Energy Conservation and Management Name: Yashashree Gedam

Assignment No. 6 MIS: 111610042

Mobile No.: 7057551860

Q1. Name different types of power generation sources. Explain why power is generated at lower
voltage and transmitted at higher voltages. What do you understand by the term “Heat Rate”?
Ans:

Different types of power generation sources are:

 Conventional:
o Coal
o Oil
o Natural gas
 Non-Conventional:
o Hydro-energy (falling water)
o Solar
o Wind energy
o Bio waste
o Nuclear energy
o Cogeneration

The fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, nuclear energy, and falling water (hydro) are
commonly used energy sources in the power generating plant.

# Low voltage generation and High voltage transmission:

The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second (Hertz), alternating-current (AC) electricity with
voltages between 11kV and 33kV. At the power plant site, the 3-phase voltage is stepped up to a higher
voltage for transmission on cables strung on cross-country towers.

The primary reason that power is transmitted at high voltages is to increase efficiency. As
electricity is transmitted over long distances, there are inherent energy losses along the way. High voltage
transmission minimizes the amount of power lost as electricity flows from one location to the next. How?
The higher the voltage, the lower the current. The lower the current, the lower the resistance losses in
the conductors. And when resistance losses are low, energy losses are low also. Electrical
engineers consider factors such as the power being transmitted and the distance required for
transmission when determining the optimal transmission voltage.

There is also an economic benefit associated with high voltage transmission. The lower current
that accompanies high voltage transmission reduces resistance in the conductors as electricity flows along
the cables. This means that thin, light-weight wires can be used in long-distance transmission. As a result,
transmission towers do not need to be engineered to support the weight of heavier wires that would be
associated with a high current. These considerations make high voltage transmission over long distances
an economical solution.
 The power loss in line is proportional to resistance and square of current. (I.e. PLoss=I2R). Higher
voltage transmission and distribution thus would help to minimize line voltage drop in the ratio of
voltages, and the line power loss in the ratio of square of voltages. For instance, if distribution of power
is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV, the voltage drop would be lower by a factor 1/3 and the line loss would be
lower by a factor (1/3)2 i.e., 1/9. Lower voltage transmission and distribution also calls for bigger size
conductor on account of current handling capacity needed.

Heat Rate:

Where fuels are the source of generation, a common term used is the “HEAT RATE” which reflects the
efficiency of generation. “HEAT RATE” is the heat input in kilo Calories or kilo Joules, for generating ‘one’
kilo Watt-hour of electrical output. One kilo Watt hour of electrical energy being equivalent to 860 kilo
Calories of thermal energy or 3600 kilo Joules of thermal energy. The “HEAT RATE” expresses in inverse
the efficiency of power generation

Q2. What are the typical billing components of the two-part tariff structure of industrial utility?
Ans:

The tariff structure generally includes the following components:

a) Maximum demand Charges: These charges relate to maximum demand registered during
month/billing period and corresponding rate of utility.

b) Energy Charges: These charges relate to energy (kilowatt hours) consumed during month / billing
period and corresponding rates, often levied in slabs of use rates. Some utilities now charge on the basis
of apparent energy (kVAh), which is a vector sum of kWh and kVArh.

c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to contain reactive power drawn
from grid.

d) Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the increasing fuel expenses over
a base reference value.

e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.

f) Meter rentals

g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied sometimes on slab basis or on
actual metering basis.

h) Time Of Day (TOD): rates like peak and non-peak hours are also prevalent in tariff structure provisions
of some utilities.

i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand

j) Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the utilities

Q3. Explain how maximum demand control works. Explain the principle of automatic power factor
controller.
Ans:

In a macro perspective, the growth in the electricity use and diversity of end use segments in time
of use has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet demand. As capacity addition is costly and only a long time
prospect, better load management at user end helps to minimize peak demands on the utility
infrastructure as well as better utilization of power plant capacities.
The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff structure to influence end user in better
load management through measures like time of use tariffs, penalties on exceeding allowed maximum
demand, night tariff concessions etc. Load management is a powerful means of efficiency improvement
both for end user as well as utility.
As the demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the electricity bill, from user angle too
there is a need for integrated load management to effectively control the maximum demand.

For such conditions to apply load management to the system, Maximum Demand Controller is
used. A maximum demand controller is an energy-efficient electrical device which helps in controlling
the kW demand during high power usage periods by shedding non-critical loads. A substantial amount on
the electricity bills can be saved by controlling power usage and switching off non-essential loads during
such periods.

How it works:
A value is preset in the maximum demand controller when it is connected to the power line. When
the demand approaches this value an alarm is sounded. The alarm is a signal to take corrective action. If
the necessary action is not taken then the controller switches off less important loads in a sequence. In
some factories loads such as compressors, air conditioners, pumps, fans and extractors, packaging
machinery and shredders can be disconnected. The order in which the non-essential loads are
disconnected can be decided by the user and accordingly programmed into the device. The necessary
equipments are then restarted at the appropriate time.

Automatic Power Factor Controller:

Automatic power factor controller project is designed to improve power factor automatically
whenever power factor falls below a certain level. As you know demand of electrical energy is increasing
day by day. More and more inductive loads are being used in industry and domestic applications. Inductive
loads are main reason for low power factor in power system. Therefore we need to develop a method to
improve power factor automatically. Automatic power controller project provides solution to this
problem. Low power factor includes unnecessary burden on power system and transmission lines. By
improving power factor of power system automatically, power system efficiency can be improved. In this
project, power factor correction prototype is developed using pic microcontroller, relays, potential
transformer, current transformer and zero crossing circuit.

Principle and Working:

Power factor is a ratio of real power and apparent power. Ideal power factor is unity. Pure resistive
loads have unity power factor. But there is no such load exist. So we always try to make power factor close
to unity. reactive power is also reason of low power factor. Inductive loads absorb reactive power and
capacitive loads provides reactive power. So capacitor banks are used to improve power factor in power
factor correction circuit. By connecting capacitor banks parallel to load, power factor is increased.
capacitor provides reactive power locally to load instead of getting from generators or power system
which in return induces burden in power system. This is main objective of automatic power factor
controller.

