Purpose of a Research

RESEARCH
- A systematic, objective, and comprehensive
investigation of certain phenomenon.
- Involves accurate gathering, recording, and
critical analyzing and interpreting of facts relevant
to the phenomenon.

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 RESEARCH
• systematic collection and analysis of
data from a sample of individual or
organization in relation to their
characteristics, behavior, attitudes,
opinions, or position.

NATURE OF RESEARCH

empirical systematic

valid
reliable

can take variety of forms

2
 Empirical
• Research using empirical evidence.
• It is a way of gaining knowledge by means
of direct and
indirect observation or experience.
• based on observed and measured
phenomena and derives knowledge from
actual experience rather than from theory
or belief.

Systematic
• Systematic because there is a definite set
of procedures and steps which you will
follow.
• A systematic review is a type of literature
review that collects and critically analyzes
multiple research studies or papers.

3
 Validity of Research

• capable of being justified

• the accuracy or truthfulness of a

measurement

“Are we measuring what we think we are?”

Reliability of Research
• concerns the replicability and consistency
of the methods, conditions and results

• synonymous with repeatability

A measurement that yields consistent

results over time is said to be reliable.
When a measurement is prone to random
error, it lacks reliability.

4
 AIMS OF A RESEARCH
• To preserve and improve
the quality of human life.
*All kinds of research are
directed toward this end.
• To serve man.
• To attain the good life.

GOALS OF A RESEARCH
• To discover new facts about known
phenomenon.
• To find answers to the problems
• To improve existing techniques and
develop new instruments or products.
• To discover previously unrecognized
substances or elements.

5
 GOALS OF A RESEARCH
• To provide basis for decision-making
• To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.
• To find answers to the queries by means
of scientific methods.
• To acquire a better and deeper
understanding about one phenomenon
• To expand or verify existing knowledge.
• To improve educational practices for
raising the quality of school products.

GOALS OF A RESEARCH
• To promote health and prolong
life.
• To provide man with more of his
basic needs.
• To make work, travel, and
communication faster, easier and
more comfortable.

6
 Classification of
Research
• Qualitative research
– Describe phenomena in words instead of
numbers or measures

• Quantitative research
– Describes phenomena in numbers or
measures instead of words

A research can be undertaken for two different

purposes:

1.To solve a currently existing problem

(applied research)
2.To contribute to the general body of
knowledge in a particular area of interest
(basic/fundamental research)

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 Ways to select a topic
• Personal experience
• Curiosity based on something in the
media
• The state of knowledge in a field
• Personal values

Major Limitations in
Conducting a Research

• Time
• Costs
• Access to resources
• Approval by authorities
• Ethical concerns
• Expertise

8
 Quantitative vs.
Qualitative
• Quantitative research is • Qualitative research is an
an inquiry into a social or inquiry process of
human problem based on understanding based on distinct
testing a theory methodological traditions of
composed of variables, inquiry that explore a social or
measured with numbers, human problem. The research
and analysed with builds a complex, holistic
statistical procedures, in picture, analyses words, reports
order to determine detailed views of informants,
whether the predictive and conducts the study in a
generalizations of the natural setting (Creswell, 1998).
theory hold true
(Creswell, 1998).

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Areas Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Goals Theory testing, establishing Develop sensitizing concepts,
facts, statistical description, describe multiple realities,
prediction, relationship grounded theory, develop
between variables understanding.

Design Structured, predetermined, Evolving, flexible

formal, specific detailed plan
of operation.
Data Quantitative, quantifiable Descriptive, personal
coding counts, measures, documents, field notes,
operationalized variables, photographs, people’s own
statistics. words, official documents.

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 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Areas Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Sample Large, stratified, control Small, non-representative,
groups, precise, random, focused, purposeful,
control of extraneous convenient
variables.
Techniques or Experiments, surveys, Observation, participant
Methods structured interviewing, observation, review of
structured observations documents, open-ended
interviewing, first person
accounts.
Relationship Detached, short term, distant, Empathy, emphasis on
with Subjects subject-researcher trust, egalitarian
circumscribed

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Areas Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Data Deductive, statistical On-going models,
Analysis themes, concepts,
inductive, analytic,
constant comparative.
Problems Controlling other variables, Time consuming, data
validity, reliability reduction difficulties,
procedures not
standardized,
difficulty in studying
large population.

