Contextualisation, De-contextualisation, Re-contextualisation – a science teaching approach

to enhance meaningful learning for scientific literacy

Jack Holbrook and Miia Rannikmae, University of Tartu, Estonia

Abstract
This paper highlights three issues in contemporary science education – student motivation,
applying the goals of education and the actual meaning of science education. It examines
underlying theoretical constructs behind motivation and ideas associated with the goals of
education and the manner in which science education should be interpreted to enhance scientific
literacy for all students. It calls for a change of approach to science teaching at the secondary
school level to raise the level of intrinsic motivation by students. This paper makes a case for the
teaching approach to begin in a contextualised manner relating to science within society. The
approach is then de-contextualised so that the scientific conceptual understanding needed to
understand the science met within the society is taught. The teacher then goes further into re-
contextualisation of the situation so that the science ideas gained are now applied to the situation.
This model for the nature of science education is put forward to raise motivation of students
towards enhancing scientific literacy.

Key words: context-based, decontextualised learning, re-contextualised learning, scientific

literacy, science education, intrinsic motivation, goals of education

Introduction
Peter Fensham (2008) identified eleven emerging issues in Science Education as an outcome of
discussions among science educators following a World Conference on Education for Sustainable
Development in 2007. Among these were three issues considered to be of particular importance
and are reformulated and elaborated further in this paper. The first relates to the issue of interest
in and about science. This issue be broadened into a consideration of interest in the science taught
in school i.e. science education, as well as into a consideration of student motivation, thus
encompassing both relevance and interest. The second take up the issue about science in
schooling and its education purposes and examines the goals of education and their applicability
to science education. The third builds on the issue of the nature of science and scientific inquiry
and focuses on the philosophy of science education, thus broadening the issue to encompass an
interpretation of the nature of science education (NSE) and hence the teaching approach.

Reflecting on Issue 1 - Meaning of relevance

The relevance of science education, in the eyes of students, is multi-dimensional and depends
on several components (Teppo & Rannikmae, 2008). Van Aalsvoort (2004), in reviewing the
literature, concludes that there are four aspects of relevance related to the study of science in
school:
 1. personal relevance from a student’s perspective
2. professional relevance insights into possible professions
3 social relevance role of science in human and social issues
4. personal/social help students develop into responsible citizens

While these components are all considered to be important, it is suggested they can be considered
as one under the label of personal relevance, if the viewpoint of relevance is taken from that of
the student. Such personal relevance, according to Levitt (2001) can be linked to being ‘useful to
me’, or ‘meaningful to me’. In addition a further additional component suggested in developing
teaching materials in the PARSEL project (2006 is ‘important for me.’ (Holbrook, 2008).

Relevance manifests itself through familiar aspects of everyday life and especially with issues and
concern which have a direct impact on the life of students and where action by students may be
desired. In other words, more than mere familiarity is needed to establish relevance for the
student and it thus not surprising that global issues such as cloning, sustainable development and
even global change do not necessarily impact on students and thus have a particular relevance for
them. This is an important point and indicates a need for care in try to establish the relevant of
science teaching to everyday life.

Reflecting on Issue 1 - Meaning of Interest

Interest is seen both as an emotional personal trait and also as a psychological state aroused by
specific characteristics of the learning environment. Both aspects can be expressed by students
using terms such as ‘liking’ or ‘enjoying’. But whereas the first trait can be termed personal
interest and is derived from the student’s internal feeling, often driven by prior experiences
(Krapp. 2002), the latter, situational interest, is aroused as a function of the interestingness of the
content, context, or activity being put forward by the teacher. Situational interest is seen as
relating more to the classroom climate, teaching style, or character of the teacher and is not
pursued further in considering the issue of student interest from an emotional point of view.

As an emotional factor, interest plays an important role in determining student involvement in

meaningful science learning and can be aroused in a variety of ways. Both student interest and
student relevance can be interrelated under the heading of motivation and are taken to form
powerful stimuli for learning in science lessons.

Reflecting on Issue 1 - Motivation

Motivation, taken from Wikipedia, is defined as the activation of goal-orientated behaviour. This
behaviour can be self-activated, or activated externally e.g. by the teacher, or by an external
examination. Where motivation is self-activated, it has been termed intrinsic motivation (Ryan &
Deci, 2000). This contrasts to extrinsic motivation, shown by Ryan & Deci to be the dominant
form of motivation in most situations. Nevertheless, these forms of motivation overlap and are
driven, for student learning, by student need (Ryan & Deci, 2002).

