Energy 61 (2013) 612e620

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Effect of adding oxygen to the intake air on a dual-fuel engine

performance, emissions, and knock tendency
Mohsen M. Abdelaal, Basem A. Rabee, Abdelrahman H. Hegab*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11371, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Dual-fuel gas-diesel engines present an environmentally attractive substitute for conventional diesel
Received 17 May 2013 engines that operate with a finite resource petroleum fuel and emit large amount of harmful emissions.
Received in revised form However, this engine configuration, in which the gaseous fuel is used as a primary fuel while the diesel
6 September 2013
fuel is used as an ignition source, suffers from lower thermal efficiency, slower burning rate, and higher
Accepted 10 September 2013
CO (carbon monoxide) and HC (unburned hydrocarbon) emissions; particularly at part loads. Prolonged
Available online 3 October 2013
ignition delay and increased tendency to knock are other negative aspects of these engines.
The addition of oxygen to the intake air, commonly known as oxygen-enrichment, is expected to
Keywords:
Dual-fuel engine
partially resolve these problems. In the present experimental study, a single-cylinder DI (direct injection)
Natural gas diesel engine has been properly modified to run on dual-fuel mode with natural gas as a main fuel and
Diesel fuel diesel fuel as a pilot; with the ability to enrich the intake air with variable amounts of oxygen.
Oxygen-enrichment Comparative results are given for both plain dual-fuel (without oxygen-enrichment), and dual-fuel with
Combustion different percentages of oxygen-enrichment of the intake air, at different load conditions; revealing the
Emissions effect of adding oxygen to the intake air on engine performance, emissions, and knock tendency.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction without experiencing the knock phenomenon. Moreover, it mixes

uniformly with air, resulting in an efficient combustion to such an
Worldwide emissions standards are getting stricter in the extent that it can yield a high thermal efficiency comparable to the
courses of time, and therefore there is a continuous effort to diesel version at higher loads [1].
develop a new generation of clean internal combustion engines. In Concerning the utilization of natural gas in diesel engines, the
addition, it is well-known that current petroleum resources are most common natural gas-diesel operating mode is referred to as
finite and may be depleted within few decades. As internal com- the pilot ignited natural gas diesel engine. In this mode, most of the
bustion engines are being used extensively in the daily life, there is engine power output is provided by the gaseous fuel, while a pilot
a particular need to find more secure and sustainable fuel sources amount of the liquid diesel fuel, represents around 10% of the total
that meet the legislated reductions of exhaust gas emissions. fuel supplied to the engine at full load operation (energy basis), is
Among the alternative fuels, NG (natural gas) is the best injected near the end of the compression stroke to act as an ignition
candidate. Beside its availability in several areas worldwide at source of the gaseous fuel-air mixture. The engine power output is
encouraging prices, NG is an eco-friendly fuel that has a clean na- controlled by changing the amount of the primary gaseous fuel,
ture of combustion. It can substantially reduce the NOx (nitrogen while the pilot fuel quantity is kept constant [2]. In most applica-
oxides) emissions by approximately 50% while produces almost tions of this technique, natural gas is inducted or injected in the
zero smoke and PM (particulate matter); which is extremely diffi- intake manifold to mix uniformly with air, and the homogenous
cult to achieve in the DI (direct injection) diesel engines. It can also natural gas-air mixture is then introduced to the cylinder as a result
contribute to the reduction of CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions, due of the engine suction. During the last years, pilot ignited natural gas
to the low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio. In addition, NG has a high diesel engines have been considered by numerous researchers.
octane number, and hence high autoignition temperature. There- Combustion and exhaust emission characteristics of these engines
fore, it is suitable for engines with relatively high compression ratio [3], in addition to their knock characteristics [4], have been
experimentally investigated. Theoretical studies of this engine
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ20 100 8053552; fax: þ20 222 601706. configuration are also conduced [5]. Moreover, the effects of some
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (A.H. Hegab). important parameters, such as diesel pilot quantity [6], pilot

0360-5442/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.09.022
 M.M. Abdelaal et al. / Energy 61 (2013) 612e620 613

Nomenclature BSFC brake specific fuel consumption (kg fuel/kwh)

