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4 Hardware Require For Lifi Project

This chapter describes various hardware components used in Arduino projects. It discusses the Arduino Uno microcontroller board, LED lights, resistors, connecting wires, and photo resistors. The Arduino Uno is based on the ATmega328P microcontroller and has inputs, outputs, a power supply, and can be programmed through the Arduino IDE software. Resistors, LEDs, photo resistors, and connecting wires are also fundamental electronic components used in circuits.

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156 views5 pages

4 Hardware Require For Lifi Project

This chapter describes various hardware components used in Arduino projects. It discusses the Arduino Uno microcontroller board, LED lights, resistors, connecting wires, and photo resistors. The Arduino Uno is based on the ATmega328P microcontroller and has inputs, outputs, a power supply, and can be programmed through the Arduino IDE software. Resistors, LEDs, photo resistors, and connecting wires are also fundamental electronic components used in circuits.

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mac
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Hardware description Chapter 4

CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 ARDUINO UNO

Fig 4.1 Arduino uno board


Arduino programs are written in the Arduino Integrated Development Environment
(IDE). Arduino IDE is a special software running on your system that allows you to write
sketches (synonym for program in Arduino language) for different Arduino boards. The Arduino
programming language is based on a very simple hardware programming language called
processing, which is like the C language. After the sketch is written in the Arduino IDE, it should
be uploaded on the Arduino board for execution.

Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P (datasheet). It has 14


digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button. It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. You can tinker with your
UNO without worring too much about doing something wrong, worst case scenario you can
replace the chip for a few dollars and start over again.

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Hardware description Chapter 4

"Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the release of Arduino Software
(IDE) 1.0. The Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino Software (IDE) were the reference versions
of Arduino, now evolved to newer releases. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino
boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for an extensive list of current, past or
outdated boards see the Arduino index of boards.

4.2 LED’S (Light emitting diodes)

Mainly this section is used to convert any obstacle, or we can say that to count a pulse
and to convert it into the form of voltage. An IR LED, also known as IR transmitter, is a special
purpose LED that transmits infrared rays in the range of 760 nm wavelength. Such LEDs are
usually made of gallium arsenide or aluminum gallium arsenide. They, along with IR receivers,
are commonly used as sensors.

The appearance is same as a common LED. Since the human eye cannot see the infrared
radiations, it is not possible for a person to identify whether the IR LED is working or not, unlike
a common LED. To overcome this problem, the camera on a cell phone can be used. The camera
can show us the IR rays being emanated from the IR LED in a circuit. Infrared (IR) radiation is
part of the electromagnetic spectrum which includes radio waves, microwaves, visible light, and
ultraviolet light, as well as gamma rays and X-rays.

Fig 4.2 LED

4.3 RESISTORS

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Hardware description Chapter 4

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical


resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage
across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals
to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance.

This relation is represented by Ohm's law: where I is the current through the conductor in
units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts,
and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that
the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and
films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits.

Fig 4.3 Resistors

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial


resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying
that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require
attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are
physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes
be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.

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Hardware description Chapter 4

4.4 CONECTING WIRES

A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand metal. Connecting wires are
circulated throughout the circuit as per the Current rating flowing through that. Pure copper wire
is used in this project for long life span and taking heating consideration.

Fig 4.4 DC Circuit connecting wires

Fig 4.5 AC Circuit connecting wires

4.5 PHOTO RESISTOR

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page |20


Hardware description Chapter 4

A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive cell) is a


lightcontrolled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing
incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be
applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light-activated and dark-activated switching
circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high risistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresisitor can


have a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a certain
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump
into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct
electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can
substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react
substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.
A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has
its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic
devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have
enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities,
also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the
electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

Fig 4.6 LDR Sensor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Page |21

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