Q4. Define contract demand and billing demand. What are the areas to be looked into for maximum
demand reduction in industry?
Ans:

Contract demand is the amount of electric power that a customer demands from utility in a specified
interval (Unit used is kVA or kW).

Billing demand is the maximum amount of power that a customer used in any interval (typically 15
minutes) during the billing cycle.

# The areas to be looked into for Maximum Demand Control:

1. Load Curve Generation

Presenting the load demand of a consumer against time of the day is known as a ‘load curve’. If it is plotted
for the 24 hours of a single day, it is known as an ‘hourly load curve’ and if daily demands plotted over a
month, it is called ‘daily load curve’. A typical hourly load curve for an engineering industry is shown in
Figure. These types of curves are useful in predicting patterns of drawl, peaks and valleys and energy use
trend in a section or in an industry or in a distribution network as the case may be.

2. Rescheduling of Loads
Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations, in different shifts can be planned and
implemented to minimize the simultaneous maximum demand. For this purpose, it is advisable to prepare
an operation flow chart and a process chart. Analysing these charts and with an integrated approach, it
would be possible to reschedule the operations and running equipment in such a way as to improve the
load factor which in turn reduces the maximum demand.
3. Storage of Products/in process material/ process utilities like refrigeration
It is possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity of products/ materials,
water, chilled water / hot water, using electricity during off peak periods. Off peak hour operations also
help to save energy due to favourable conditions such as lower ambient temperature etc.
Example: Ice bank system is used in milk & dairy industry. Ice is made in lean period and used in peak load
period and thus maximum demand is reduced.

4. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads

When the maximum demand tends to reach preset limit, shedding some of non-essential loads
temporarily can help to reduce it. It is possible to install direct demand monitoring systems, which will
switch off non-essential loads when a preset demand is reached. Simple systems give an alarm, and the
loads are shed manually. Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are also available, which
provide a wide variety of control options like:
 Accurate prediction of demand
 Graphical display of present load, available load, demand limit
 Visual and audible alarm
 Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence
 Automatic restoration of load
 Recording and metering
5. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets
When diesel generation sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electric utilities, it is
advisable to connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the peak value. This would reduce
the load demand to a considerable extent and minimize the demand charges.

6. Reactive Power Compensation

The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by using capacitor banks and maintaining
the optimum power factor. Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor based control systems.
These systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to maintain the desired Power factor of system and
optimize maximum demand thereby.

Q5. List at least five measures on How Energy Efficiency can be achieved in Electrical System.
Ans:

 Installation of Capacitor Bank to improve Power Factor.

 Reduce Peak Load/ Load management
 Use Efficient motors
 Replace old and rewound motors
 Install optimal capacity of equipment i.e., transformer, generators, motors, etc.
 Reduction in compressor pressure settings.
 Arresting the compressed air leakages.
 Replacing low efficient pumps with high efficient pumps.
 Replacement of metal blades with FRP blades in CT fans.
 Use Efficient lighting.
Q6. What is the relation between RPM (speed) and frequency of an induction motor? List the losses
in induction motors and their expected percentage out of the total losses.
Ans:

Motor speed is defined as the relation between RPM i.e. synchronous speed and frequency.

The speed of a motor is the number of revolutions in a given time frame, typically revolutions per
minute (RPM). The speed of an AC motor depends on the frequency of the input power and the number
of poles for which the motor is wound. The synchronous speed in RPM is given by the following equation,
where the frequency is in hertz or cycles per second:
Synchronous Speed (RPM) = 120 x Frequency / No. of Poles

Indian motors have synchronous speeds like 3000 / 1500 / 1000 / 750 / 600 / 500 / 375 RPM corresponding
to no. of poles being 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 16 (always even) and given the mains frequency of 50 cycles /
sec.

The actual speed, with which the motor operates, will be less than the synchronous speed. The
difference between synchronous and full load speed is called slip and is measured in percent. It is
calculated using this equation:

Slip (%) = (Synchronous Speed - Full Load Rated Speed) ×100 / Synchronous Speed

As per relation stated above, the speed of an AC motor is determined by the number of motor poles and
by the input frequency. It can also be seen that theoretically speed of an AC motor can be varied infinitely
by changing the frequency. Manufacturer’s guidelines should be referred for practical limits to speed
variation. With the addition of a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), the speed of the motor can be decreased
as well as increased.

# Losses in Induction Motor:

The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that can be reduced only by changes in motor
design. Intrinsic losses are of two types:
 fixed losses- independent of motor load, and
 Variable losses - dependent on load.

(a)Fixed losses consist of magnetic core losses and friction and windage losses.

Magnetic-core losses (sometimes called iron losses) consist of eddy current and hysteresis losses in the
stator. They vary with the core material and geometry and with input voltage.
Friction and windage losses are caused by friction in the bearings of the motor and aerodynamic losses
associated with the ventilation fan and other rotating parts.

1. Core Losses
Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to hysteresis
effect and eddy current effect during 50 Hz magnetization of the core material. These losses are
independent of load and account for 20 – 25 % of the total losses.
The hysteresis losses which are a function of flux density, are be reduced by utilizing low-loss
grade of silicon steel laminations. The reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable increase in
the core length of stator and rotor. Eddy current losses are generated by circulating current within
the core steel laminations. These are reduced by using thinner laminations.
 2. Friction and Windage Losses
Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction, windage and circulating air
through the motor and account for 8 – 12 % of total losses. These losses are independent of load.
The reduction in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permit the use of smaller fan. The
windage losses also reduce with the diameter of fan leading to reduction in windage losses.

(b)Variable losses consist of resistance losses in the stator and in the rotor and miscellaneous stray
losses. Resistance to current flow in the stator and rotor result in heat generation that is proportional to
the resistance of the material and the square of the current (I2R). Stray losses arise from a variety of
sources and are difficult to either measure directly or to calculate, but are generally proportional to the
square of the rotor current.