CA crank angle
CAD crank angle degree
Latin CNG compressed natural gas
Cp specific heat at constant pressure (J/kg.k) CO carbon monoxide
Cv specific heat at constant volume (J/kg.k) DI direct injection
p in-cylinder pressure (N/m2) EGR exhaust gas recirculation
Q heat (J) HC unburned hydrocarbon
V cylinder volume (m3) HHR heat release rate (J/CAD)
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
Greek NDIR non-dispersive infrared
g specific heat ratio () NG natural gas
q crank angle (deg) NO nitric oxide
NOx nitrogen oxides
Abbreviations PM particulate matter
BDC bottom dead center ROPR rate of pressure rise (bar/CAD)
BSEC brake specific energy consumption (MJ/kwh) TDC top dead center

injection timing [7], natural gas percentage [8], and natural gas burn rate and increases the laminar flame speed. It also improves
composition [9], have also been studied. the oxidation processes of HC, CO, and soot, while the cooling effect
It has been reported that the main disadvantages of this oper- of these fuels due to the higher latent heat of evaporation reduces
ating mode, in contrast with conventional diesel mode, are the NOx emissions. This has been demonstrated for diesel fuel blends
negative impacts on engine efficiency, and CO (carbon monoxide) with various oxygenated fuels, including ethanol [19], butanol [20],
and HC (hydrocarbon) emissions; particularly at low and interme- ethanol and butanol with methyl esters additions [21], and diethyl
diate loads. This is because of the very lean mixture that results in ether [22].
instable combustion and even misfire [10]. In addition, NG has a With regard to dual-fuel engines, it has been found that the
longer ignition delay, a slower burning rate, and a longer duration oxygen enrichment of a biogas-diesel dual-fuel engine enhances
of combustion; compared to diesel fuel operation at part loads [11]. the combustion stability and allows the utilization of a larger
The slower burning rate of the natural gas allows more time for amount of gaseous fuel on the account of the diesel pilot. Oxygen
heat transfer to the end gas; resulting in a tendency to knock [12]. addition also accelerates the pre-ignition reactions of diesel and
These shortcomings may be mitigated via the increase of the reduces the ignition delay. The overall mixture temperature, the
oxygen content of the engine cylinder. The increased oxygen con- peak in-cylinder pressure, and the thermal efficiency increase. NOx
centration in the combustion chamber is expected to cause a emissions also increase, while CO and HC emissions decrease [23].
considerable reduction of both CO and HC emissions, and a sub- Analogous results are obtained in a biogas-biodiesel dual-fuel en-
stantial drop in the diesel pilot smoke levels; as a result of gine, as the oxygen content of the biodiesel pilot imitates the effect
approaching a more complete combustion. At part loads, where the of oxygen enrichment with the conventional diesel pilot [24]. This
natural gas-air mixture is considerably lean, the addition of oxygen is also demonstrated for LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)-biodiesel
improves the combustion stability and prevents misfiring [13]. The dual-fuel engines [25].
more stable combustion reaction leads to an increased power In the context of these efforts, the present work aims at inves-
output, a better fuel economy, and an improved thermal efficiency tigating, experimentally, the potentials of adding oxygen to the
[14]. The oxygen addition also causes a large decrease in ignition intake air in a pilot ignited natural gas diesel engine. A complete set
delay, shortens the combustion duration, and thereby lowers the of measurements is conducted for both plain dual-fuel (without
tendency to knock [15]. oxygen-enrichment), and dual-fuel with different percentages of
In recent years, there have been continuous research efforts to oxygen-enrichment of the intake air; at different load conditions.
examine the effect of increasing the oxygen content of the cylinder, Detailed results are given for in-cylinder pressure data, engine
in both diesel and dual-fuel engines; either via the direct enrich- performance, and exhaust emissions analysis.
ment of the intake charge with pure oxygen, or via the utilization of
oxygenated fuels. For instance, it has been found that the direct 2. Experimental apparatus and conditions
enrichment of a diesel engine cylinder with oxygen leads to faster
burn rates and increases the combustibility. Consequently, the 2.1. Experimental apparatus
thermal efficiency and the engine specific power are increased. The
peak in-cylinder pressure also increases with oxygen enrichment The present study has been conducted on a Petter PH1W single
[16]. In addition, the increased oxygen concentration advances the cylinder, naturally aspirated, four-stroke, water cooled, DI diesel
ignition timing and accelerates the combustion process. It also engine with a bowl-in-piston combustion chamber. The engine
highly reduces smoke emissions. However, the increase of NOx specifications are given in Table 1. Schematic diagram of the test
emissions is a key issue for this technique, since the in-cylinder bed is shown in Fig. 1. The engine is properly modified to suit dual-
temperature increases with the increased oxygen content. This fuel operation; with natural gas as a main fuel and diesel fuel as a
can be moderated by using water emulsified diesel along with the pilot. The properties of both fuels are given in Table 2. The engine
oxygen enrichment [17]. EGR (exhaust gas recirculation) may also intake system is modified via the installation of a specially designed
be utilized [18]. Alternatively, the utilization of oxygenated fuel venture-type gas mixer that allows the introduction of natural gas,
blends in diesel engines is beneficial for both engine performance and oxygen when being employed, and mix them with the fresh air.
and emissions. The oxygen content of such fuel blends hastens the The mixture is then induced to the cylinder as a result of the engine
614 M.M. Abdelaal et al. / Energy 61 (2013) 612e620

Table 1 Table 2
Engine specifications. Properties of diesel fuel and natural gas.