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 Qualitative Research...
• “Interpretive Research”
• The focus is on human experience
…its methods rely heavily on “thick” verbal
descriptions of a particular social context
being studied.
…the data produced provide a description,
usually narrative, of people living through
events in situations.

Qualitative Methods...
• Case study
• Ethnography
• Ethnomethodology
• Phenomenology
• Grounded Theory
• Narrative

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 Case Study
• Examines the characteristics of a particular entity,
phenomenon, or person

• Involves situating the case within its setting,

which may be physical, social, historical and/or
economic.

• Example: A Qualitative Case Study of Developing Teacher

Identity among American Indian Secondary Teachers from
the Ute Teacher Training Program

Ethnography

• studies cultural patterns and perspectives of

participants in their natural settings

• A description and interpretation of a cultural

or social group or system. The researcher
examines the group’s observable and
learned patterns of behavior, customs, and
ways of life.

• Example: The Everyday Lives of Men: An

Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male
Identity

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 Ethnomethodology

• Studies how people make sense of their

everyday activities in order to behave in
socially accepted ways

Grounded Theory

• Based on Symbolic Interactionism which posits

that humans act and interact on the basis of
symbols, which have meaning and value for the
actors.

• To generate or discover a theory that relates to a

particular situation

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 Phenomenology

• Considers how the experience of particular

participants exhibits a unique perspective

• “to determine what an experience means for the

persons who have had the experience and are
able to provide a comprehensive description of it.

• From the individual descriptions, general or

universal meanings are derived, in other words,
the essences of structures of the experience.”

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Generally , qualitative researchers…

…spend a great deal of time in the settings

being studied

…rely on themselves as the main instrument

of data collection

…analyze data using interpretative lenses

…employ expressive language and voice in

descriptions and explanations

…seek depth of perspective through ongoing

analysis (i.e., “waves of data”)

…judged in terms of believability,

trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic
underlying researcher’s interpretations

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 Sources of Qualitative
Data
1. Interviews
– Open-ended questions and probes yield in-
depth responses about people’s experiences,
opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge.
– Data consist of verbatim quotations with
sufficient context to be interpretable.

2. Observations
– Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors,
actions, conversations, interpersonal
interactions, organizational or community
processes, or any other aspect of observable
human experience.

– Data consist of field notes: rich detailed

descriptions, including the context within which
the observations were made.

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3. Documents
– Written materials and other documents,
programs records; memoranda and
correspondence; official publications and
reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic works,
photographs, and memorabilia; and written
responses to open-ended surveys.

– Data consists of excerpts from documents

captured in a way that records and preserves
context.

4. Projective Techniques
• unstructured and indirect forms of
questioning which encourage the
respondents to project their underlying
motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings
regarding the issues of concern.

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• Word Association
– asks the respondents to give the first word
or phase that comes to mind after the
researcher presents a word or phrase
• Completion Test
– asks the respondents to complete
sentences, dialogs, or stories, etc.
• Picture Drawing and Interpretation

Example: Word Association

Results of a Word Association Test with Alternative
Brand Names for a New Fruit-Flavored Sparkling
Water Drink
Possible Brand Name Associated Words
Mango Green, tart, jungle
Tropical Fruit Juice, sweet, island
Orange Sparkle Light, bubbly, cool
Paradise Passion Fruity, thick, heavy

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 Example: Completion Test

Investigate teenagers’ attitudes to tea

Someone who drinks hot tea is ______________
Tea is good to drink when __________________
Making hot tea is _________________________
My friend thinks tea is _____________________

Sentence Completion Example:

Department Store Patronage Project

1. A person who shops at Rustan’s is _______________.

2. A person who receives a gift certificate good for
Shangri-La Plaza would be _____________________.
3. When I think of shopping in a department store, I _____
______________________________________________.