1. Stator and Rotor I2R Losses

These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the total losses. I2R
losses are heating losses resulting from current passing through stator and rotor conductors. I2R
losses are the function of a conductor resistance, the square of current. Resistance of conductor
is a function of conductor material, length and cross sectional area. The suitable selection of
copper conductor size will reduce the resistance. Reducing the motor current is most readily
accomplished by decreasing the magnetizing component of current. This involves lowering the
operating flux density and possible shortening of air gap. Rotor I2R losses are a function of the
rotor conductors (usually aluminium) and the rotor slip. Utilisation of copper conductors will
reduce the winding resistance. Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce
rotor I2R losses.

2. Stray Load-Losses
These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by leakage flux
induced by load currents in the laminations and account for 4 to 5 % of total losses. These losses
are reduced by careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot geometry and air gap.

Q7. What are the types of electrical motors used in industrial practice? List the factors affecting
energy efficiency of electric motors? What are the precautions to be taken in the case of energy
efficient motor application?
Ans:

Induction Motors
Induction motors are the most commonly used prime mover for various equipments in
industrial applications. In induction motors, the induced magnetic field of the stator winding
induces a current in the rotor. This induced rotor current produces a second magnetic field, which
tries to oppose the stator magnetic field, and this causes the rotor to rotate.
The 3-phase squirrel cage motor is the workhorse of industry; it is rugged and reliable, and
is by far the most common motor type used in industry. These motors drive pumps, blowers and
fans, compressors, conveyers and production lines. The 3-phase induction motor has three
windings each connected to a separate phase of the power supply.

Direct-Current Motors
Direct-Current motors, as the name implies, use direct-unidirectional, current. Direct
current motors are used in special applications- where high torque starting or where smooth
acceleration over a broad speed range is required.
Synchronous Motors
AC power is fed to the stator of the synchronous motor. The rotor is fed by DC from a
separate source. The rotor magnetic field locks onto the stator rotating magnetic field and rotates
at the same speed. The speed of the rotor is a function of the supply frequency and the number
of magnetic poles in the stator. While induction motors rotate with a slip, i.e., rpm is less than the
synchronous speed, the synchronous motor rotate with no slip, i.e., the RPM is same as the
synchronous speed governed by supply frequency and number of poles. The slip energy is provided
by the D.C. excitation power.

Factors affecting Energy Efficiency of the motors:

1. Power Supply Quality

Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input power that is the actual volts and
frequency available at motor terminals. The BIS standards specify that a motor should be capable of
delivering its rated output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and frequency variation of +/- 3 %. Voltage
fluctuations can have detrimental impacts on motor performance.

2. Reducing Under-loading
Under-loading results in lower efficiency and power factor, and higher-than-necessary first cost for the
motor and related control equipment. Under-loading of the motor may also occur from under-utilisation
of the equipment. Finally, under-loading also results from selecting a large motor for an application
requiring high starting torque where a special motor, designed for high torque, would have been
suitable. A careful evaluation of the load would determine the capacity of the motor that should be
selected.

3. Power Factor Correction

As noted earlier, induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to lower
overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost) associated with a plant’s electrical system.
Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically used to improve the power
factor.

4. Maintenance
Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses and lead to unreliable operation. For
example, improper lubrication can cause increased friction in both the motor and associated drive
transmission equipment. Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with temperature, would increase.
Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts clean can help dissipate heat to reduce
excessive losses. The life of the insulation in the motor would also be longer: for every 100C increase in
motor operating temperature over the recommended peak, the time before rewinding would be
needed is estimated to be halved.

5. Age
Poor maintenance (inadequate lubrication of bearings, insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.)
can cause a deterioration in motor efficiency over time. Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental
effect on motor performance. For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust loading, corrosive
atmosphere, and humidity can impair insulation properties; mechanical stresses due to load cycling can
lead to misalignment. However, with adequate care, motor performance can be maintained.

Precautions to be taken in the case of energy efficient motor application:

 Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce frictional losses) and for
dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
 Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded. A change in motor
load from the last test indicates a change in the driven load, the cause of which should be
understood.
 Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations for how and when to
lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as noted above. Over-
lubrication can also create problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter
the motor and saturate the motor insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire risk.
 Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven equipment.
Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to both
the motor and the driven equipment.
 Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed. Inspect regularly the
connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.

Q8. List factors affecting windage and friction losses while rewinding. What are the factors affecting
core losses while rewinding?
Ans:

The friction and windage losses can be increased by:-

 Badly fitted bearings, excessive interference fits

 The addition or use of incorrect seals, lack of seal lubricant, or damage to shaft surface (lip seals)
or end bracket surface (face seals)
 Installing an incorrect replacement fan
 Over-greasing the bearings.

An increase in the core losses can be caused by

 Mechanical damage to the core

 Thermal damage to the core
 Electromagnetic changes
Mechanical stress in the core will increase the hysteresis loss, as might happen if the core is fitted into a
new frame with an undersized bore. The practice of hammering stator teeth back into place after stripping
will result in increased hysteresis locally as a result of the residual stress.
Eddy current loss will increase if the insulation between adjacent laminations is damaged, for example by
burring together by filing or by accidental impact.

Q9. How does efficiency loss occur in a rewound motor? How do you check the efficacy of rewound
motor?
Ans:
It is common practice in industry to rewind burnt-out motors. The population of rewound motors
in some industries exceed 50 % of the total population. Careful rewinding can sometimes maintain motor
efficiency at previous levels, but in most cases, losses in efficiency result. Rewinding can affect a number
of factors that contribute to deteriorated motor efficiency: winding and slot design, winding material,
insulation performance, and operating temperature. For example, a common problem occurs when heat
is applied to strip old windings: the insulation between laminations can be damaged, thereby increasing
eddy current losses. A change in the air gap may affect power factor and output torque.
However, if proper measures are taken, motor efficiency can be maintained, and in some cases
increased, after rewinding. Efficiency can be improved by changing the winding design, though the power
factor could be affected in the process. Using wires of greater cross section, slot size permitting, would
reduce stator losses thereby increasing efficiency. However, it is generally recommended that the original
design of the motor be preserved during the rewind, unless there are specific, load-related reasons for
redesign.