Model Petter PH1W diesel engine Fuel Diesel Natural gas

a
Engine configuration Single cylinder, four-stroke, naturally Chemical formula C10.8H18.7
aspirated, water cooled Density (kg/m3) 830 0.695b
Bore 87.3 mm Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 43 49
Stroke 110 mm Flammability limits (% vol.) 0.6e5.5 5e15
Compression ratio 16.5:1 Laminar flame speed (cm/s) 5 34
Rated power and speed 8.2 bhp @ 2000 rpm Octane number N/A 120
(B.S. continuous rating) Cetane number 52 N/A
Fuel injection system Direct injection (DI) Auto-ignition temperature ( C) 220 580
Injection pressure 200 bar Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (AFRstoic, 14.3 16.82
Number of nozzle holes 3 kg air/kg fuel)
Nozzle hole diameter 0.25 mm a
Natural gas consists of various gas species; from which CH4 (methane) is the
Spray angle 120
main constituent (methane represents about 91% (v/v) of the natural gas used in the
Valve timing Opening Closing
present work). The equivalent chemical composition of natural gas may be
Intake 4.5 before TDC 35.5 after BDC
expressed as C1.16H4.32 [26].
Exhaust 5.5 before BDC 4.5 after TDC b
At normal temperature and pressure.

suction. A damping reservoir and orifice system is used to measure system. A variable-area rotameter is used to measure the diesel fuel
the mass flow rate of the inlet air supplied to the engine; elimi- flow rate.
nating the pulsation effect of the engine suction. The natural gas is A PCB Piezotronics combustion pressure sensor is used to
supplied through high-pressure (200 bar) commercial CNG (com- measure the pressure inside the engine cylinder. An inductive
pressed natural gas) bottles; typical to those used in vehicular ap- magnetic pickup sensor having a one degree resolution is used to
plications. A three-stage pressure regulator is used to reduce the indicate TDC (top dead center) position and regular intervals of
CNG pressure to a sub-atmospheric level suitable for the engine crank angular position as well. A Tektronix, two-channel, high-
suction. The gaseous fuel flow rate is measured by a specially- speed (400 MHz), digitizing, real-time oscilloscope, is used to
designed Pitot-tube connected to a low pressure transducer. The present, and record the output pressure-crank angle signals.
gaseous fuel, before entering the engine cylinder, passes through a An ADC multi-gas analyzer is used to measure exhaust gas
small tank to damp the pressure fluctuation resulting from the concentrations. Typically, CO and NO (nitric oxide) emissions are
engine suction. The enriching oxygen is supplied from a conven- measured using single-beam NDIR (non-dispersive infrared) tech-
tional compressed oxygen bottle; equipped with a pressure regu- nology, while O2 (oxygen) concentration is measured using para-
lating valve and a control valve. The oxygen flow rate is measured magnetic cell technology. A CAI flame ionization detector is used to
by a thermal mass flowmeter calibrated for oxygen. The diesel pilot measure the HC emissions. A Telonic Berkeley smoke meter is used
is supplied to the cylinder through the conventional diesel fuel to measure the smoke opacity.

Thermal
flowmeter

Damping
Intake air Orifice
reservoir
Exhaust
Fuel
tank

Digital Pressure Smokemeter

multimeter transducer Inclined
manometer
O2
Gas
T analyzers
Sampling
Pitot
Mixer line Exhaust gas CO
tube
Filter Conditioning NO, O2
Tank system HC
3-step Injection
pump
pressure
regulator S Injector
T Exhaust muffler

Pressure rps
sensor Electric
circuit

Spring
balance

Crank Charge 2-channel

CNG position amplifier oscilloscope
P sensor Magnetic
pickup
Wave
shaper
CNG
Flexible
coupling
PC
Engine Dynamometer

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the test bed.