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 Qualitative Data Analysis
• Coding Data
• Finding Patterns
• Labeling Themes
• Developing Category Systems
• Looking for emergent patterns in the
data

Writing the
Research Report

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 Writing the Research Report
• Write clearly
• Be careful of terminology
• Give adequate attention to the correct use of
grammar and correct spelling
• As much as possible, use present tense rather
than past tense
• Make direct and positive sentences
• Label all chapters, sections, sub-sections, tables,
and charts

Language and Style

• Observe objectivity
• Write as clearly, as simply, and as briefly as possible
• Be consistent in using terms and symbols
• Must have element of continuity (transition)
• Observe correct grammar and spelling
– Past tense - description of procedures, review or related literature, and
opinion of respondents
– Present tense - makes reference to table or graphs
– Future tense - recommendations and implications

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 Language and Style
• Numbers
– should be words when they are under 10, written
as figures above ten
– Numbers at the beginning of sentences should be
written in words
– Written in figures if a number is part of
measurement or statistic or sum of money
– Percentages should be rounded up or down to a
whole figure
• Acronyms
– Written in full the first time they are used in the report
• Reports must be in second or third person

Writing the Research report

• TEXT/BODY FONT - 12
• TITLE FONT = 14 (BOLD)
• FONT = TIMES NEW ROMAN
• MARGINS
– L = 1.5”
– R, T , B = 1”

22
 Report Organization

• TITLE PAGE
√ First page of the paper
√ Title should be short and concise (12-15 words)

• should be concise, descriptive and comprehensive.

• identifies the variables in the study, the type of relationships that
may be inferred between the variables, the population to whom the
results may be applied, and other unique or special aspect of the
study that distinguishes it from other works.
• The use of such expressions as “A Study of …” or “An Analysis of …”
or “An Investigation on…” should be avoided. All these things are
understood to have been done or to be done when a research is
conducted.

LYCEUM INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES-LAGUNA

Km. 54 Nat’l Hi-way, Brgy . Makiling, Calamba City

(Research Title)

Reseracher’s Name
Degree

Date

23
 Report Organization
• ABSTRACT
 Brief summary of the research report
 100-150 words
 Should describe the research problem and
objectives, methods used, results of the study,
major conclusions and recommendations
 Written after the report has been completed
 Based on summary, conclusion, and
recommendations

Chapter 1: The Problem

and its Background
• Introduction
• Objectives of the Study
• Conceptual and/or Theoretical Framework
• Review of Related Literature and Studies

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 INTRODUCTION
• The introduction should give information as to what the
study is all about.
• Based on the statement of the problem, it should tell the
readers the scope and coverage of the study.
• It should show the existence of an unsatisfactory
condition, a felt problem that needs a solution. That is,
the reason or reasons why it is necessary to conduct the
study must be discussed.
• The introduction should be linked to the statement of the
problem.

INTRODUCTION
• First Section
- Global situational analysis of the problem supported by the
literature from different continents

• Second Section
- Regional situational analysis supported by literature from the
region of the study. Researchers from the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) such as Brunei Darussalam,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam must include literature from
these countries to capture the ASEAN perspective in the study.

• Third Section
– Local situational analysis of the problem

25
 • Fourth Section
– Gap in the literature that the study intends to address
– Differentness of the study from other previous studies
– Compelling reasons of the writer for choosing the problem

• Craft the INTRODUCTION relatively nontechnical yet

clear enough for an informed reader to understand the
manuscript’s contribution.
» Use several authors embedded in a sentence

Conceptual Framework
• The conceptual framework should be anchored on the
theoretical framework. That is, the conceptual and
theoretical frameworks should be consistent and related.
• It should present in detail the variables to be observed in the
current study, the concepts defined, the operationalization of
the variable-concepts, and the scheme of measuring the
variables.
• A paradigm of the study showing a diagrammatic
representation of the conceptual framework should be
included in this section. This should depict in a more vivid
way what the conceptual framework wants to convey.

