CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION:

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold,

which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified
part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process.
Casting materials are usually metals or various time setting materials that cure after mixing two or
more components together.
Examples: - Epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay.

Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods. Heavy equipment like machine tool beds, ship's propeller
etc. can be cast easily in the required size rather than fabricating them by joining several small
pieces.

Casting or reforming materials by heating, melting and molding can be traced back in
history six thousand years. As civilization progressed and the use of metals became more advanced,
the technology of casting metals advanced as well. As foundry industries began to demand higher
yields and better physical properties from cast metal products, casting processes became more
specialized.

The centrifugal casting method was developed after the turn of the 20th century to meet the need
for higher standards. The process of centrifugal casting differs from static casting in that the mold
itself is spinning during the time, casting is solidifying. Centrifugal castings are usually poured
while the mold is spinning; however, for certain applications, particularly in the case of a vertical
casting, it is sometimes preferable that the mold be stationary when pouring begins. The machine
then accelerates the speed of the rotating mold either during the filling of the mold or after
completion of pouring. In other cases, such as horizontal centrifugal casting, it is often desirable to
have the mold rotating at a lower speed during pouring, followed by rapid acceleration to a higher
speed during the solidification period. The application of centrifugal force to a molten metal as it
solidifies can be used to achieve a dense, sound casting.

The centrifugal casting process is most widely used for manufacturing of cast iron tubes, pipes,
cylinder liners and other axis-symmetry parts.

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1.2 CASTING METHODS:

There are different types of casting methods. Mainly, we discuss about three important types. There
are:-
1. Gravity (sand) casting
2. Die casting
3. Centrifugal casting

1. GRAVITY (SAND) CASTING

Sand Casting is the process whereby liquid or molten material is poured into a mold and
permitted to solidify. The mold and casting are separated from each other. Molds are frequently
made of sand or other ceramic materials, although they may also be made of metal or carbon
(graphite). The latter type of mold, whether metal or graphite is referred to as “permanent mold”
because it is reusable for making a large number of castings. Ceramic or sand molds, by contrast,
produce only one cast of metal and are then destroyed; new molds must be made for each cycle of
casting.

Figure 1.1

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 Gravity casting with the usage of core

2. DIE CASTING

Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under
high pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies
which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process.
Most die casting are made non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminum, magnesium,
lead and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot –or- cold chamber
machine is used.

The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the
process to high volume production. Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple,
involving only four main steps, which keeps the incremental cost per item low. It is especially
suited for a large quantity of small- to- medium sized castings, which is why die casting produces
more castings than any other casting process. Die castings are characterized by a very good surface
finish and dimensional consistency.

Figure 1.2 gravity casting

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1.3 CENTRIFUAL CASTING:

In the centrifugal casting process, molten metal is poured into a spinning die. The die can be
spinning either on a vertical or horizontal axis depending on the configuration of the desired part.
By spinning a mold while molten metal is poured into it, centrifugal force acts to distribute the
molten metal in the mold at pressures approaching 100 times the force of gravity.

Figure 1.3 centrifugal casting

1.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

It works on basic principle of centrifugal force on a rotating Component. In this process, a
mould is rotated about its central axis when the molten metal is poured into it. A centrifugal force
acts on molten metal due to this rotation, which forces the metal at outer wall of mould. The mould
rotates until the whole casting solidifies. The slag oxide and other inclusion being lighter, gets
separated from metal and segregate towards the centre.

Figure.1.4

Working principle of centrifugal casting

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1.5 TYPES OF CENTRIFUAL CASTING:
There are two basic classes of centrifugal casting machines: Vertical and horizontal. These
terms are related to the position of the rotation axis of the machines. 

They are:-

A. Horizontal (True) centrifugal casting machine.

B. Vertical (Spin) centrifugal casting machine.

A. Horizontal Centrifugal Casting:

The horizontal method means that a mold, or die, spins about a horizontal axis. This occurs
with the mold, or die, sitting on four trunnion wheels, the mold mounted to a single faceplate or a
mold, or die, being clamped between two faces.

Figure 1.5 (a) Horizontal Centrifugal Casting

B. Vertical Centrifugal Casting:

The vertical method means that a mold, or die, spins about a vertical axis. This occurs with the
mold or die, sitting on flange mount bearings.

The vertical centrifugal casting process consists of several stages. At the beginning, the
molten metal is poured into a vertically oriented preheated rotating die. The centrifugal forces in
the vertical spinning mold then cause the molten metal to spread horizontally and vertically along
the inner diameter of the mold so that it assumes the specified shape.