 M.M. Abdelaal et al. / Energy 61 (2013) 612e620 615

Table 3 70
Absolute error and uncertainty of measured parameters. 21%O2
23%O2
Measured parameter Absolute error Uncertainty (%) 60 25%O2
Inlet air flow rate 0.357 m3/h

In-cylinder Pressure (bar)

2.05
27%O2
Diesel fuel flow rate 8.27  103 kg/h 2.7
50
Natural gas flow rate 1.284  102 m3/h 2.06
Oxygen flow rate 1.071  102 m3/h 1.55
Engine speed 0.25 rev/s 1 40
Engine torque 0.6 Nm 2
NO emission 2 ppm 2.35
CO emission 0.002% 2.5 30
O2 concentration 0.025% 0.69
HC emission 3 ppm 3.06
Smoke opacity 0.2% 3.08 20

10
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
2.2. Test conditions
CAD (deg)
The experiments have been conducted at constant engine speed
of 1600 rpm for a wide range of engine load; ranging from 43% up to Fig. 2. Pressure-CAD diagram for different oxygen concentrations at 43% of engine
96% of the engine rated load at this speed. At each test point, plain rated load.
dual-fuel operation (without oxygen-enrichment) is taken as a base
of comparison, and four ratios of oxygen-enrichment have been
the peak in-cylinder pressure. As widely recognized, ignition delay
examined, such that the intake air charge contains 23%, 25%, 27%
period in dual-fuel engines is inversely proportional to the partial
and 30% oxygen (normal air is assumed to contain 21% oxygen).
pressure of oxygen in the intake air, the effective temperature
In all experiments, the pilot amount of the liquid diesel fuel is
during compression, and the reaction activity [23]. Basically,
kept constant at 20% of the rated value under conventional diesel
oxygen-enrichment involves the replacement of some of the intake
operation, while the power output of the engine is adjusted
air with pure oxygen. As a consequence of this replacement, the
through controlling the amount of the natural gas.
partial pressure of the oxygen in the cylinder is increased while the
The inlet air temperature is 25  C, while the cooling water
nitrogen concentration is reduced. Accordingly, the heat dissipation
temperature is kept at 70  C  3  C.
is lowered and the in-cylinder temperature is raised to some extent.
The net HRR (heat release rate) can be calculated by the tradi-
The evaporation of the diesel pilot in the succeeding cycle is
tional first law equation [27]:
therefore likely to be faster due to the higher in-cylinder temper-
dQnet g dV 1 dp ature. Consequently, the diffusivity of the diesel vapor into the
¼ ,p, þ ,V, (1) oxidizer is improved and the reaction rate is promoted. Also, the
dq g1 dq g  1 dq
availability of free oxygen in the combustion zone reduces both
where (q) is the CA (crank angle), (p) is the in-cylinder pressure at a time and energy required for extracting oxygen from air to perform
given crank angle, (V) is the cylinder volume at that point, and (g) is the combustion process. That is, the pre-ignition reactions them-
the specific heat ratio (Cp/Cv). selves are actually speeded up and the combustion starts earlier
after a shorter ignition delay period [18]. The higher the oxygen-
3. Uncertainty analysis enrichment is employed, the shorter the ignition delay is attained.
The in-cylinder pressure, on the other side, is greatly dependent
To estimate the limiting error associated with each measured on combustion efficiency [27]. Principally, the increase of the ox-
parameter, comprehensive uncertainty analysis is conducted; ygen concentration promotes the combustion process and in-
based on the accuracy of the instrument used and the measured tensifies the flame region, as the process of fuel decomposition and
value [28]. Table 3 summarizes the uncertainty analysis of the
measured parameters in the present study.
21%O2
4. Results and discussion 70
23%O2
In-cylinder Pressure (bar)

25%O2
To visualize the various effects of adding oxygen to the intake air 60
27%O2
in a pilot ignited natural gas diesel engine, comparative results are
50
given in the following subsections for plain dual-fuel operation
(without oxygen-enrichment), and dual-fuel with different per-
40
centages of oxygen-enrichment of the intake air, for in-cylinder
pressure data, engine performance, and exhaust emissions analysis.
30

4.1. In-cylinder pressure data 20

4.1.1. Ignition delay and peak in-cylinder pressure 10

Figs. 2 and 3 show the pressure-CAD (crank angle degree) dia- 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
grams for plain dual-fuel and dual-fuel with different oxygen-
CAD (deg)
enrichment ratios, at 43% and 96% of the engine rated load;
respectively. It can be seen that at all loads, increasing the oxygen Fig. 3. Pressure-CAD diagram for different oxygen concentrations at 96% of engine
concentration decreases the ignition delay period while increases rated load.
616 M.M. Abdelaal et al. / Energy 61 (2013) 612e620

70 5.5
43% of rated load
60 21%O2 5

Max. ROPR (bar/deg)

23%O2 96% of rated load
50 4.5
Net HRR (J/deg)