To check efficacy of the rewound motor:

The impact of rewinding on motor efficiency and power factor can be easily assessed if the no-
load losses of a motor are known before and after rewinding. Maintaining documentation of no-load
losses and no-load speed from the time of purchase of each motor can facilitate assessing this impact.
For example, comparison of no load current and stator resistance per phase of a rewound motor
with the original no-load current and stator resistance at the same voltage can be one of the indicators
to assess the efficacy of rewinding.

Q10. List methods by which speed control of motor can be achieved. Explain the principle of automatic
power factor controller.
Ans:

By controlling the armature (rotor) voltage and field current of a separately excited DC motor, a wide
range of output speeds can be obtained. Both AC synchronous and induction motors are suitable for
variable speed control.

 Multi-speed motors: Motors can be wound such that two speeds, in the ratio of 2:1, can be
obtained. Motors can also be wound with two separate windings, each giving 2 operating speeds,
for a total of four speeds. Multi-speed motors can be designed for applications involving constant
torque, variable torque, or for constant output power.
  Adjustable Frequency AC Drives: Adjustable frequency drives are also commonly called inverters.
The basic drive consists of the inverter itself which converts the 50 Hz incoming power to a variable
frequency and variable voltage. The variable frequency is the actual requirement, which will
control the motor speed.

 Direct Current Drives (DC): The DC drive technology is the oldest form of electrical speed control.
The drive system consists of a DC motor and a controller. The motor is constructed with armature
and field windings. Both of these windings require a DC excitation for motor operation. Usually
the field winding is excited with a constant level voltage from the controller. Then, applying a DC
voltage from the controller to the armature of the motor will operate the motor. The armature
connections are made through a brush and commutator assembly. The speed of the motor is
directly proportional to the applied voltage. The controller is a phase controlled bridge rectifier
with logic circuits to control the DC voltage delivered to the motor armature. Speed control is
achieved by regulating the armature voltage to the motor. Often a tacho-generator is included to
achieve good speed regulation. The tacho would be mounted on the motor and produces a speed
feedback signal that is used within the controller.

 Wound Rotor AC Motor Drives (Slip Ring Induction Motors): Wound rotor motor drives use a
specially constructed motor to accomplish speed control. The motor rotor is constructed with
windings which are brought out of the motor through slip rings on the motor shaft. These windings
are connected to a controller which places variable resistors in series with the windings.

Automatic power factor controller is designed to improve power factor automatically whenever power
factor falls below a certain level.

Power factor is a ratio of real power and apparent power. Ideal power factor is unity. Pure resistive loads
have unity power factor. But there is no such load exists. So we always try to make power factor close to
unity. Reactive power is also reason of low power factor. Inductive loads absorb reactive power and
capacitive loads provide reactive power. So capacitor banks are used to improve power factor in power
factor correction circuit. By connecting capacitor banks parallel to load, power factor is increased.
Capacitor provides reactive power locally to load instead of getting from generators or power system
which in return induces burden in power system. This is main objective of automatic power factor
controller

Q11. Explain the terms Soft-Starters and Start-Delta change in Induction Motors.
Ans:

Soft-starters:

 A soft starter is any device which controls the acceleration of an electric motor by means of
controlling the applied voltage.
 An Induction motor has the ability to self-start owing to the interaction between the rotating
magnetic field flux and the rotor winding flux, causing a high rotor current as torque is increased.
As a result the stator draws high current and by the time the motor reaches to full speed, a large
amount of current (greater than the rated current) is drawn and this can cause heating up of the
motor, eventually damaging it. To prevent this, motor starters are needed.
  In technical terms, a soft starter is any device which reduces the torque applied to the electric
motor. It generally consists of solid state devices like thyristors to control the application of supply
voltage to the motor.
 The starter works on the fact that the torque is proportional to the square of the starting current,
which in turn is proportional to the applied voltage. Thus the torque and the current can be
adjusted by reducing the voltage at the time of starting the motor.

Star delta starter:

 A star delta starter is the most commonly used method for the starting of a 3 phase induction
motor.
 In star delta starting an induction motor is connected in through a star connection throughout the
starting period. Then once the motor reaches the required speed, the motor is connected in
through a delta connection.
 A star delta starter is a type of reduced voltage starter, used to reduce the starting current of the
motor without using any external device or apparatus.

Q12. Explain the terms Average Load, Peak Load, Load Factor, Power Factor and Load Scheduling.
Ans:

Average load: The average demand or average load is defined as the total energy delivered in a certain
period divided by the time interval.

Peak load: A peak load is the maximum load on an electrical power-supply system.

Load factor: Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average load over a given period to the maximum
demand (peak load) occurring in that period. In other words, the load factor is the ratio of energy
consumed in a given period of the times of hours to the peak load which has occurred during that
particular period.

Power factor: Power factor (PF) is the ratio of working power, measured in kilowatts (kW), to apparent
power, measured in kilovolt amperes (kVA).

Load scheduling: Load scheduling is one form of load management action that allows companies to
save energy by minimizing their demand. In order to have an efficient load schedule operation, the
energy manager or business should conduct power logging and record all sessions so as to measure the
usage of energy over a specific time.
Q13. Explain why centrifugal machines offer the greatest savings when used with Variable Speed
Drives.
Ans:

Variable speed drives, and the loads that are applied to, can generally be divided into two groups:
constant torque and variable torque. The energy savings potential of variable torque applications is much
greater than that of constant torque applications. Constant torque loads include vibrating conveyors,
punch presses, rock crushers, machine tools, and other applications where the drive follows a constant
V/Hz ratio. Variable torque loads include centrifugal pumps and fans, which make up the majority of HVAC
applications.
In variable torque applications, the torque required varies with the square of the speed, and the
horsepower required varies with the cube of the speed, resulting in a large reduction of horsepower for
even a small reduction in speed. The motor will consume only 12.5% as much energy at 50% speed as it
will at 100% speed. This is referred to as the Affinity Laws, which define the relationships between speed,
flow, torque, and horsepower. The following laws illustrates these relationships:
 Flow is proportional to speed
 Head is proportional to (speed)2
 Torque is proportional to (speed)2
 Power is proportional to (speed)3

Q14. Define motor efficiency. Why it is difficult to measure motor efficiency at site? A 4 pole motor is
operating at a frequency of 50 Hz. Find the RPM of the motor?
Ans:

It is defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy delivered at the rotating shaft to the electrical energy
input at its terminals. It is simply sthe ratio of output power of the motor to the input power of the motor.