Intrinsic motivation can be triggered, for students, from experiences gained from outside the
school, from previous experiences gained from school, or stimulated by a prior extrinsic
motivational action by the science teacher which has a made a positive, internalised impact on
students. It is generally seen as important in promoting self-determination, self-actualisation, or
self-efficacy in students and hence providing a powerful stimulus for action by students.
Stimulating intrinsic motivation is seen as a more powerful teaching approach than attempts to
rely on extrinsic motivation, as are usually adopted by the teacher (using motivating lesson plan,
emotional reflective use of PCK, etc).

In primary school, students generally find it stimulating to explore science and this essentially
leads to arousing the students’ intrinsic motivation. But in secondary school, meta-cognition
becomes a major learning target. This definitely requires student cognition and the ability to
handle information and skills, although the basic science concepts are likely to be too far removed
from the student’s frame of reference (prior experiences) to have strong appeal. Thus, as put
forward by many authors, school science tends to provide little to provoke self- or intrinsic
motivation for students, without other, external forms of motivation to promote learning. In short,
school science has little appeal for many students (Kahle and Lakes, 1983; Osborne et al., 2003)
and the lack of intrinsic motivation towards the learning in science lessons is an issue of concern.

Reflecting on Issue 1 – Meeting Student Needs

Theory of Needs
Abraham Maslow's hierarchical theory of needs (1979) is one of the most widely discussed
theories of motivation and can be summarised diagrammatically using the triangle given below.
In this format, the needs are listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to the most complex (highest-
latest). Assuming the lowest, three basic levels are sufficiently satisfied, developing self esteem
and abilities to interact with others provides the platform for the full realisation of one's potential.
Self actualisation is about the processes of what one does. As such self-actualisers feel safe, calm,
accepted and alive and share characteristics such as attempt to solve problems and pursue goals
that are outside of themselves, are willing to take risks and experiment with their lives and they
choose the direction of their own lives. They are thus both independent and resourceful. Self
actualisers are well placed to develop strong intrinsic motivation towards science learning given
the appropriate setting and stimulus.

Self Determination Theory (SDT)

This theory, developed by Ryan & Deci (2002), points to the importance of intrinsic motivation in
driving human behaviour. Like Maslow's hierarchical theory, SDT posits a natural tendency
 towards growth and development, but highlights the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. The primary factors that encourage motivation and development are seen as
autonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness.

Morality, creativity,
spontaneity,
problem solving,
lack of prejudice,
Self actualisation acceptance of facts

Self-esteem, confidence,
achievement, respect of others,
Esteem respect by others

Friendship, family, sexual intimacy

Love/belonging

Security of body, employment, resources, morality,

Safety the family, health, property

Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostatis, excretion

Physiological

Maslow’s Triangle of Needs (1979)

In the school situation it is usual to strive towards stimulating students through extrinsic
motivational approaches by the teacher. Such approaches tend to point to the logic of the subject,
break down the learning to challenging, but manageable cognitive steps (within the zone of
proximal development – Vygotsky, 1978) and offer stimulation to students through visual
illustrations, opportunities for student involvement in the thinking and even direction of learning
plus the use of a strong teacher control of a positive and stimulating classroom atmosphere. All
this, however, is within the sphere of extrinsic motivation. All too often the missing element is the
relevance of the learning in the eyes of the learner. This is a recognised concern in science
teaching, especially in decontextualised situations, where the subject manner has no apparent link
with learning outside the science classroom.
An emphasis on intrinsic motivation and the need for self actualisation are seen as crucial for
promoting stronger motivation for the learning of science subjects and hence tackling the first
issue being addressed.

Reflecting on Issue 2 – The Goals of Education

Worldwide, the goals of education are put forward as rather general statements indicating the role
education is intended to play in the development of students while at school. As an example, the
Melbourne Declaration (2008) by State Ministers of Education identifies three key areas through
which education can promote: successful learners, self actualised students (confident and creative
individuals) and active and informed citizens (students who are intrinsically motivated).

