azabesamis

USTET Reviewer |1

Atomic Mass Equation 3.1 Moles to Grams given X *

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
(𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋) ( ) = 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
 mass of the atom in atomic mass units (amu) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋

 atomic mass unit: mass exactly equal to one-

twelfth the mass of one Carbon-12 atom Equation 3.2 Grams to Moles given X *
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑋
(𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑋) ( ) = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
Average Atomic Mass
 average mass of the naturally occurring Molecular Mass
mixture of isotopes  sum of the atomic masses (in amu) in the
molecule
Equation 1.1 Average Atomic Mass *
(% 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1)(𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1) Equation 4.1 Molecular Mass of Y **
+ (% 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2)(𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2)
= 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑢
given Xn*
(𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑋1 )(𝑎𝑚𝑢 𝑜𝑓 𝑋1 ) + (𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑋2 )(𝑎𝑚𝑢 𝑜𝑓 𝑋2 )
= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

Mole  one can determine the molar mass

 amount of substance of a system that through the molecular mass
contains as many elemental entities (atoms,
molecules, or other particles) as there are Equation 3.3 Grams to Moles given Y **
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑌
atoms in 12 grams of Carbon-12 isotope (𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑌) (
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑌
) = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑌 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑌

 one mole is equal to Avogadro’s number (1

- refer to Y’s molecular mass for molar mass in conversion
mole = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 )
 Avogadro’s Number: 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
Percent Composition of Compounds
Molar Mass  percent by mass of each element in a
compound
 mass (in grams or kilograms) of 1 mole
of units of a substance
Equation 5.1 Percent Composition of X*
 numerically equal to its atomic mass in
given Y**
atomic mass unit (e.g. atomic mass of Na (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑋)(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋)
× 100%
[sodium] is 22.99 amu and its molar 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑌
= % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
mass is 22.99 g)
molar mass = atomic mass unit
 if one knows the atomic mass of an
Equation 5.2 Empirical Formula of Y **
element, one can know its molar mass
given Percent Composition by Mass of Y **
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑋
 knowing the molar mass and Avogadro’s (𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑋𝑛 ) ( ) = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑋𝑛
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
number, one can calculate the mass of a
single atom in grams 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑋𝑛
= 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑋𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑋𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Equation 2.1 Mass of One Atom of X*
𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 - convert decimals into a whole number through trial-and-
= 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑋
6.022 × 1023 𝑋 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 error procedure
- whatever is multiplied to the decimal must also be
multiplied to the other subscripts
 knowing the mass of a single atom in - reduce all subscripts to the smallest whole numbers
grams can be used to determine the
relationship between atomic mass units Chemical Reactions and Chemical
and grams Equations
 notions of Avogadro’s number and  chemical reaction: process in which a
molar mass can help one convert mass substance/s are changed into one or more
and moles of atoms and vice versa new substances
1|Science
*X represents an element
** Y represents a compound
azabesamis

USTET Reviewer|2

 chemical equation: uses chemical symbols to Things to Remember:

show what happens during a chemical  first step in any stoichiometric problem
reaction is to always ensure that the chemical
Example: 2H2 + O2 2H2O reaction that you are dealing with is
- plus sign: means reacts with balanced
- arrow: means to yield  clarity of the concept of a mole, and the
relationship between amount (grams)
 reactants: starting materials in a chemical and moles
reaction
Example: 2H2 + O2 2H2O  mole method: the stoichiometric coefficients
2H2 and O2 are the reactants in a chemical equation can be interpreted as
the number of moles of each substance
 product: substance formed as a result of a
chemical reaction General Approach for Solving
Example: 2H2 + O2 2H2O Stoichiometry Problems
2H2O is the product 1. Write a balanced equation for the
reaction.
Balancing Chemical Equations 2.Convert the given amount of the reactant
1. Identify all reactants and products, write to number of moles.
their correct formulas on the left and right 3.Use the mole ratio from the balanced
side of the equation, respectively. equation to calculate the number of
2. Begin balancing the equation by trying moles of the product formed.
different coefficients to make the number 4.Convert the moles of product to grams of
of atoms of each element the same on both the product.
sides of the equation.  stoichiometric amounts: in the proportions
- one cannot change the subscripts of the indicated by the balanced equation
elements, only the coefficients of the  limiting reagent: reactant used up first in a
compounds reaction
3. Look for elements that appear only once  excess reagents: reactants present in
on each side of the equation with the same quantities greater than necessary to react
number of atoms on each side (the with the quantity of the limiting reagent
formulas of these elements must have the
same coefficient). Reaction Yield
4. Look for elements that appear only once  theoretical yield: amount of product that
on each side of the equation but in unequal would result if all the limiting reagent
number of atoms (balance these elements). reacted (maximum obtainable yield)
5. Balance elements that appear in two or
 actual yield: amount of product actually
more formulas on the same side of the
obtained from a reaction (almost always less
equation.
than the theoretical yield)
6. Check your balanced equation to be sure
 percent yield: proportion of the actual yield
that you have the same total number of
to the theoretical yield
each type of atoms on both sides of the
equation arrow.
Equation 6.1 Percent Yield
Stoichiometry 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
 branch of chemistry that deals with the × 100% = % 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
relationship between the relative quantities
of substances taking part in a chemical
reaction
2|Science
1
k is a constant called the proportionality constant
2
R is a proportionality constant, called the gas constant
3
μ is molar mass
4
gravity constant is −9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
azabesamis