25%O2
40 27%O2 4
30 3.5
20 3
10 2.5
0 2
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
-10
% Oxygen
CAD (deg)
Fig. 6. Maximum ROPR (representing combustion noise) versus oxygen concentration
Fig. 4. Net HRR diagram for different oxygen concentrations at 43% of engine rated
at 43% and 96% of engine rated load.
load.

indication that the oxygen addition reduces the ignition delay

oxidation is optimized. As a result, the heat transfer is reduced and
period; as early discussed. Further, it is also observed that the
the in-cylinder temperature is increased; indicating an enhanced
premixed combustion phase is reduced with the increase of
combustion [25]. In addition, oxygen-enrichment essentially re-
oxygen-enrichment ratio; as revealed by the lower value of the first
duces the local oxygen deficiencies present in the diesel pilot spray
peak of the HRR curve. This is a direct reflection of the reduced
core, where the elimination of these deficiencies substantiates the
ignition delay period as the oxygen concentration is increased [25].
combustion stability [29]. The ensuing efficient and more stable
The reduction of the ignition delay period reduces the amount of
combustion results in higher peak in-cylinder pressure. Further-
diesel pilot that could have been accumulated throughout that
more, the shorter ignition delay period associated with oxygen-
period. Whereas the auto-ignition of this accumulated diesel pilot
enrichment causes the whole combustion process to be advanced,
quantity takes place rapidly in few crank angel degrees; generating
and hence the peak in-cylinder pressure is attained closer to the
the first peak of the HRR curve, the reduction of that quantity as a
TDC at earlier stages of the expansion stroke; at higher values. To
result of experiencing a shorter ignition delay period considerably
summarize, increasing the oxygen concentration in the cylinder
lowers the HRR. Oxygen-enrichment brings about such conse-
increases the in-cylinder peak pressure due to the increased in-
quence. The effect is noticeable at high load, as shown in Fig. 5
cylinder temperature, the reduced local oxygen deficiencies, and
while it is negligible in part load, as shown in Fig. 4. This is
the shorter ignition delay. The higher the oxygen-enrichment is
attributed to the fuel introduction strategy employed in this engine
employed, the higher the peak in-cylinder pressure is attained.
configuration, where the diesel pilot quantity is kept constant
while the power output of the engine is adjusted through con-
4.1.2. HRR (heat release rate)
trolling the amount of the gaseous fuel. That is, at high load, the
Figs. 4 and 5 show the net HRR (Joule/CAD) diagrams for both
amount of the gaseous fuel employed is large and therefore it
plain dual-fuel and dual-fuel with different oxygen-enrichment
causes a considerable increase in the ignition delay. The effect of
ratios, at 43% and 96% of the engine rated load; respectively. For
oxygen-enrichment on reducing the elongated ignition delay and
both cases, it is clearly observed that the combustion starts earlier
hence on preventing diesel pilot accumulation is therefore
with the increase of oxygen-enrichment ratio; as revealed by the
considerable. Consequently, the premixed combustion phase is
sudden rise in the HRR curve at an earlier position. This is an
effectively reduced and the peak HRR is noticeably lowered. In
contrast, at part load, the amount of the gaseous fuel employed is
small and therefore the effect of oxygen-enrichment upon the
70 ignition delay, and hence upon the pilot accumulation and the
resulting peak HRR is negligible.
60 21%O2
50 23%O2 4.1.3. ROPR (rate of pressure rise)
Net HRR (J/deg)

25%O2 The pressure-time data is used to calculate the ROPR (rate of

40 27%O2 pressure rise), or the slope of the pressure-CAD curve, at each data
point. The maximum value of the ROPR data is then taken and
30
recorded, in units of bar/CAD, to represent the combustion noise at
20 the corresponding conditions [30].
Fig. 6 shows the maximum ROPR that may represent the com-
10 bustion noise, versus the oxygen concentration in the intake air, at
43% and 96% of the engine rated load. It can be seen that there is an
0
330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 evident coincidence between the combustion noise and the
-10 maximum HRR. This is expected as both HRR and ROPR are
dependent upon each other; according to equation (1). As discussed
CAD (deg)
above, the effect of oxygen-enrichment on reducing the peak HRR,
Fig. 5. Net HRR diagram for different oxygen concentrations at 96% of engine rated and hence on lowering the maximum ROPR that presents the
load. combustion noise, is considerable at high load where a large
 M.M. Abdelaal et al. / Energy 61 (2013) 612e620 617

30 8
6.69
28 7
Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

43% of rated load

Reduction in BSEC (%)

6 61% of rated load
26 5.21
78% of rated load
5 96% of rated load
24
43% of rated load 4
22 61% of rated load
78% of rated load 3
2.40
20 96% of rated load
2
18
1
0.52
16
0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
% Oxygen Fig. 8. Percentage of reduction in BSEC as oxygen concentration is increased from 21%
to 30% at different engine loads.
Fig. 7. Brake thermal efficiency versus oxygen concentration at different engine loads.