Related to successful learners, the declaration places stress on:

• Capacity to learn; active role in own learning.
• Essential literacy/numeracy skills and ICT.
• Ability to think deeply and logically; obtain and evaluate evidence; creative,
innovative and resourceful; plan independently, collaborate, work in teams and
communicate; are motivated to reach the full potential.

Related to self actualisation, the stress is placed on:

• Sense of self-worth, self-awareness, personal identity to cope with emotional,
mental well-being.
• Show initiative, develop personal values/attributes.
• Have confident and capability to pursue further learning.
• Relate well with others; well prepared for potential life roles; embrace
opportunities, make rational and informed decisions and accept responsibilities.

Related to Active and informed citizens, the stress is to motivate students to:
• Act with moral and ethical integrity.
• Appreciate Australia’s social, cultural, linguistic and religious diversity, and have
an understanding of Australia’s system of government, history and culture.
• Understand and acknowledge the value of Indigenous cultures and possess the
knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from,
reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
• Are committed to national values of democracy, equity and justice, and participate
in Australia’s civic life.
• Be able to relate to and communicate across cultures, especially the cultures and
countries of Asia.
• Work for the common good, in particular sustaining and improving natural and
social environments.
• Be responsible global and local citizens.
It is clear that these goals differ much from science subject goals such as:
to become a scientist;
to gain factual knowledge and skills;
to be able to manipulate scientific equipment;
to pass a subject knowledge examination.

Taking the illustrative example as an indicator, the goals of education can thus being viewed in
terms of promoting the self actualisation of students, inculcating a sense of values and through
promoting deep thinking, an emphasis on conceptualising and a willingness to value the
transference of abilities to new situations. But what does this say about science education ?

Reflecting on Issue 2 - Science Education as part of Education

Science is school is one learning area that is almost universal and stands alongside other school
disciplines, such as mathematics and language, in providing the education provision through
which schools operate. Thus accepting the obvious assumption that science education is a part of
education, the issue arises concerning the role of science education within the education provision.

Science education can be viewed as having very different targets in education from say,
mathematics education or language education. In this case, education is presumably the sum of
science education, mathematics education, language education, etc and indicates that in meeting
the overall desired goals of education, all components are essential for students.

The alternative is to consider science education as an approach to education that differs in

construct from that in mathematics and language lessons, but which embodies the same goals of
education. All subject disciplines strive to play a similar role to each other in enabling students to
attain the overall educational goals. This can be viewed as reinforcement education, whereby the
educational goals are tackled and promoted in all subject disciplines, but from different contexts,
using different stimuli and building from different backgrounds and experiences.

In this paper, it is argued that the second alternative is the one that is the most appropriate. It
suggests that science education is an integral part of education and that the goals of education are
the goals of science education. Nevertheless, in accepting such a stance, it is recognized that this
leads to a paradigm shift from the vision commonly held by teachers today. This view to
addressing issue 2 can be considered as ‘Education through Science,’ rather than the common
alternative where emphasis is on the gaining of specific science knowledge, and the approach
seen as ‘Science through Education.’ Taking this view, science education can be expected,
through self actualization and intrinsic motivation, to enhance student learning (Holbrook and
Rannikmae (2007).
 • Gain context-needed science knowledge/concepts important for interacting with socio-
scientific issues within society.
• Undertake scientific problem solving to (better) understand the science background related
to socio-scientific issues within society.
• Appreciate the Nature of Science from a societal point of view.
• Develop personal skills related to creativity, initiative, safe working,
• Acquire communicative skills related to oral, written and symbolic/ graphical formats to
express scientific ideas in a social context.
• Undertake socio-scientific decision making on issues in society.
• Develop social values (moral, ethical) related to becoming a responsible citizen and
undertaking science-related careers.

Reflecting on Issue 3 - The Nature of Science Education (NSE)

In adopting the goals of education, science education needs to be accepted as far more than
knowledge acquisition. Intrinsic motivation can be considered important to support self
actualisation, the development of a range of personal attributes and inculcate a set of social values.
Enhancing capabilities to be able to function in the adult world through the use of interpersonal
skill and a range of communication skills is seen as important components. Science teaching thus
provides a stimulus for students to face challenges beyond simple conceptual understanding, or
the utilisation of process skills, and can play its part towards the development of life skills
enabling students to gain the capabilities to transfer learning to new situations.