Where, Pout = output power of the motor

Pin = input power of the motor
Ploss = losses occurring in the motor

The following are the testing standards widely used.

Europe: IEC 60034-2, and the new IEC 61972

US: IEEE 112 - Method B
Japan: JEC 37

Even between these standards the difference in efficiency value is up to 3%. While input power
measurements are fairly simple, measurement of output or losses need a laborious exercise with
extensive testing facilities. Thus it is difficult to measure motor efficiency at site.

Problem: Given data:-

A 4-pole motor, at frequency 50Hz,
 f= 50Hz
p=4

RPM = (f*120)/p
= 50*120/4
= 1500rpm

Q15. What are the two factors influencing the speed of induction motor?
Ans:

The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the AC voltage applied to it, as well
as the number of poles in the motor stator. This is expressed by the equation:

RPM = (f x 120) / p

Where f = frequency in Hz, and

p = number of poles in any multiple of 2.
Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed changes in direct proportion
to the frequency change.

Q16. Describe the various methods by which you calculate motor loading. If no instrument other than
tachometer is available, what method you would suggest for measuring the motor load?
Ans:

Determining Motor loading:

1. By Input Power Measurements

• First measure input power Pi with a hand held or in-line power meter
Pi = Three-phase power in kW
• Note the rated kW and efficiency from the motor name plate
• The figures of kW mentioned in the name plate is for output conditions.
So corresponding input power at full-rated load
Pir = (nameplate full rated load kW) / ηfl
Where, ηfl = Efficiency at full-rated load
Pir = Input power at full-rated load in kW

The percentage loading can now be calculated as follows

Load = (Pi / Pir) X 100 %

2. By Line Current Measurements

The line current load estimation method is used when input power cannot be measured and only
amperage measurements are possible. The amperage draw of a motor varies approximately linearly with
respect to load, down to about 75% of full load. Below the 75% load point, power factor degrades and the
amperage curve becomes increasingly non-linear. In the low load region, current measurements are not
a useful indicator of load.

However, this method may be used only as a preliminary method just for the purpose of identification of
oversized motors.
%Load = Input load current/Input rated current *100

3. Slip Method

In the absence of a power meter, the slip method can be used which requires a tachometer. This method
also does not give the exact loading on the motors.

Load = Slip/ (Ss-Sr) X 100

Where:
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm at the operating frequency
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed

If no other instrument other than tachometer is available than the slip method is the method that can
be used for measurement of load calculations. The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is
often favoured due to its simplicity and safety advantages.

Q17. What are the limitations of slip method in determining motor loading? A 20 kW rated motor is
drawing actual measured power of 14 kW. If the rated efficiency is 92%, determine the motor loading?
Ans:

The accuracy of the slip method, however, is limited. The largest uncertainty relates to the accuracy with
which manufacturers report the nameplate full-load speed. Manufacturers generally round their reported
full-load speed values to some multiple of 5 rpm. While 5 rpm is but a small percent of the full-load speed
and may be considered as insignificant, the slip method relies on the difference between full-load
nameplate and synchronous speeds. Given a 40 rpm “correct” slip, a seemingly minor 5 rpm disparity
causes a 12% change in calculated load.
Slip also varies inversely with respect to the motor terminal voltage squared. A voltage correction factor
can, also, be inserted into the slip load equation. The voltage compensated load can be calculated as
shown

Where:
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
V = RMS voltage, mean line to line of 3 phases
Vr = Nameplate rated voltage

Problem: Given: - Nameplate details of motor=20 kW

Actual power drawn= 14 kW
Efficiency= 0.92
Input power at full rated power in kW, Pi = 20/0.92
=21.739
Percentage loading = 14/21.739
= 64.4%

Q18. What are the two factors influencing the speed of induction motor? A 4 pole motor is operating
at a frequency of 50 Hz. Find the RPM of the motor?
Ans:

Induction motors are the most commonly used prime mover for various equipment in industrial
applications. In induction motors, the induced magnetic field of the stator winding induces a current in
the rotor. This induced rotor current produces a second magnetic field, which tries to oppose the stator
magnetic field, and this causes the rotor to rotate. The 3-phase squirrel cage motor is the workhorse of
industry; it is rugged and reliable, and is by far the most common motor type used in industry. These
motors drive pumps, blowers and fans, compressors, conveyers and production lines. The 3-phase
induction motor has three windings each connected to a separate phase of the power supply.

The speed of a motor is the number of revolutions in a given time frame, typically revolutions per
minute (RPM). The speed of an AC motor depends on the frequency of the input power and the number
of poles for which the motor is wound. The synchronous speed in RPM is given by the following equation,
where the frequency is in hertz or cycles per second:

Synchronous Speed (RPM) = 120 X Frequency/ No.of Poles

Indian motors have synchronous speeds like 3000 / 1500 / 1000 / 750 / 600 / 500 / 375 RPM
corresponding to no. of poles being 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 (always even) and given the mains frequency of
50 cycles / sec.

The actual speed, with which the motor operates, will be less than the synchronous speed. The
difference between synchronous and full load speed is called slip and is measured in percent. It is
calculated using this equation:

Slip (%) =( Synchronous Speed - Full Load Rated speed/ Synchronous Speed) X 100

As per relation stated above, the speed of an AC motor is determined by the number of motor
poles and by the input frequency. It can also be seen that theoretically speed of an AC motor can be varied
infinitely by changing the frequency. Manufacturer’s guidelines should be referred for practical limits to
speed variation. With the addition of a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD), the speed of the motor can be
decreased as well as increased.

Problem: Given data:-

A 4-pole motor, at frequency 50Hz,

f= 50Hz
p=4

RPM = (f*120)/p
= 50*120/4
= 1500rpm

Q19. What are the types of commonly used lamps? What is the function of ballast in a lighting system?
Explain how electronic ballast saves energy?
Ans:

Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are described briefly as follows:

• Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by the flow of electric
current through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as GLS (General Lighting
Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas and the cap.