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 As the mold and die spin, the denser elements of the molten metal are pushed toward the outer
diameter. In a process known as directional solidification, the mold acts as a cooling surface which
solidifies the metal from the outer diameter as it moves towards the bore. This process causes
impurities to ‘float’ toward the inner diameter, from which they can be machined away when the
casting process is complete.

The result is a final product with superior mechanical properties and a more uniform, fine grain
structure. For this reason, vertical centrifugal casting techniques are used to manufacture
components in the aviation, aerospace, military, petrochemical, and any other industries that require
high-reliability components.

Figure 1.5 (b) Vertical Centrifugal Casting

Vertical centrifugal casting can also be used to cast non-cylindrical parts such as valves and
propellers by using specialty castings. Other products that are commonly produced with vertical
centrifugal casting methods include:

 Balls for ball valves

 Gear blanks

 Short bushings

 Flanges

 Sprockets

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1.6 ADVANTAGES OF VERTICAL CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS:
1. In vertical centrifugal casting process trapped gases and turbulence are eliminated.
2. It is having lower porosity and higher density.
3. Vertical die cast machines take up less space than horizontal machine.
4. Mold changes on vertical die cast machines average about half of the time compared to
horizontal centrifugal casting machines.
5. This technique is best suited for the mass production of symmetrical objects and Castings
yield is very high in some cases it is even equal to 100%.

1.7 DIS - ADVANTAGES OF VERTICAL CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE:

1. Skilled labour are to be employed for this process

2. Only some shapes can be generated by this casting process
3. Not all alloys can be cast in this way.
4. Centrifugal castings require very high investments.
5. Only some shapes can be generated by this casting process.

1.8 APPLICATIONS OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:

Centrifugal castings are used over a broad field of application and the process allows the
manufacture of components in many alloy types, both ferrous and non-ferrous.
 Rings, flanges and compressor casings are cast in martensitic and austenitic heat resisting
steels and nickel-rich alloys for the aircraft industry.
 Steam-turbine bearing-shells in leaded nickel bronze.
 Reducing roller for steel-rolling mills in alloy iron, spheroidal-graphite iron and carbon-
steel.
 Corrosion-resisting rolls for the textile and cellophane industries in stainless steel.
 Cylinder liners, gear blanks and piston-ring blanks in all grade of grey iron for the motor-
car industry.
 Rollers, ball or plain bearings in phosphor-bronze and other copper-rich alloys for the
engineering industries.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Abhay Kumar [1]:

In the present work, an attempt has been made to design an experimental set up for
centrifugal casting of ceramic slurry using the motor of a laboratory centrifuge. However it make it
feasible one need to design and fabricate a suitable rotor head capable to hold tightly the casting
mould while rotating in the same axis of the motor. Thus, the present study aims to design and
fabricate a suitable rotor head in order to make the centrifugal casting technique viable. The rotor
head has been designed and fabricated in such ways that it can tightly fitted with motor shaft and
hold the mould during rotation without any appreciable vibration. An attempt has also been made to
cast alumina tube using the experimental set up thus designed. In order to fabricate the alumina
tube, aqueous alumina slurry has been prepared with the addition of suitable electrolyte and binder.
Microstructure of sintered body has also been studied.

Adedipe Oyewole and Abolarin Matthew Sunday [2]:

This research was performed to design and fabrication of a centrifugal casting machine was
successfully carried out. The operation of the machine was based on the principle of centrifugal
force. Suitable design theory, analysis and calculation were adopted carried out in the course of the
work. The mold is bolted to the base plate which can rotate at moderate speeds thereby forcing the
molten metal against the inner walls of the mold. This machine could be used to cast small
engineering components. The centrifugal force on the machine was determined to be 3207.3N,
while the required power on the machine was 854.7W. A test was carried out on the fabricated
centrifugal casting machine with aluminum alloy and the machine was able to cast 6kg of
aluminum alloy and the casting was successful.

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Eurico Augusto R. Seabra [3]:

This presentation concerns to the development of a centrifugal casting equipment to produce engine
pistons with gradient of properties. Pistons require different properties in different areas of their
body, such as high thermal fatigue resistance in the top, high wear resistance in the pin-bore area
and low weight in the skirt. Reliable processing techniques for that purpose have not been
established yet, and results obtained so far reveal sharp and undesirable interfaces. A possible
solution might be a well controlled sequential pouring technique of different materials that lead to a
smooth gradient of composition/properties between different piston functional areas, using
centrifugal casting. For this purpose a special design of a vertical axis centrifugal casting machine
was developed. A detailed study of the centrifugal pouring process and the inherent fluid dynamics
was performed to develop a conceptual design and operation parameters and input/output system
variables were established. A sketch of the equipment was developed and established the main
components and interconnections. Finally, the design and selection of the systems components was
done accordingly to the main goals of this work. This paper analyses and discusses all of the
referred design phases, including selection and prototype implementation of the necessary
actuators.