26
 Theoretical Framework
• This section should present the different
theories, models, paradigms, perspectives
related to the variables, problem statement and
hypothesis of the present study.

• The candidate should test, confirm, validate, or

verify the cited theories in other situations or
attempt to formulate a new theory which will be
his contribution to his field of specialization.

Objectives of the Study

/Statement of the Problem
• The problem should be stated both in general and in
specific terms. The general statement of the
problem is usually a reiteration of the title of the
study.
• The problem should be stated in the infinitive to
such as examine, analyze, determine, measure,
assess, evaluate, or find out.
• Specific questions should be stated using the guide
question words: “How,” “Will,” “What,” “Is there,”
etc.

27
 Review of Related Literature
• Tells what research has been or has been not done on
the problem
• Explain or clarify the rationale of the study
• Only related studies must be presented or included
(purpose, method, conclusions)
• Discussions must be in form of brief critical analysis or
review
• Clarify interrelationship of studies reviewed, point out
strengths and weaknesses
• Point out the relationship of the reviewed literature to
topics at hand

Review of Related Literature

• Explain how the study being reviewed relates to the present
study and identify similarities and differences with the present
study.
• The candidate should justify the differences between the
proposed study and the past related studies. He should make it
clear that there is no duplication of the studies and that present
inquiry may only be a replication of another study.
• The candidate should point out that there is a need to continue
with the present study to affirm or negate the findings of other
inquiries about the same research problems so that
generalizations or principles may be formulated. These
generalizations and principles would be the contributions of the
present study, together with the other studies to the fund of
knowledge.

28
Review of Related Literature
• Use the past tense to describe the procedure of a study
that has already been conducted and to describe the
results of a completed study and the present tense to
discuss the meanings and implications of the results of
the study and to present conclusions.

• Discuss only the major findings, ideas, generalizations,

principles, or conclusions in related materials relevant to
the problem under investigation. Such findings, ideas,
generalizations, principles, or conclusions should be
summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.

Review of Related Literature

• Problems, objectives, procedures, major
findings of previous researches
• Statement as to how reviewed literature and
studies are related to each other and to the
topic of the present research
• References must always be acknowledged
through parenthetical citation
• In text, only last names of the author is given

29
Review of Related Literature
-The contents of this section should be arranged
as follows:
•Foreign Literature
•Foreign Studies
•Local Literature
•Local Studies
•Relevance of Reviewed Literature and
Studies to the Present Study
- Findings, theme or topic approach

Purposes of Review of
Related Literature
– Expands the introductory chapter
– Further define the research problem
– Provides theoretical basis for the research
question
– Helps in the interpretation of results
– Helps in outlining implications of the study

30
 Common Errors in Review
of Related Literature
• Solely depending on secondary materials
• Concentrating on the related researches’
findings alone
• Overlooking references from less developed
countries

Chapter 2: Methodology
• Research Design
• Research Locale
• Respondents of the Study
• Sampling Method
• Research Instrument
• Data Gathering Procedures
• Statistical Treatment

31
 Methodology
• Discuss clearly and in detail the research design,
sampling procedure, data collection and
instrument used, data processing and analysis
procedure

• Describe the type and content of questions used,

how they are organized, method in validating

Research Design
• Identify the research design applied in the
study whether descriptive or experimental.

• Discuss the procedural part of the

research design and the rationale for the
selection; that is, its appropriateness to
the present study, and its advantages.

32
 Research Locale
• Explain where the study took place.
• Mention the institution, agency, and organization
included in the study
• Include in the description of locale highlighted
information, something that makes the locale
important in the study.

Respondents of the Study

• Explain how and where the respondents of the study
are taken. It can be the entire population or census
if the population size is small or a sample if the
population size is large.
• Mention the agency and the frequency of the
subjects
• Include in the description of respondents such
information as the age range, proportions of each
gender if both males and females are used,
education attainment, and so forth.