• Reflector lamps:
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror, which follows
exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus making the lamp
maintenance free and output efficient.

• Gas discharge lamps:

The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in either a tubular or
elliptical outer bulb.

The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:

 Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)

 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
 Mercury Vapour Lamps
 Sodium Vapour Lamps
 Metal Halide Lamps

Ballast:
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any discharge lamps. In case of
fluorescent lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting. Installation of high frequency
(HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts
New high frequency (28-32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the traditional
magnetic ballasts:

 Energy savings up to 35%

 Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load
 Lights instantly
 Improved power factor
 Operates in low voltage load
 Less in weight
 Increases the life of lamp

The advantage of HF electronic ballasts, outweigh the initial investment (higher costs when compared
with conventional ballast). In the past the failure rate of electronic ballast in Indian Industries was high.
Recently, many manufacturers have improved the design of the ballast leading to drastic improvement in
their reliability. The life of the electronic ballast is high especially when, used in a lighting circuit fitted
with an automatic voltage stabilizer.

Q20. What are the types of commonly used lamps? Explain the meaning of: Illuminance, Luminous
efficacy, Luminaire, Control gear, and Colour rendering index. What is the function of ballast in a lighting
system?
Ans:

Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are described briefly as follows:

• Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by the flow of electric
current through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as GLS (General Lighting
Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas and the cap.

• Reflector lamps:
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror, which follows
exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus making the lamp
maintenance free and output efficient.

• Gas discharge lamps:

The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in either a tubular or
elliptical outer bulb.

The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:

 Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)

 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
 Mercury Vapour Lamps
 Sodium Vapour Lamps
 Metal Halide Lamps
Illuminance

This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a point of surface
containing the point, by the area of that element.
The lighting level produced by a lighting installation is usually qualified by the illuminance produced on a
specified plane. In most cases, this plane is the major plane of the tasks in the interior and is commonly
called the working plane. The illuminance provided by an installation affects both the performance of the
tasks and the appearance of the space.

Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the lamp. It is a reflection
of efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light form.

Luminaire

Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light emitted from one or more lamps. The
luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps, except the lamps
themselves. In some cases, luminaires also include the necessary circuit auxiliaries, together with the
means for connecting them to the electric supply. The basic physical principles used in optical luminaire
are reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.

Control Gear

The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:

 Ballast:
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any discharge lamps. In case
of fluorescent lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting.

 Igniters:
These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium vapour lamps.

Colour Rendering Index (RI)

Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given light source confirm to
those of the same surfaces under a reference illuminant; suitable allowance having been made for the
state of Chromatic adaptation.
Q21. Explain briefly about various lighting controls available?
Ans:

The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is "On- Off" switch.
The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operational costs may be high.
This does not provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not required. Hence, a flexible
lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduction in lighting level, when not
needed. The following light control systems can be adopted at design stage:

• Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control

Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.

• Installation of microprocessor based controllers

Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or switching
circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling, which can
take pre-programme commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting control
system uses movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals to the controllers.

• Optimum usage of day lighting

Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in combination with
electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of brightness in visual
environment. Usage of day lighting (in offices/air conditioned halls) will have to be very limited,
because the air conditioning load will increase on account of the increased solar heat dissipation
into the area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable reduction of electric light in the
window zones during certain hours, has to be designed.

• Installation of "exclusive" transformer for lighting

In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the problems faced by
the lighting equipment and the "gears" is due to the "voltage" fluctuations. Hence, the lighting
equipment has to be isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better voltage regulation
for the lighting. This will reduce the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the efficiency
of the lighting system.

• Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder

Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically attractive, servo
stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide stabilized voltage for the lighting
equipment. The performance of "gears" such as chokes, ballasts, will also improve due to the
stabilized voltage. This set up also provides, the option to optimize the voltage level fed to the
lighting feeder. In many plants, during the non-peaking hours, the voltage levels are on the higher
side. During this period, voltage can be optimized, without any significant drop in the illumination
level.

• Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts

New high frequency (28-32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the
traditional magnetic ballasts:
 Energy savings up to 35%
  Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load
 Lights instantly
 Improved power factor
 Operates in low voltage load
 Less in weight
 Increases the life of lamp

The advantage of HF electronic ballasts, outweigh the initial investment (higher costs when
compared with conventional ballast). In the past the failure rate of electronic ballast in Indian Industries
was high. Recently, many manufacturers have improved the design of the ballast leading to drastic
improvement in their reliability. The life of the electronic ballast is high especially when, used in a lighting
circuit fitted with an automatic voltage stabilizer.

Q22. Briefly describe the methodology of lighting energy audit in an industrial facility.
Ans:

Initially an audit visit information is secured in which details like energy and utility bills, processes and
current status is identified. In accordance with this audit equipment are finalized.

First Meet: An introductory visit can be made by meeting the facility manager or supervisor and discuss
out the purpose of audit. If possible managers from various departments can be familiarized with the
audit process and also point out the possible energy conservation technique.

Audit Sessions: Obtaining adequate and appropriate information is crucial for audit as it will yield in giving
ways to trap losses and save bills. Few steps during an initial visit

1. Meeting facility manager or plant manager for information on running data and past record
2. Finance officers can provide with various bills like electricity, fuel and water.
3. Interacting with floor supervisor and operators to understand conditions
4. Maintenance supervisor is always a key to retrieve information from.
5. An auditor must record down the important contacts for further record

A. Walk through Audit

A walk through audit is extremely necessary to get the initial feel and to recognize the prospective areas.
This will help the auditor and the audit team to see the major operational equipment General information
can be obtained and hence would yield to data acquisition.

B. Detailed Audit:

Post walk through a detailed audit is extremely crucial to actually decide upon the factors involved in
energy losses and potential areas for focusing.