M. D. Patel [4]:

The aim of the project is design and development of centrifugal casting machine. This
machine produces hollow cylindrical parts. The casting part reduces porosity and makes a sound
casting part. The operation of the machine is based on the principle of centrifugal force. Suitable
design theory and calculation were adopted carried out in the course of the work. The mold is
bolted to the base plate which can rotate at moderate speeds thereby forcing the molten metal
against the inner walls of the mold. This machine could be used to cast small engineering
components in small industries and for practical purpose in workshop.

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Siva Nanda Kumar [5]:

This project focuses on fabrication of horizontal centrifugal casting machine

and producing aluminium metal matrix composite from the fabricated machine. Fabrication process
started theoretically with design calculations and drafting’s. Practically mold was prepared with
cast iron pipe and steel bars are used to prepare frame. Mold attached to one end of the shaft and
shaft placed over the frame with the help of bearings. Belt drive is used to transmit power from
motor to the shaft.

Melt of aluminium was obtained in a crucible by using gas fired furnace. Aluminium
(Al1100) melt was mixed up with reinforcement (2% Al₂O₃) by stirring setup, to get desired
properties. Reinforced molten metal is poured into rotating mold of centrifugal casting machine and
allowed to solidify. Solidified cylindrical composite was gone through different tests like tensile
test, hardness test, wear test and microstructure to know the mechanical properties and structural
behavior. Results obtained are very promising.

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 CHAPTER 3

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

3.1Definition of composite materials:-

Composites are combination of two materials in which one of the material is called
the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the other
material called the matrix phase. It is the main constituent of composites materials mainly
responsible for its mechanical properties. Its percentage in the composite may be up to 70% by
volume.

Figure 3.1 Composition of Composites

3.2 INTRODUCTION OF MATRIX MATERIALS:

The function of the matrix in a composite material is usually multifold. Matrices are
designed to protect the reinforcing phase from structural damage, corrosive attack, and reactions
that would degrade the reinforcement properties. The matrix phase also serves to transmit applied

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stresses to reinforce constituents and stabilize them against buckling in situations
where compressive stresses are axially applied to the cylindrical fibers.

In other cases, the matrix may share load-carrying responsibility with the reinforcing phase. This
aspect is important in particulate strengthened composites; furthermore, the matrix may be selected
for its physical properties, such as density, thermal, and electrical conductivity (or electrical
sensitivity), thermal expansivity, melting or softening temperature.

3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MATRIX MATERIALS:

Figure.3.2 classification of matrix materials

3.3.1. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC):-

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and
desirable mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are

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extensively used in aeronautical applications.

Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets have qualities such
as a well-bonded three-dimensional molecular structure after curing. They decompose instead of
melting on hardening. Merely changing the basic composition of the resin is enough to alter the
conditions suitably for curing and determine its other characteristics. They can be retained in a
partially cured condition too over prolonged periods of time, rendering Thermosets very flexible.
Thus, they are most suited as matrix bases for advanced conditions fiber reinforced composites.
Thermosets find wide ranging applications in the chopped fiber composites form particularly
when a premixed or moulding compound with fibers of specific quality and aspect ratio happens
to be starting material as in epoxy, polymer and phenolic polyamide resins.

Thermoplastics have one- or two-dimensional molecular structure and they tend to at an elevated
temperature and show exaggerated melting point. Another advantage is that the process of
softening at elevated temperatures can reversed to regain its properties during cooling,
facilitating applications of conventional compress techniques to mould the compounds.

Resins reinforced with thermoplastics now comprised an emerging group of composites. The
theme of most experiments in this area to improve the base properties of the resins and extract
the greatest functional advantages from them in new avenues, including attempts to replace
metals in die-casting processes. In crystalline thermoplastics, the reinforcement affects the
morphology to a considerable extent, prompting the reinforcement to empower nucleation.
Whenever crystalline or amorphous, these resins possess the facility to alter their creep over an
extensive range of temperature. But this range includes the point at which the usage of resins is
constrained, and the reinforcement in such systems can increase the failure load as well as creep
resistance. Figure shows kinds of thermoplastics.

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 Figure.3.3 Thermoplastics

A small quantum of shrinkage and the tendency of the shape to retain its original form are also to
be accounted for. But reinforcements can change this condition too. The advantage of
thermoplastics systems over thermosets are that there are no chemical reactions involved, which
often result in the release of gases or heat. Manufacturing is limited by the time required for
heating, shaping and cooling the structures.