gaseous fuel is being used, and consequently, the mixture strength

amount of gaseous fuel is employed. Oxygen-enrichment is there- is increased. This results in an improvement in fuel utilization, as a
fore an effective way to demolish knock tendency of pilot ignited larger amount of the gaseous fuel is involved in the combustion
natural gas diesel engines at high load conditions. However, process [10]. The gaseous fuel-air mixture at these conditions
excessive oxygen addition at these conditions may lead to sever originally forms a sustainable flame, and therefore the oxygen-
knock, possibly due to the increase in the laminar flame speed, enrichment has almost no effect upon fuel economy and thermal
which causes the burned mixture to rapidly expand and compress efficiency.
the unburned gaseous fuel-air mixture; initiating the low-
temperature chemical reactions that lead to a knocking condition 4.2.2. BSEC (brake specific energy consumption)
[13]. The present work involves the utilization of two different types
On the other side, at part load, the effect of oxygen-enrichment of fuel; typically, diesel fuel and natural gas, with varying pro-
upon HRR, and consequently, upon ROPR and combustion noise is portions according to load conditions. Therefore, the use of BSFC
negligible. Yet, this is insignificant as there is no threat of engine (brake specific fuel consumption) as a measure of the fuel utiliza-
knock at part load since the peak ROPR is still quite modest. Even tion efficiency becomes inappropriate, since the two fuels have
with excessive oxygen addition, knocking condition is not attained, different calorific values and densities. BSEC (brake specific energy
probably since the laminar flame speed would not have increased consumption) is used, instead, as it is expressed in terms of energy
so much, and consequently, the unburned gaseous fuel-air mixture supplied to the engine not fuel mass, and hence the difference in
would not have been compressed fast enough to initiate such an caloric values between the two fuels is taken into consideration.
autoignition condition [13]. This ensures an accurate understanding of the total fuel energy
utilization and conversion at different operating modes.
4.2. Engine performance It has been found that, increasing the oxygen concentration in
the intake air reduces the BSEC; indicating a better fuel utilization
4.2.1. Brake thermal efficiency and energy conversion. As early discussed, oxygen-enrichment
Fig. 7 shows the brake thermal efficiency, versus the oxygen increases the reaction rates, hastens the burn rate, and increases
concentration in the intake air, at 43%, 61%, 78%, and 96% of the the laminar flame speed [13]. The promoted combustion and the
engine rated load. It can be seen that at low and intermediate loads, increased reaction activity enable larger portion of gaseous fuel to
increasing the oxygen concentration in the intake air increases the be entrained in the oxidation process; reducing the BSEC. In addi-
brake thermal efficiency, while oxygen-enrichment has almost no tion, the ignition delay period is reduced with oxygen addition, and
effect on the brake thermal efficiency at high load. This can be the subsequent intensified combustion takes place in such a way
interpreted by considering the mixture strength of each operating that the heat release of the fuel is mainly generated between the
load condition. At part load, the gaseous fuel and air form a very end of the compression stroke and the beginning of the expansion
lean mixture that cannot form a sustainable flame, and therefore a stroke, which causes a larger fraction of the fuel energy to be
large portion of the gaseous fuel escapes from the combustion converted to work [24]. BSEC is therefore reduced with oxygen-
process and goes with the exhaust; revealing poor fuel utilization enrichment. This is observed particularly at low and intermediate
efficiency [10]. Combustion stability deteriorates at such conditions loads where the mixture strength is very weak, as the effect of
and even misfire may occur. Principally, the addition of oxygen oxygen-enrichment at such conditions is more voluminous.
improves the combustion stability and prevents misfiring as the Nevertheless, the increased mixture strength at high load originally
partial oxidation reactions are accelerated [23]. It also intensifies improves the fuel utilization, and therefore the effect of oxygen-
the flame region as the process of fuel decomposition and oxidation enrichment at such case becomes tiny.
is optimized [25]. The more stable combustion reaction leads to an Fig. 8 illustrates the maximum reduction in BSEC attained as a
increased power output, a better fuel economy, and an improved result increasing the oxygen concentration in the intake air from
thermal efficiency [14]. The higher the oxygen-enrichment is 21% (normal air) to 30% (highest oxygen-enrichment used in the
employed, the more the increase in the brake thermal efficiency is present work), at different load conditions. It is clearly observed
attained. At high load, on the other hand, a larger amount of that with oxygen-enrichment, the improvement in fuel energy
618 M.M. Abdelaal et al. / Energy 61 (2013) 612e620