33
 Research Instruments
• Identify and describe all instruments used to collect data
pertinent to the study, such as questionnaires, tests,
interview, observation schedule, checklist, or rating scale.
• Explain explicitly each part of the research instrument. The
description of each instrument should related the function of
the instrument to the study and what the instrument is
intended to measure.
• Describes the adoption, construction, and administration of
the instrument
– Observation, Interview, Questionnaire, Focus Group
Discussion, Tests, etc.

Observation
• Man’s oldest method for collecting information
• Main objective is to understand the context of human
behavior
• Participant Observation (PO)
– Done while researcher participates in activities the
respondents are engaged in
– Individuals are not aware that they are observed
– Danger of risking objectivity
• Non-participant observation (NPO)
– The researcher does not participate in the activity
of the group
– Group is also unaware that they are under
observation

34
 Data Gathering Procedure
• Describe, in sufficient detail, each step followed in
conducting the study, in chronological order.

• Discuss in terms of their seriousness or probable

consequences, any unforeseen events which occurred
which might have affected the results such as changes in
the schedule for administering tests, disturbances during
the testing situation, or unexpected respondent reactions.

• Any insights regarding ways to improve procedures should

be shared so that other researchers may profit from the
investigator’s experiences.

Statistical Treatment
• Describe the statistical techniques that were applied
to the data and justify their use in terms of their
appropriateness.
• Mention the preselected levels of significance and the
results of each analysis.
• For each hypothesis, the statistical test of significance
selected and applied to the data is described.
• Common statistical formulas need not be presented;
only the new, the complex, and the seldom-used
formulas are to be presented in the next.

35
 Chapter 3:
Results and Discussions
It discusses the findings of the study derived from
the data that have been gathered, processed and
analysed.

• Answer all specific questions in Chapter I under

Statement of the Problem supported with statistical
tables or figures.
• Emphasize only those aspects of the results that
are important and noteworthy.

Chapter 3:
Results and Discussions

• Avoid making the mistake of preparing a table and

then discussing every entry in the table whether
significant or not.
• Identify and interpret the major data. Discuss
possible reasons why these results occurred, fit the
results into the findings of previous researches,
suggest field applications and make theoretical
interpretations.

36
 Chapter 3:
Results and Discussions
• Present only relevant data
• Do not repeat the same data in several places
• Textual presentation should supplement or expand the
contents of tables and charts
• Analyses should be objective and logical; facts not
opinions should prevail
• Discussion of findings
Meaning of what has been found
Statements of inferences
Conditions that limit generalizations
Implication and application of findings
Suggestions for improvement
Reason for differences with other researches

Chapter 3:
Results and Discussions
• TABLES
– Number and Title
• Every table should have number and title
• Title or caption should be clear
• Each table is numbered by an Arabic numeral
written after the centered word TABLE
• Title is written two spaces below table number
• If title is long, set it in two or more lines, single
spaced, in inverted pyramid form
– One style/format should be used consistently

37
 Chapter 4: Conclusions and
Recommendations

• Summary of Findings
• Conclusions
• Recommendations

Chapter 4:
Conclusions and Recommendations
• It presents the general summary of the study,
summary of findings, conclusions, and
recommendations. It is the most important
because it is here where the findings are
summarized; generalizations in the form of
conclusions are made; and the recommendations
for the solutions of problems discovered in the
study are addressed by those concerned.
• This section supports or negates previous
conclusions, and/or generates new theory.

38
• Conclusions should be dovetail with the findings of
the study. If there are only three summarized
results, there are three conclusions. Conclusions
are arranged as it appears in the findings.
Moreover, rejection and acceptance of hypotheses
are explained in this section.

• Recommendations are based on conclusions. This

is arranged as it appears in the conclusions. In
addition, recommendations may include further
research of the study.

Bibliography

• Books
• Journals
• Unpublished Materials
• Internet

39
 Appendices
• Letters
• Questionnaires
• Interview Transcriptions
• Photo Documentation

Preparing a Bibliography

40
 Bibliography/Works Cited

 List of sources. When doing research and writing a report, it is

always necessary to name the source(s) of your information.
 Should be listed alphabetically.
 Second line of an entry should be indented.
 Skip a line after each entry.

