should not be defective, otherwise the readings obtained will be wrong. While
placing the crankshaft on V-blocks or lathe centres as explained above, there is likelihood of the self
weight of the shaft causing bending. To avoid this, the crankshaft may be set on end. The permissible
limit of bending generally allowed is 0.08 mm. In case excessive bend is found, the crankshaft may be
straightened in a press.

The wear of the journal and the crank pin may be determined by measuring diameter at a number of
places, with a micrometer. The ovality and the taper is then determined. If either of these is found to be
more than 0.04 mm, the journals or pins, as the case may be, have to be ground or machined to next
undersize. If ovality and taper are within permissible limits, then light scratches, etc. can be honed and
then polished with a fine polishing paper or cloth. Polishing should be done in the direction opposite to
that of crankshaft rotation.

The oil passages in the crankshaft should also be inspected. If blocked, they may be cleaned with a Wire
brush. If the crankshaft has been reground or polished it is very important that it should be thoroughly
cleaned before reinstallation. A suitable solvent and wire brush should be used to clear out all oil
passages.If this is not done, any abrasive left in oil line will cause a very rapid wear of bearings. Lubricate
passage immediately after cleaning.

Main bearings
The main bearings should be inspected for wear. The bearing clearances may be determined by using
inside and outside micrometer or feeler gauge or plastic gage. If the clearances exceed tie specified
limits, the bearings have to be changed (in case of insert type) or remetalled (in case of cast typo. The
bearing may be changed either with the shaft removed or in position. It is not a good practice, however
to change the bearings without removing the crankshaft, because this way the condition of the saddle
NA, is not known. In case a new bearing is installed in the saddle bore which is too much oval and
tapered,, rapid bearing failure would result. For remetalling, however, the crankshaft has to be taken
out of the cylinder block.

To check the saddle bore, valve gear and other necessary components are removed and the engine
placed upside down. The oil pan is removed and the bearing cap nuts loosened to remove the crankshaft
With the bearings removed and the caps tightened again to the specified torque value, the diameter of
the saddle bore is measured at different places. In case the ovality of the bore is less than the specified
value (usually 0.05 mm), the standard bearings can be installed. However, if the ovality exceeds this
value, the saddle bores have to he line-bored to the original diameter. This is made possible by
accurately filing the cap machined surfaces by an amount which exceeds the ovality and then reboring.
The original size bearing may then be installed.

Sometimes when the journals have been ground undersize, fitting new bearings as above may not
reduce the bearing clearance to within permissible limits. In that case the semifinished bearings are
installed which arc rebored after installation, to the desired diameter.

For installation of bearings without removing the crankshaft, a special tool may be used' It is inserted in
the oil hole in the journal and the bearing shell is placed with its hole match the tool stem. The
crankshaft is then rotated which causes the tool to carry away the bearing shell underneath the shaft.
The second shell-half is placed over the shaft, the cap installed and the nuts tighten to specified torque
value.

Ignition System
An ignition system generates a spark or heats an electrode to a high temperature to ignite a fuel-air
mixture in spark ignition internal combustion engines oil-fired and gas-fired boilers, rocket engines, etc.
The widest application for spark ignition internal combustion engines is in petrol (gasoline) road
vehicles: cars (autos), four-by-fours (SUVs), motorcycles, pickups, vans, trucks, and buses. Compression
ignition Diesel engines ignite the fuel-air mixture by the heat of compression and do not need a spark.
They usually have glow plugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow starting in cold weather.
Other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition. While this was common for very early
engines, it is now rare.

MECHANICAL IGNITION
Most four-stroke engines have used a mechanically timed electrical ignition system. The heart of the
system is the distributor. The distributor contains a rotating cam driven by the engine's drive, a set of
breaker points, a condenser, a rotor and a distributor cap. External to the distributor is the ignition coil,
the spark plugs and wires linking the distributor to the spark plugs and ignition coil. The system is
powered by a lead-acid battery, which is charged by the car's electrical system using a dynamo or
alternator. The engine operates contact breaker points, which interrupt the current to an induction coil
(known as the ignition coil).

The ignition coil consists of two transformer windings — the primary and secondary. These windings
share a common magnetic core. An alternating current in the primary induces an alternating magnetic
field in the core and hence an alternating current in the secondary. The ignition coil's secondary has
more turns than the primary. This is a step-up transformer, which produces a high voltage from the
secondary winding. The primary winding is connected to the battery (usually through a current-limiting
ballast resistor). Inside the ignition coil one end of each winding is connected together. This common
point is taken to the capacitor/contact breaker junction. The other, high voltage, end of the secondary is
connected to the distributor's rotor.