This view of the nature of science education (NSE) is thus very different from a subject driven
approach and warrants a new perspective. This is illustrated in the diagram below in which
science content, as such, does not appear and the science component is present within the gaining
of an understanding of the nature of science or enabling the intellectual development of the
student. Personal development is also related to attitudes and attributes such as perseverance,
creativity, initiative and safe working. The social abilities form the third corner of the triangle
representation (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2007).

Reflecting on Issue 3 - Scientific Literacy

Promoting the goals of education through such a vision of science teaching is seen as giving
meaning to the expression ‘enhancing scientific literacy.’ Scientific literacy is much quoted as a
target of science education and it is thus appropriate to put forward the notion that this
encompasses a vision of the nature of science (NOS), as well as the development of personal and
social abilities. In this manner scientific literacy contributes to the overall capability of the student
to be a responsible citizen within society and the field of work. Promoting the goals of education
through science teaching is thus seen as giving meaning to enhancing scientific literacy
(Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009).
 Nature of the learning context
- Nature of Science

Nature of Science
Education (NSE)

Personal
Development Social
attributes (including Development
cognitive and meta- attributes
cognitive)

Addressing the Issues - A Change of Approach

The view of the nature science education (NSE) being developed is seen as a challenge to the
prevalent content acquisition approach to science education. It advocates a change of approach,
based on a view that sees enhancing scientific literacy as a step towards developing, as the
science teaching contribution, capabilities for life through education (life skills). It sees utilising
student motivation (intrinsic motivation) as a very important step, with the approach based on
familiar situations that promote relevance and interest. The change of approach recognises the
important of relating to the society and thus supporting the goal within science education as the
enhancement of SL (scientific literacy), or perhaps more appropriately STL (scientific and
technological literacy).

Operationalising the approach in the classroom

There is no suggestion that the various education learning components are taught in isolation, or
that the following descriptors are unique and clearly reflect only one attribute. The descriptors
merely try to point out there are different aspects through which science education teaching
materials should be recognised and hence they give some direction for tackling the attributes
involved.
An intrinsically motivational approach to science teaching is taken to be based on three key
components:
• familiarity to the student;
• intimate involvement of the student in terms of need, meta-cognition and action;
• relates to science.

In this approach the frame of reference is familiarity to the student and thus indicates a society
beginning. Science conceptualisation is not the organiser of the teaching, but rather the starting
point becomes a relevant socio-scientific aspect in the society (Marks & Eilks, 2009). In this case,
relevance is seen as being associated with a familiar issue, or concern in which the student is
likely to be involved or through which their lives are affected in some way. Narrowing this down,
science lessons focus on a socio-scientific relevant issue, concern, situation, associated with a
desire for self actualisation (Mazlow’s triangle), which have sufficient appeal to a significant
number, if not the majority, of the students. The learning thus begins in the context of the society
in which the students function. It is context-based teaching and learning.

Contextualised Teaching and Learning

The previous paragraph points to a social circumstances view in forming the contextual beginning
to the teaching (Gilbert, 2006). But unlike most context-based approaches, here the learning focus
is the educational context, rather than the learning of the science ideas that pertain to the context
(Parchman et al, 2006). The learning is thus in line with the goals of education in general and
science education is seen as merely one of many components of this. This viewpoint has been
described as ‘education through science’, as opposed to ‘science through education’ (Holbrook &
Rannikmae, 2007). And unlike other approaches to context-based science learning, there is no
attempt to organise the learning from a conceptual science perspective (Bennett and Lubben
2006), nor to provide a ‘ladder’ approach to science learning (Schwartz, 2006). The learning,
stemming from relevant aspects of society being considered, concentrates on developing an
appreciation of the nature of science while paying attention to the development of personal and
social attributes deemed part of the overall goals of education. The scientific conceptual learning
that accrues is not, in itself, recognised as a key learning focus (there is no attempt to perceive
specific scientific concepts as ’basic’), but as a need-to-have (to the depth needed and building
from the students current starting point) vehicle for enabling students to put forward scientific
attributes for reasoned decision-making within the social context. Nevertheless, the context to be
studied is carefully chosen. Not only is it deemed to be of relevance to at least the majority of the
students and hence trigger intrinsic motivation, but the conceptual science learning that evolves
must be seen by the teacher as being within the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978)
for the students involved.