For a Book
 Single author: Author’s last name, first name initial. Title of book.
Place of publication: Publisher, copyright year.
 Example:
Fogle, B. Training Your Dog. New York: DK Publishing, 2001.
 If you only used part of the book: Author’s last name, first name
initial. Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher, copyright
year. Page Numbers.
Fogle, B. Training Your Dog. New York: DK Publishing, 2001, pp.
50-55.

41
 For a Book
 An edited work: Editor. Title. Place: Publisher, Date.
 Example:
Reddy, M., ed. Statistical Record of Hispanic Americans. Detroit:
Gale Research, 1995.
 Joint authors or editors: Authors. Title. Place: Publisher, Date.
 Example:
Barron, A. and Orwig, G. New Technologies for Education : a
Beginner's Guide. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1995.

For a Book
 Government publication: Government Agency. Title. Place:
Publisher, Date.
 Example:
United States. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor. Career Guide to
Industries. Washington: GPO, 1992.
 No author indicated: Title. Place: Publisher, Date.
 Example:
The College Board Guide to 150 Popular College Majors. New
York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1992.

42
 For a Book
 Essays (from an anthology): Author. “Title of Essay” Title of Book.
Editor. Place: Publisher, Date. Page Numbers
 Example:
Adams, J. "Interracial Marriage Cannot Be Treated Identically to
Same-Race Marriage." Interracial America: Opposing
Viewpoints. Ed. Szumksi, B. San Diego: Greenhaven, 1996. pp.
216-219.

For an Encyclopedia Article

 Signed: Article author’s last name, first name initial. "Title of
article." Name of encyclopedia. Copyright year. Volume number,
page(s).
 Example:
Clark, W. "Gothic Art." World Book Encyclopedia. 2004.
Volume 8, pp. 277-278.
 Not signed: "Title of article." Name of encyclopedia. Copyright
year. Volume number, page(s).
 Example:
"Golden Retriever." World Book Encyclopedia. 2003. Volume 8,
p.255.

43
 For a Magazine or Newspaper Article
 Article author’s last name, first name initial. "Title or headline of
article." Name of magazine or newspaper. Date of magazine or
newspaper, page(s).
 Example:
McGill, K. "A Baltic Scramble." Faces. May, 2003, p. 27.

For an Internet Article

 Article author’s last name, first name initial. Title of Item. Retrieved
(date of retrieval) from http://address/filename, date of
document or download.
 Example:
DiStefano, V. Guidelines for Better Writing. Retrieved October 5,
2004 from http://www.usa.net/~vinced/home/better-
writing.html.

44
 For an Audiovisual Materials
 Title of material. Type of material. Place of publication: Publisher,
copyright date.
 Example:
Bizet’s Dream. Videotape. New York: Sony Wonder, 1998.

For an CD-ROM
 "Article title." CD-ROM title. CD-ROM. Copyright date.
 Example:
"Titanic Disaster." Encarta 99 Encyclopedia. CD-ROM. 1999.

45
 For an Interview
 Name of person interviewed (last name first). Kind of interview.
Date.
 Example:
Watson, Cosmo. Personal interview. July 29, 2004.

Sample
Bizet’s Dream. Videotape. New York: Sony Wonder, 1998.
Clark, W. "Gothic Art." World Book Encyclopedia. 2004. Volume 8.
DiStefano, V. "Guidelines for Better Writing." Retrieved October 5,
2004 from http://www.usa.net/~vinced/home/better-
writing.html.
Fogle, B. Training Your Dog. New York: DK Publishing, 2001.
"Golden Retriever." World Book Encyclopedia. 2004. Volume 8.
McGill, K. "A Baltic Scramble." Faces. May, 2003.
"Titanic Disaster." Encarta 99 Encyclopedia. CD-ROM. 1999.
Watson, Cosmo. Personal interview. July 29, 2004.

46
Thank You!!


47