The ignition firing sequence begins with the points (or contact breaker) closed. A steady current flows
from the battery, through the current-limiting resistor, through the primary coil, through the closed
breaker points and finally back to the battery. This current produces a magnetic field within the coil's
core. This magnetic field forms the energy reservoir that will be used to drive the ignition spark.

As the engine crankshaft turns, it also turns the distributor shaft at half the speed. In a four-stroke
engine, the crankshaft turns twice for the ignition cycle. A multi-lobed cam is attached to the distributor
shaft; there is one lobe for each engine cylinder. A spring-loaded rubbing block follows the lobed
portions of the cam contour and controls the opening and closing of points. During most of the cycle,
the rubbing block keeps the points closed to allow a current to build in the ignition coil's primary
winding. As a piston reaches the top of the engine's compression cycle, the cam's lobe is high enough to
cause the breaker points to open. Opening the points causes the current through the primary coil to
stop. Without the steady current through the primary, the magnetic field generated in the coil
immediately collapses. This high rate of change of magnetic flux induces a high voltage in the coil's
secondary windings that ultimately causes the spark plug's gap to arc and ignite the fuel.

The spark generation story is a little more complicated. The purpose of the ignition coil is to make a
spark that jumps the spark plug's gap, which might be 0.025 inches (0.64 mm) (it also has to jump the
rotor-to-distributor-post gap). At the moment the points open, there is a much smaller gap, say about
0.00004 inches (0.001 mm), across the points. Something must be done to prevent the points from
arcing as they separate; if the points arc, then they will drain the magnetic energy that was intended for
the spark plug. The capacitor (condenser) performs that task. The capacitor temporarily keeps the
primary current flowing so the voltage across the points is below the point's arcing voltage. There is a
race: the voltage across the points is increasing as the primary current charges the capacitor, but at the
same time the points' separation (and consequent arcing voltage) is increasing. Ultimately, the point
separation will increase to something such as 0.015 inches (0.38 mm), the maximum separation of the
points.

In addition to staying below the arcing voltage, the ignition system keep the voltage across the points
below the breakdown voltage for an air gap to prevent a glow discharge across the points. Such a glow
discharge would quickly transition to an arc, and the arc would prevent the spark plug from firing. The
minimum voltage for a glow discharge in air is about 320 V. Consequently, the capacitor value is chosen
to also keep the voltage across the points to be less than 320 V. Keeping the points from arcing when
they separate is the reason the ignition coil includes a secondary winding rather than using just a simple
inductor. If the transformer has a 100:1 ratio, then the secondary voltage can reach 30 kV.

The ignition coil's high voltage output is connected to the rotor that sits on top of the distributor shaft.
Surrounding the rotor is the distributor cap. The arrangement sequentially directs the output of the
secondary winding to the appropriate spark plugs. The high voltage from the coil's secondary (typically
20,000 to 50,000 volts) causes a spark to form across the gap of the spark plug that in turn ignites the
compressed air-fuel mixture within the engine. It is the creation of this spark which consumes the
energy that was stored in the ignition coil’s magnetic field. The flat twin cylinder 1948 Citroën 2CV used
one double ended coil without a distributor, and just contact breakers, in a wasted spark system.

ELECTRIC IGNITION

The disadvantage of the mechanical system is the use of breaker points to interrupt the low-voltage
high-current through the primary winding of the coil; the points are subject to mechanical wear where
they ride the cam to open and shut, as well as oxidation and burning at the contact surfaces from the
constant sparking. They require regular adjustment to compensate for wear, and the opening of the
contact breakers, which is responsible for spark timing, is subject to mechanical variations.

In addition, the spark voltage is also dependent on contact effectiveness, and poor sparking can lead to
lower engine efficiency. A mechanical contact breaker system cannot control an average ignition current
of more than about 3 A while still giving a reasonable service life, and this may limit the power of the
spark and ultimate engine speed.

Electronic ignition (EI) solves these problems. In the initial systems, points were still used but they
handled only a low current which was used to control the high primary current through a solid state
switching system. Soon, however, even these contact breaker points were replaced by an angular sensor
of some kind - either optical, where a vaned rotor breaks a light beam, or more commonly using a Hall
effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet mounted on the distributor shaft. The sensor output
is shaped and processed by suitable circuitry, then used to trigger a switching device such as a thyristor,
which switches a large current through the coil.