The teaching approach focuses on:

• How to identify relevance at least for a sufficiently number of students within the class.
 • Determining students’ views on the aspect of relevance in a manner which has educational
value.
• Learning more about students’ scientific understanding, or prior conceptual knowledge.
• Establishing, in the minds of students, the need (that by gaining a stronger conceptual
science background they would be better placed to make decisions within society which
are needed in relation to an aspect of relevance).
• Identifying the way forward – that is, the approach to the gaining of science knowledge
and skills, needed in order to begin to develop a wider view of the nature of science,
greater intellectual skills and the competencies for the ultimate discussion, or consensus,
on decision making.

This approach to teaching also means that the sequence is no longer ‘science driven’ (that is, the
sequencing is not necessarily that seen as logical by scientists). The initial sequence is not
necessarily in line with any recognisable concept map, as the teaching is not conceptual. Rather
the teaching progresses from an issue or concern to the interpretation and subsequent action. It
involves tackling the science component from a society level of complexity in the context in
which it is met. The science learning, identified as an important need so as to be able to further
consider the issue or concern, is broken down to the needed level of conceptual complexity for
comprehension by the students involved.

Beyond initial motivation

But providing an intrinsic motivational start is obviously not enough. Cognition and meta-
cognition by students are expected to be important components of learning, if the issue or concern
is to be given more meaning. Hence the science conceptual learning by the students can be
expected to occupy the majority of learning time in science lessons. However, this follows after
the issue or concern has been identified and students have expressed their desire to become
involved in activities that can play a role in building up their science background. In this, students
need to be suitably guided by the teacher to operate within their zone of proximal development
(Vygotsky, 1978) and determine scientific conceptual needs which meet their needs. Acquiring
suitable science is first associated with identifying the scientific component from the society,
contextual setting. Then, from this contextualised beginning, the teaching moves the learning into
one or more conceptual science components. The teacher does this by moving to a de-
contextualised mode so that the conceptual science learning takes place in a sequence that enables
the students to bridge the gap between their prior knowledge and the learning needed to
appreciate the science component, or components in the conceptual issue or concern.

Decontextualisation of the Learning

As indicated in the previous section, this phase is driven by ‘need to know’ science, which
provides a scientific bearing on the social concern/issue. The decontextualised learning focuses
on the scientific ideas, solving scientific problems and the seeking and evaluating of relevant
scientific information. It builds on the students’ prior learning (as determined by the teacher in the
previous section) and with appropriate scaffolding (guidance, support and extrinsic motivation)
by the teacher to promote the development of intellectual self-actualisation and self-efficacy. This
phase, by necessity, is decontextualised from the society and builds from a scientific conceptual
perspective (recognising, nevertheless, the importance of generic - goals of education - skills e.g.
cooperation, communication, positive social values). In this phase, the intrinsic motivation of the
students is heavily reinforced by extrinsic motivation from the teacher and other attributes
recognised by the teacher as adding to the motivational aspect.

In the decontextualised mode, the teaching is no longer context-based learning (CBL). Instead it
moves to a more inquiry-based, science education (IBSE) approach. Thus the teaching, within this
phase, is driven by:
• Structuring the scientific learning so that it ultimately is able to support the societal
decision making process, related to the initial issue or concern that was taken to be
motivational learning for students.
• Providing the needed scientific knowledge so as to give a background for the students’
subsequent conceptual acquisition process related to the decision making;
• Providing the needed scientific skills (process skills), or additional practice in such skills
which provide a platform towards developing a competency in ‘scientific problem solving.’
• Focusing on inquiry learning science education (IBSE) as a component of self
actualisation by students.