Important Parameters to look for:

a) Lighting: A detailed inventory for lighting is required to be obtained. Data pertaining to number of lights
and fixtures wattage, hours of operation. A lighting record should be maintained to. Using a light meter
auditors should measure out the lux levels at various points as suitable.
b) HVAC Equipment: HVAC equipment should be stocked. With the use of prepared data sheets size,
model numbers, age, electrical specification, hours of operation are to be noted. The equipment is to be
monitored to determine the condition of condenser coils, evaporators, air filters, and insulation on
refrigeration lines.

c) Electric Motors: All motors present in the industry to be taken into consideration. Audit data sheet
highlighting motor size, age, duration of work, specifications. Other important factors like power factor
voltage levels, current are to be noted. Rewinding of motor is a common feature in industries, comparing
the cost and performance of a rewound motor to a new motor are few areas of concern.

d) Water Heaters: Relevant details like type, size, model number, and working duration are noted.
Temperature of hot water should be noted.

e) Waste Heat Sources: Majorly all industries have waste heat sources giving an opportunity to reuse that
heat. Various waste heat sources are air conditioners, air compressors, heaters and boilers, ovens, furnace
and so on. The main condition is temperature that determines the amount of heat that can recovered.

f) Peak Load Equipment: Peak load equipment would generally mean the electrically powered machines
that are either used intermittently or at a stretch. Peak load should be adjudged surveying a load pattern
and hence should be advisable to operate at intervals keeping in mind the time for maximum usage.

C. Post Audit Analysis:

Data obtained should be examined, organized and reviewed for authentication. Missing data should be
obtained from facility manager in case of discrepancy. There should be a proper channelling of the
obtained value and conditions and should yield a proper result. Cost effectiveness should be shouldered
in mind as one of the major criteria is to cut down expenses due to losses.

Q23. Explain a few Good Practices used in Lighting

Ans.

1. Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of “Conventional” Fluorescent lamps.

Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent
powder technology. They offer excellent colour rendering properties in addition to the very high
luminous efficacy.

2. Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in place of incandescent lamps.

Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower
wattage incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/Watt. The
average rated lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times longer than that of a normal
incandescent lamps. CFL's are highly suitable for places such as Living rooms, Hotel lounges, Bars,
Restaurants, Pathways, Building entrances, Corridors, etc.

3. Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapour lamps.

Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury &
sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the choice for
colour critical applications where, higher illumination levels are required. These lamps are highly
 suitable for applications such as assembly line, inspection areas, painting shops, etc. It is
recommended to install metal halide lamps where colour rendering is more critical.

4. Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) lamps for applications where colour rendering is
not critical.
High pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the colour rendering
property of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV lamps for applications such
street lighting, yard lighting, etc.

5. Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps.

Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication,
signalling, etc. Conventionally filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has got the following
disadvantages:
1. High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)
2. Failure of lamps is high (Operating life less than 10,000 hours)
3. Very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations. Recently, the conventional filament lamps are
being replaced with Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps.

1. Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)

2. Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power supply.
3. Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)
It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.

6. Light distribution
Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps alone.
Efficient luminaires along with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror-
optic luminaires with a high output ratio and bat-wing light distribution can save energy.
For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are having light distribution characteristics
appropriate for the task interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with a lamp should
ensure that discomfort glare and veiling reflections are minimised. Installation of suitable
luminaires, depends upon the height - Low, Medium & High Bay. Luminaires for high intensity
discharge lamp are classified as follows:
1. Low bay, for heights less than 5 metres.
2. Medium bay, for heights between 5 - 7 metres.
3. High bay, for heights greater than 7 metres.

System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major role in achieving energy efficiency.
This also varies from application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaires at optimum height
and usage of mirror optic luminaries leads to energy efficiency.

7. Light Control
The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is "On-
Off" switch. The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operational
costs may be high. This does not provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not
required.
 Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduction
in lighting level, when not needed. The following light control systems can be adopted at design
stage:

 Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control

Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.

 Installation of microprocessor based controllers

Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or
switching circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling,
which can take pre-programme commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced
lighting control system uses movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals to the
controllers.

 Optimum usage of daylighting

Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in combination
with electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of brightness in visual
environment. Usage of day lighting (in offices/air conditioned halls) will have to be very limited,
because the air conditioning load will increase on account of the increased solar heat dissipation
into the area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable reduction of electric light in the
window zones during certain hours, has to be designed.

 Installation of "exclusive" transformer for lighting

In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the problems faced
by the lighting equipment and the "gears" is due to the "voltage" fluctuations. Hence, the lighting
equipment has to be isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better voltage regulation
for the lighting. This will reduce the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the efficiency
of the lighting system.

 Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder

Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically attractive,
servo stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide stabilized voltage for the
lighting equipment. The performance of "gears" such as chokes, ballasts, will also improve due to
the stabilized voltage. This set up also provides, the option to optimise the voltage level fed to the
lighting feeder. In many plants, during the non-peaking hours, the voltage levels are on the higher
side. During this period, voltage can be optimised, without any significant drop in the illumination
level.

 Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts

New high frequency (28-32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the
traditional magnetic ballasts:
Energy savings up to 35% less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load.
1. Lights instantly
2. Improved power factor
3. Operates in low voltage load
4. Less in weight
 5. Increases the life of lamp
The advantage of HF electronic ballasts, outweigh the initial investment (higher costs when
compared with conventional ballast). In the past the failure rate of electronic ballast in Indian
Industries was high. Recently, many ma0nufacturers have improved the design of the ballast
leading to drastic improvement in their reliability. The life of the electronic ballast is high especially
when, used in a lighting circuit fitted with an automatic voltage stabiliser.

Q24. What is solar lighting system? What is ‘Bachat Lamp Yojana’?

Ans:

The principle of how solar lighting works is actually quite simple. The physical explanation behind
why it is possible to collect the solar energy and transform it into lighting lies in the photovoltaic
effect which is being used in a solar panel or photovoltaic cell that is able to collect the solar energy (i.e.
the energy that is produced by the Sun) throughout the day-time.
After being collected, the energy is usually stored in a rechargeable gel cell battery and used later
in the evening when there is no sunlight to produce lighting.
The light is being turned on by an intelligent controller which is switching on the LED light using the energy
that has been stored.
The panel itself consists of numerous layers of crystalline silicon as well as various chemicals that
can make layers of negatively charged electrons and positively charged spaces. After passing through the
solar cell, the sunlight activates negatively-charged electrons and pressures them into the positively-
charged spaces.
Solar lighting is mainly used to provide outdoor lighting during the evenings and night-time. It is
used both in streetlights as well as can be used for smaller areas such as your garden or porch.