USTET Reviewer|3

Equation 7.4 Comparison of Two Sets of

Gas Laws Volume-Temperature under Constant
 generalizations regarding the macroscopic Pressure
behaviour of gases 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
1. Boyle’s Law
 proposed by Robert Boyle Equation 7.5 Comparison of Two Sets of
 pressure-volume relationship: the Pressure-Temperature under Constant
pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a Volume
constant temperature is inversely 𝑃1 𝑃2
=
proportional to the volume of gas; in 𝑇1 𝑇2
mathematical equation
1 3. Avogadro’s Law
P∝  proposed by Amedeo Avogadro
𝑉
 volume-amount relationship: with
Equation 7.1 Boyle’s Law Equation 1 constant pressure and temperature,
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘1 volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the number of moles
Equation 7.2 Comparison of Two Sets of of the gas present; in mathematical
Pressure-Volume under Constant equation
Temperature 𝑉∝𝑛
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Equation 7.6 Avogadro’s Law
2. Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Law Equation 1
 proposed by Jacques Charles and 𝑉 = 𝑘4 𝑛
Joseph Gay-Lussac
 temperature-volume relationship: the 4. Ideal Gas Equation
volume of a fixed amount of gas  combination of Boyle’s, Charles’ and
maintained at a constant pressure is Gay-Lussac’s, and Avogadro’s Laws
directly proportional to the absolute  describes the relationship among the
temperature of gas; in mathematical four variables: pressure, volume,
equation temperature, and amount; in
𝑉∝𝑇 mathematical equation
𝑛𝑇
Equation 7.3.1 Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s 𝑉∝
𝑃
Law Equation for Volume and
Temperature 1 Equation 7.8 Ideal Gas Equation 2
𝑉 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
= 𝑘2
𝑇
Equation 7.9 Conditions and Amount of
Equation 7.3.2 Charles’ and Gay-Lussac’s Gas Change Equation
Law Equation for Pressure and 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
Temperature 1 =
𝑛1 𝑇1 𝑛2 𝑇2
𝑃
= 𝑘3
𝑇 Equation 7.10 Conditions of Gas Change
Equation
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

3|Science
1
k is a constant called the proportionality constant
2
R is a proportionality constant, called the gas constant
3
μ is molar mass
4
gravity constant is −9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
azabesamis

USTET Reviewer|4

the mineral’s powder), luster (way light

Equation 7.11 Density 3 reflects off the mineral’s surface), specific
𝑃𝜇 gravity (how heavy the mineral is relative to
𝑑= the same volume of water), cleavage
𝑅𝑇
(mineral’s tendency to break along flat
Equation 7.12 Molar Mass 3 surfaces), fracture (pattern in which a
𝑑𝑅𝑇 mineral breaks), hardness (what minerals
𝜇=
𝑃 can scratch it)

 ideal gas: hypothetical gas whose Mineral Groups

pressure-volume-temperature 1. Silicate Minerals
behaviour can be completely  largest mineral group
accounted for by the ideal gas  basic building block is silica
equation tetrahedron (often bound to other
 standard temperature and pressure: elements such as calcium, iron,
conditions 0ºC and 1 atm; often and magnesium)
abbreviated as STP
2. Native Elements
5. Dalton’s Law  contain atoms of only one type of
 partial pressure: pressures of element
individual gas components in the
mixture 2.1 Carbonates
 total pressure of a mixture of gases is  has a carbonate structure
just the sum of the pressures that each  include other elements such
gas would exert if present alone as calcium, iron, and copper

Equation 7.13 Dalton’s Law Equation 2.2 Halides

𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒  salts that form when water
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ evaporates
 made of halogens that bond
 mole fraction: dimensionless quantity with various metallic atoms
that expresses the ratio of the number
of moles of one component to the 2.3 Oxides
number of moles of all components  contain one or two metals
present; in mathematical equation with oxygen
𝑛𝑖
𝑋𝑖 =  many important metals are
𝑛𝑇 found under this group
Equation 7.14 Partial Pressure of ith 2.4 Phosphates
Component with relation to the Total  similar in atomic structure to
Pressure silicate materials
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑋𝑖 𝑃𝑇  rare minerals
Minerals 2.5 Sulfates
 inorganic and crystalline solid  contain sulfur atoms bonded
 formed through natural processes to oxygen atoms
 can be identified by their physical properties  like halides; forms where salt
such as crystalline structure, hardness, water evaporates
density, flammability, color, streak (color of
4|Science
1
k is a constant called the proportionality constant
2
R is a proportionality constant, called the gas constant
3
μ is molar mass
4
gravity constant is −9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
azabesamis

USTET Reviewer|5

Equation 8.2 Potential Energy Equation 4

2.6 Sulfides 𝑃𝐸 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)(ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

 metallic elements combining
with sulfur
 do not contain oxygen like Work
sulfates Equation 9.1 Work Equation
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
Rock
 naturally occurring
 coherent aggregate of one or more minerals Equation 9.2 Work with Inclination Equation
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)(cos 𝜃)
Rock Types
1. Sedimentary
 deposited and lithified (compacted
and cemented together) at the
Power
Equation 10.1 Power Equation
earth’s surface, with assistance from
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
running wind, water, ice, or living 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
organisms 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 generally stratified (have layers)
Circuits
2. Metamorphic
 formed by changes in pre-existing Equation 11.1 Voltage Equation
rocks under the influence of high 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)(𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
temperature, pressure, and
chemically active solutions
 changes can be chemical Equation 11.2 Conductance Equation
(compositional) or physical
(textural) 1
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 often formed by processes deep
within the earth
3. Igneous
 solidify from magma
 formed at high temperatures
 intrusive igneous: formed in the
crust
 extrusive igneous: formed on the
surface or ocean bottom

Kinetic and Potential Energy

Equation 8.1 Kinetic Energy Equation
1
𝐾𝐸 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)2
2

5|Science
1
k is a constant called the proportionality constant
2
R is a proportionality constant, called the gas constant
3
μ is molar mass
4
gravity constant is −9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2