The teaching approach can relate to the appropriate level of IBSE as indicated below. Where
intrinsic motivation is established and the need for student involvement strong, an ‘open’ inquiry
mode for learning at the secondary education level is preferred. Nevertheless, the teachers will
need to determine whether the students are ready to operate in this mode, having had sufficient
prior involvement in inquiry learning at a structured and guided inquiry level (ref. Zion, 2007)

Levels of IBSE Teacher provides students with (√)

Inquiry Method of Interpretation
Level Question Investigation & Analysis
Structured √ √
Guided √
Open (student developed project)

Once the scientific conceptual learning phase has been conducted to the satisfaction of the teacher,
the context can be revisited and the new found science learning acquired by the students can be
applied to the original issue or concern.
Re-contextualised Teaching and Learning
Re-contextualisation is put forward as a further important, not to be omitted, phase. This phase
allows the newly gained science learning to be consolidated by guiding the students to transfer
their learning to a relevant society context and in-so-doing lead students towards enhancing their
scientific literacy in a wider society context. This phase includes revisiting the initial issue, or
concern and allowing the students to undertake reasoned decision making within the complexity
of the social environment in which the issue or concern was first addressed. However, this time
the students are expected to draw on their newly gained science ideas and are taught to transfer
these to relate to the context of the society issue or concern. This re-contextualised phase can also
encompass the need for consensus decision making in a social environment and also the
promotion of the students’ presentation skills, both oral and written.

In the re-contextualised teaching approach, the teaching is driven by:

• consolidating the scientific learning in terms of the knowledge and process skills gained
and their transference to a social situation;

• developing generic skills identified with the goals of education (e.g. argumentation, debate,
role playing), enabling the value of the science learning to be included into a relevant
situation/concern/issue coming from society;

• determining a justified, collective decision which illustrates the value of enhancing

scientific literacy for all, the value of scientific careers and, as appropriate, the role
scientists plays within society.

The teaching approach therefore needs to focus on:

• reflection and student consolidation of the learning in step 2 (the decontextualised phase).

• enabling students’ to express their views on aspects of relevance in a manner which

encompasses a scientific component (developing capacities and hence enhancing
scientific literacy).

• establishing, in the minds of students, the value of the scientific component when making
specific decisions (developing capacities and hence enhancing scientific literacy).

• deriving justified and hence well-reasoned decisions, expressed both orally and in written
(including posters, models, newspaper) formats (developing capacities and hence
enhancing scientific literacy).
The three phases that constitute the teaching approach are illustrated in the diagram below:

The Contextualisation - Decontextualisation - Recontextualisation phase model

Science learning initiated Meeting the science Consolidation of the scientific

by a familiar contextual learning needs by learning through transference
frame of reference, decontextualised to the contextual frame and
linked to a need in the scientific learning giving promoting socio-scientific
eyes of students. due attention to NOS. decision making.

Stems from a social Takes place in a science Enhancing scientific literacy in

context involving science context (non-social) a socio-scientific context

A Philosophical look at science education

It is thus postulated that science education be seen as:
i) promoting the solving of problems, or reflecting on student concerns about aspects of their
society that are considered relevant by them. Science education helps students, as
members of society, to make sound and justifiable decisions about issues and concerns by
making use of science knowledge and ideas introduced on a ‘need to know’ basis, inter-
linking this with other pertinent thinking from other discipline areas;
ii) more than simply relating science to society (see Hofstein, Eilks & Bybee in this book).
The intention is seen as enhancing scientific literacy towards developing responsible
citizens, able to play a full role in society (whatever career path is chosen), depending on
their status, position and orientation. The science knowledge and understanding thus needs
to prepare citizens able to appreciate science (and through this technology) in society) and
take appropriate actions with regard to issues and concerns in society. By way of an
example, science education extends to determining from a science point of view, the
suitability of newspaper reports, positions taken in debates, or simple claims made by
salesmen or advertisers.
iii) portraying a balance view of science, one which recognised that science does not have all
the answers (it is not the absolute truth and certainly unable to answer ethical or spiritual
questions). Gaining an insight into the nature of science, as a way of appreciating the
importance of science in our lives, recognising it is an important component of learning
for all and illustrates the importance of logic, creative thinking, the need for
reproducibility of data and conducting careful interpretation of observations.
Conclusion
The STL (scientific and technological literacy) teaching approach proposed is very different from
the uncontextualised emphasis on scientific principles and concepts used in most textbooks. It
considers the textbook approach as a major concern in striving towards intrinsic motivation of
students for the learning of science in school (science education). But as the science and
technology in use within society is often very complicated and demanding in conceptual
understanding, the STL science taught in schools needs to find ways to meet the intrinsic
motivation challenge and also enable science education to play its role in promoting the goal of
education. Students are definitely required to think (minds-on), but the depth of treatment reflects
the ‘need to know’ required for the learning being promoted (there is no requirement that the
whole of a topic, as expressed by the subject curriculum must be followed at any particular time,
nor that it is approached in any given sequence). The inclusion of scientific principles and
scientific concepts, as advocated in phase 2, marks a strong demarcation between social science
and natural science teaching and allows students to develop their social capabilities and
interaction skills with a strong science background. Unfortunately, it is suggested this
demarcation is not made, as is often the case where teaching rigidly follows the textbook, even by
the simple additional afterthought, or even with the absence, of values education. Intrinsic
motivation is stressed as important for meaningful science learning. The transference of
conceptual science from the decontextualised setting, as is the case for learning in science
classrooms, is promoted as a further essential capability to enhance scientific literacy