Apart from photovoltaic lighting, there are two other solar lighting solutions that are not as
common but still serve the purpose well enough:

▪ Solar Sky Lights. Solar sky lights can dim and brighten indoor lighting by interacting with the Sun and
clouds. This technology is a great method for saving energy spent on light as it can sense the
availability of sunlight during the day and provide necessary amount of indoor lighting according to
the circumstances (amount of the sunlight, clouding etc.). These panels are usually installed on
rooftops and due to specifics of usage and purpose (to provide only lighting not electricity for the
whole house) they are a lot smaller and easier to maintain than solar panels meant for producing
larger amounts of electricity;
▪ Hybrid Solar Lights. This is the newest generation technology in the market providing grid interactive
solar lighting systems also known as hybrid systems. The hybrid solar lights are more complex and
there are several systems available that function differently depending on whether the energy is used
to power grid or lighting, or both.

Bachat Lamp Yojana:

The Objective of the Bachat Lamp Yojana also known as BLY in short form is a scheme to
provide Energy Efficient Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) at the same cost i.e. Rs.15, as of
Incandescent Bulbs. The cost differential would be made up by project implementer through carbon
credits earned which could be traded in the International market under Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.
 The BEE coordinates the Small-Scale Programme of Activities (SSC-PoA) and supports the
project implementer(s) in implementing the CDM Programme Activities (CPAs) in India through
collaboration with Electricity Distribution Companies (DISCOMs).
The scheme after implementation results in reducing GHG emissions (CO2) from power plants
connected to the grid The BLY CDM Programme of Activities (PoA) is registered with UNFCCC on
29th April 2010. Till date, 50 small-scale BLY projects from various parts of India have been included
in this registered umbrella framework, and 44 projects have been implemented. As a result, about
29 million CFLs have been distributed during the XI plan period.

Q25. List 10 Energy Conservation Tips in Lighting Systems.

Ans:

1. Maximise sunlight use through use of transparent roof sheets, north light roof, etc.
2. Examine scope for replacements of lamps by more energy efficient lamps, with due consideration
to luminaire, colour rendering index, lux level as well as expected life comparison.
3. Replace conventional magnetic ballasts by more energy efficient ballasts, with due consideration
to life and power factor apart from watt loss.
4. Select interior colours for light reflection.
5. Modify layout for optimum lighting.
6. Providing individual / group controls for lighting for energy efficiency such as:
a. On / off type voltage regulation type (for luminance control)
b. Group control switches / units
c. Occupancy sensors
d. Photocell controls
e. Timer operated controls
f. Pager operated controls
g. Computerized lighting control programs
7. Install input voltage regulators / controllers for energy efficiency as well as longer life expectancy
for lamps where higher voltages, fluctuations are expected.
8. Replace energy efficient displays like LED’s in place of lamp type displays in control panels /
instrumentation areas, etc.
9. Installing dimmers reduces the amount of electricity a light uses and increases the life of low-
voltage lighting such as halogen down lights.
10. When installing security lighting outdoors, make sure the lights have built-in motion sensors or
timers so they operate only when needed.

Q26. A 3ф AC load draws 8 kW power at 400 V supply voltage and 15 A current. Calculate the power
factor of the load.
Ans:

Given:
Active Power = 8 kW
Voltage= 400V
Current= 15A
Apparent Power = √3 *400 * 15/1000 = 10.392kVA

Power Factor = Active Power/Apparent Power

= 8/10.392

Thus, Power Factor = 0.769

Q27. A 3-phase, 415 V, 100 kW Induction motor is drawing 50 kW at a 0.75 PF. Calculate the capacitor
rating requirements at motor terminals for improving PF to 0.95. Also calculate the reduction in current
drawn and kVA reduction, from the point of installation back to the generated side due to the improved
PF.
Ans:

When Power factor is 0.75,

Power factor = True power/ apparent power
0.75 = VI/50
(0.75 x 50000)/415 = I
I = 90.36 A

Initial KVA = V x I x 3(1/2) / 1000

= 50 x 0.75 x 3(1/2)
= 64.952 kVA

Initial KVAR = (kVA2 – kW2)1/2

= (64.9522 - 502)0.5
= 41.457 kVAR

Now, new power factor is 0.95

So from the capacitor-power factor table,

Original power factor = 0.75
Desired power factor = 0.95

We get, Multiplier = 0.553

New KVAR = 0.553 x 50 = 27.750 kVAR

New KVA = ((KVAR)2 + (KW)2)0.5

= ((27.750)2 + (50)2)0.5
= 57.184 kVA

Now,
As

New current = A = 57.184 x 1000 / (415 * 1.7332)

= 79.557 A
Current Reduction = 90.36 – 79.557 = 10.802 A
KVA Reduction = 64.952 – 57.184 = 7.768 A
Capacitor Rating required = 27.750 kVAR

Q28. A 50-kW induction motor with 86 % present full load efficiency is being considered for
replacement by an 89 % efficiency motor. What will be the savings in energy and energy bill if the motor
works for 6000 hours per year and cost of energy is Rs. 4.50 per kWh?
Ans:

Given: - Pout = 50kW

Full load efficiency = 86%
To replace motor of 89% efficinecy
Duration = 6000 hrs per year
Cost = Rs. 4.5 per kWh

Efficiency = Pout/Pin x 100

For 86%,
Pin1 = Pout/Efficiency x 100 = 50KW/0.86 = 58.14KW

For 89%,
Pin2 = Pout/Efficiency x 100 = 50KW/0.89 = 56.18KW

The savings in energy Psaving = Pin1 - Pin2 = 58.14 - 56.18 = 1.96KW

Saving in energy per year = 1.96 x 6000 = 11760KWh

Savings in Energy bill per year = 1.96 x 6000 x 4.50 = Rs. 52,920