80 18

70 16
43% of rated load
60 14
61% of rated load
43% of rated load 78% of rated load

BSNO (g/kWhr)
12
BSHC (g/ kWhr)

50 61% of rated load 96% of rated load

78% of rated load 10
40
96% of rated load 8
30
6
20
4
10 2
0 0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
% Oxygen % Oxygen
Fig. 9. BSHC (brake specific unburned hydrocarbon) emission versus oxygen concen- Fig. 11. BSNO (brake specific nitric oxide) emission versus oxygen concentration at
tration at different engine loads. different engine loads.

utilization and conversion, as revealed by the reduction in BSEC, is

quenching at the combustion chamber wall may also occur; leaving
best at low load, and descends as the load increases.
a layer of unburned gaseous fuel-air mixture adjacent to the wall
[27]. Oxygen-enrichment at such conditions substantiates the
combustion process, improves the flame propagation, increases the
4.3. Exhaust emissions analysis
in-cylinder temperature, and enhances the oxidation of crevice and
deposit-layer hydrocarbon. In addition, the reduced ignition delay
4.3.1. HC (unburned hydrocarbon) and CO (carbon monoxide)
as a result of oxygen-enrichment eliminates the diesel pilot spray
The effect of oxygen-enrichment on HC (unburned hydrocar-
over-penetration; preventing the unwanted fuel impingement on
bon) and CO (carbon monoxide) emissions at different engine loads
the cylinder walls. It also reduces the amount of fuel mixed beyond
are shown in Figs. 9 and 10; respectively. As conceded, the variation
the lean flammability limit that is not able to auto-ignite or sustain
of HC emission in the exhaust gas is consistent with the quality of
a fast reaction front [22]. Consequently, both HC and CO emissions
the combustion process, while the rate of CO formation is a function
are considerably reduced. At high load conditions, on the other side,
of the unburned gaseous fuel availability and the mixture tem-
a large amount of gaseous fuel is being employed. At such cir-
perature [26]. It can be seen that the increase of oxygen concen-
cumstances, the increased mixture strength not the oxygen con-
tration in the intake air reduces both HC and CO emissions. The
centration is the key factor in improving combustion process and
effect is more voluminous at low and intermediate load conditions,
flame propagation. This is verified in the conventional operation of
where the mixture is very lean and the fuel utilization efficiency is
plain dual-fuel, where the increased mixture strength and the
poor. The very lean mixture brings about an unstable combustion in
improved fuel utilization efficiency naturally cause a dramatic
some operating cycle, where partial burn or even complete misfire
reduction in both HC and CO emissions [10]. Accordingly, the effect
may take place. Due to the reduced in-cylinder temperature, flame
of oxygen-enrichment upon reducing HC and CO emissions at high
load conditions is less influential.

35 43% of rated load

61% of rated load 4.3.2. NO (nitric oxide)
78% of rated load NO (Nitric oxide) emission forms inside the combustion cham-
30 96% of rated load ber in the post-flame gases in the high temperature region; as
described by the extended Zeldovich mechanism. The NO formed
25 according to such mechanism is referred to as “thermal NO”. It has
BSCO (g/ kWhr)

been demonstrated that there is a strong dependence of thermal

20 NO formation rate on temperature and oxygen concentration: NO is
exponentially proportional to the in-cylinder temperature and
15 directly proportional to the oxygen concentration of the cylinder
content [27]. Other than this, NO also forms in fuel-rich zones at
10 short residence time when an adequate amount of active radicals is
found; as described by the Fenimore prompt mechanism. Likewise,
5 the NO formed in accordance with such mechanism is referred to as
“prompt NO” [26]. In dual-fuel engine combustion, the diesel pilot
0 is injected near the end of the compression stroke to ignite the
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 gaseous-fuel air mixture. Ahead of the diesel pilot injection, the
gaseous fuel-air mixture undergoes pre-ignition chemical reactions
% Oxygen
during the relatively long compression stroke, where these re-
Fig. 10. BSCO (brake specific carbon monoxide) emission versus oxygen concentration actions result in the formation of active radicals and partial com-
at different engine loads. bustion products [2]. As soon as the diesel pilot is injected into the
 M.M. Abdelaal et al. / Energy 61 (2013) 612e620 619

cylinder, a distribution of equivalence ratios develops across the 30

pilot spray. Whereas the spray core is fairly rich, there is a nearly
stoichiometric region downstream the core where the combustion 43% of rated load
commences, while the fuel outside the spray boundary is mixed 25
leaner than the lean combustion limit [27]. Accordingly, NO for- 96% of rated load
mation in dual-fuel engine follows both routes: the thermal