References
Bennett, J., & Lubben, F. (2006). Context-based Chemistry: The Salters approach. International
Journal of Science Education, 28(9), 999-1015.
Fensham, P. (2008). Science education policy-making: eleven emerging issues. Paris: UNESCO.
Gilbert, J. K. (2006). On the Nature of “Context“ in Chenmical Education. International Journal
of Science Education, 28(9), 957-976.
Hofstein, A.; Eilks, I. & Bybee, R. (2010). Societal Issues and Their Importance for
Contemporary Science Education. In: I. Eilks & B. Ralle. Contemporary Science Education
-Implications from Science Education Research for Orientation, Strategies and Assessment,
Shaker 2010.
Holbrook, J. (2008). Introduction to the Special Issue of Science Education International Devoted
to PARSEL, Science Education International, 19(3), 257-266.
Holbrook, J., & Rannikmae, M. (2009). The Meaning of Scientific Literacy. International
Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 4(3) 275-288.
Holbrook, J., & Rannikmae, M. (2007). Nature of science education for enhancing scientific
literacy. International Journal of Science Education, 29(11), 1347-1362.
Krapp, A. (2002). Structural and dynamic aspects of interest development: theoretical
considerations from an ontogenetic perspective. Learning and Instruction, 12, 383-409.
Levitt, K.E. (2001). An Analysis of Elementary Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding the Teaching and
Learning of Science. Science Education, 86 (1), 1-22.
Maslow, A.H. (1943) A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50(4) 370-96.
MCEETYA. (2008). Melbourne Declaration on Education Goals for Young Australians.
Retrieved from (June 2010)
www.mceecdya.edu.au/mceecdya/melbourne_declaration,25979.html.
Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: a review of the literature
and its implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9), 1049–1079.
Kahle J.B., & Lakes M.K. (1983). The myth of equality in science classrooms. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 20, 131-140.
Marks, R., & Eilks, I. (2009). Promoting Scientific Literacy Using a Sociocritical and Problem-
Oriented Approach to Chemistry Teaching: Concept, Examples, Experiences. International
Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 4(3) 231-245.
Parchmann, I., Graesel, C., Baer, A., Nentwig, P., Demuth, R., Ralle, B. and the ChiK Project
group. (2006). “Chime im Kontext”: A symbiotic implementation of a context-based
teaching and learning approach. International Journal of Science Education, 28(9), 1041-
1062.
PARSEL (2006). Popularisation and Relevance of Science Education for Scientific Literacy.
Retrieved from (June 2010) www.parsel.eu
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). An overview of self-determination theory. In E. L. Deci & R.
M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3-33). Rochester, NY:
University of Rochester Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
Schwartz, A.T. (2006). Ontextualized Chemistry Education: The American experience.
International Journal of Science Education, 28(9), 977-998.
Teppo, M., & Rannikmae, M. (2008). Paradigm shift for teachers: More relevant science teaching.
In J. Holbrook, M. Rannikmae, P. Reiska & P. Isley (Eds.). The Need for a Paradigm Shift
in Science Education for Post-Soviet Societies, 25-46. Germany: Peter Lang.
Van Aalsvoort, J. (2004). Logical positivism as a tool to analyse the problem of chemistry’s lack
of relevance in secondary school chemical education. International Journal of Science
Education, 26(9), 1151-1168
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Problems of Method. In: M. Cole (trans.). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Zion, M. 2007). Implementation Model of an Open Inquiry Curriculum. Science Education
International, 18(2) 93-112.