Smoke Opacity (%)

20
mechanism and the prompt mechanism. Thermal NO is formed as a
result of the intense combustion of the diesel pilot that takes place
at nearly stoichiometric conditions, irrespective of the overall lean 15
mixture, due to spontaneous ignition and flame propagation. Flame
then propagates throughout the entire mixture, but the early stage
10
of the combustion process is especially important as the burned
gases are compressed to a higher temperature, increasing the
thermal NO formation rate [27]. Additionally, the rich-fuel spray 5
core is responsible for the prompt NO formation, particularly as the
cylinder contains a sufficient amount of active radicals formed
throughout the compression stroke as a consequence of the pre- 0
ignition chemical reactions of the gaseous fuel-air mixture. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Concerning the effect of oxygen-enrichment on NO formation, % Oxygen
Fig. 11 shows the variation of NO in the exhaust gas with the oxygen
Fig. 12. Smoke opacity (%) versus oxygen concentration at 43% and 96% of engine rated
concentration in the intake air; at different engine loads. It is clearly load.
observed that the oxygen-enrichment increases NO emission at all
load conditions. The higher the oxygen-enrichment is employed,
the higher the NO emission is formed via both mechanisms. Con- exhaust emissions of a pilot ignited natural gas diesel engine. Four
cerning thermal NO, the increased oxygen concentration increases ratios of oxygen-enrichment have been examined, such that the
the in-cylinder temperature for several reasons; as already dis- intake air charge contains 23%, 25%, 27% and 30% oxygen. The
cussed. Again, it promotes the combustion process and intensifies principal findings from this study are:
the flame region. It also reduces the ignition delay period and in-
crease the peak in-cylinder pressure. Furthermore, it reduces the (1) At all loads, oxygen-enrichment decreases the ignition delay
radiant heat loss during the combustion process as the soot for- period while increases the peak in-cylinder pressure. About
mation is reduced (the effect of oxygen-enrichment on soot emis- 5% increase in the peak in-cylinder pressure can be attained
sion is discussed in the next section) [31]. As a result, the in- at high load when the oxygen concentration of the cylinder is
cylinder temperature considerably increases and hence thermal increased from 21% (normal air) to 25%.
NO increases with oxygen-enrichment. With regard to prompt NO, (2) Oxygen-enrichment is an effective way to demolish knock
in turn, oxygen-enrichment enhances the pre-ignition reactions tendency of pilot ignited natural gas diesel engines at high
and increases the amount of active radicals; as already discussed. load. More than 18% reduction in the maximum ROPR can be
Prompt NO therefore increases with the increased oxygen con- attained when the oxygen concentration of the cylinder is
centration [31]. increased from 21% (normal air) to 25%.
(3) Oxygen-enrichment improves the engine performance and
4.3.3. Smoke opacity provides a better fuel economy. About 7% reduction in the
Smoke opacity of the exhaust gas is measured to quantify the BSEC can be attained when the oxygen concentration of the
PM (particulate matter) emitted by the engine. Whereas natural gas intake air is increased from 21% (normal air) to 30%.
produces almost zero smoke, the combustion of the diesel pilot is (4) At all loads, oxygen-enrichment reduces both HC and CO
characterized by the emission of PM. Fig. 12 shows the variation of emissions. The effect is more voluminous at low and inter-
smoke opacity of the exhaust gas with the oxygen concentration in mediate load conditions. About 28% reduction in brake spe-
the intake air, at 43% and 96% of the engine rated load. It is obvi- cific HC and CO emissions can be attained at medium load
ously noticed that the oxygen-enrichment highly reduces the when the oxygen concentration of the cylinder is increased
smoke opacity at all load conditions; indicating lower PM levels. from 21% (normal air) to 30%.
This is a natural consequence of the improved soot oxidation pro- (5) At all loads, oxygen-enrichment significantly increases NO
cess as the oxygen concentration and the in-cylinder temperature emission. Brake specific NO emission is multiplied four times
both increase. The increased oxygen concentration enables more when the oxygen concentration of the cylinder is increased
complete combustion, even in regions with fuel-rich flame in diesel from 21% (normal air) to 30%, at part load.
pilot spray core, and at the same time promotes the oxidation of the (6) At all loads, oxygen-enrichment substantially reduces diesel
already formed soot. In addition, the reduced ignition delay due to pilot PM. High oxygen-enrichment ratios at high load con-
the increased oxygen concentration enlarges the residence time of ditions may lead eventually to almost zero soot.
soot particles in a high temperature atmosphere, and consequently,
the soot oxidation process is further promoted [31]. Furthermore,
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