Thermoplastics resins are sold as molding compounds. Fiber reinforcement is apt for these
resins. Since the fibers are randomly dispersed, the reinforcement will be almost isotropic.
However, when subjected to molding processes, they can be aligned directionally.

There are a few options to increase heat resistance in thermoplastics. Addition of fillers raises the
heat resistance. But all thermoplastic composites tend loose their strength at elevated
temperatures. However, their redeeming qualities like rigidity, toughness and ability to
repudiate creep, place thermoplastics in the important composite materials bracket. They are
used in automotive control panels, electronic products encasement etc.

Newer developments augur the broadening of the scope of applications of thermoplastics. Huge
sheets of reinforced thermoplastics are now available and they only require sampling and heating
to be molded into the required shapes. This has facilitated easy fabrication of bulky components,
doing away with the more cumbersome molding compounds.

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Thermosets are the most popular of the fiber composite matrices without which, research and
development in structural engineering field could get truncated. Aerospace components,
automobile parts, defense systems etc., use a great deal of this type of fiber composites. Epoxy
matrix materials are used in printed circuit boards and similar areas. Figure.3.4 shows some
kinds of thermosets.

Figure.3.4 Thermoset Materials

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Direct condensation polymerization followed by rearrangement reactions to form heterocyclic
entities is the method generally used to produce thermoset resins. Water, a product of the
reaction, in both methods, hinders production of void-free composites. These voids have a
negative effect on properties of the composites in terms of strength and dielectric properties.
Polyesters phenolic and Epoxies are the two important classes of thermoset resins.

Epoxy resins are widely used in filament-wound composites and are suitable for molding
prepress. They are reasonably stable to chemical attacks and are excellent adherents having
slow shrinkage during curing and no emission of volatile gases. These advantages, however,
make the use of epoxies rather expensive. Also, they cannot be expected beyond a temperature of
140ºC. Their use in high technology areas where service temperatures are higher, as a result, is
ruled out.

Polyester resins on the other hand are quite easily accessible, cheap and find use in a wide range
of fields. Liquid polyesters are stored at room temperature for months, sometimes for years and
the mere addition of a catalyst can cure the matrix material within a short time. They are used in
automobile and structural applications.

The cured polyester is usually rigid or flexible as the case may be and transparent. Polyesters
withstand the variations of environment and stable against chemicals. Depending on the
formulation of the resin or service requirement of application, they can be used up to about 75ºC
or higher. Other advantages of polyesters include easy compatibility with few glass fibers and
can be used with verify of reinforced plastic accoutrey.

Aromatic Polyamides are the most sought after candidates as the matrices of advanced fiber
composites for structural applications demanding long duration exposure for continuous service
at around 200-250ºC .

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3.3.2. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC):-

Metal matrix composites, at present though generating a wide interest in research fraternity, are
not as widely in use as their plastic counterparts. High strength, fracture toughness and stiffness
are offered by metal matrices than those offered by their polymer counterparts. They can
withstand elevated temperature in corrosive environment than polymer composites. Most metals
and alloys could be used as matrices and they require reinforcement materials which need to be
stable over a range of temperature and non-reactive too. However the guiding aspect for the
choice depends essentially on the matrix material. Light metals form the matrix for temperature
application and the reinforcements in addition to the aforementioned reasons are characterized by
high moduli.

Most metals and alloys make good matrices. However, practically, the choices for low
temperature applications are not many. Only light metals are responsive, with their low density
proving an advantage. Titanium, Aluminum and magnesium are the popular matrix metals
currently in vogue, which are particularly useful for aircraft applications. If metallic matrix
materials have to offer high strength, they require high modulus reinforcements. The strength-to-
weight ratios of resulting composites can be higher than most alloys.

The melting point, physical and mechanical properties of the composite at various temperatures
determine the service temperature of composites. Most metals, ceramics and compounds can be
used with matrices of low melting point alloys. The choice of reinforcements becomes more
stunted with increase in the melting temperature of matrix materials.

3.3.3. Ceramic Matrix Materials (CMM):-

Ceramics can be described as solid materials which exhibit very strong ionic bonding in
general and in few cases covalent bonding. High melting points, good corrosion resistance,
stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength, render ceramic-based matrix
materials a favorite for applications requiring a structural material that doesn’t give way at
temperatures above 1500ºC. Naturally, ceramic matrices are the obvious choice for high
temperature applications.

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 High modulus of elasticity and low tensile strain, which most ceramics posses, have combined to
cause the failure of attempts to add reinforcements to obtain strength improvement. This is
because at the stress levels at which ceramics rupture, there is insufficient elongation of the
matrix which keeps composite from transferring an effective quantum of load to the
reinforcement and the composite may fail unless the percentage of fiber volume is high enough.
A material is reinforcement to utilize the higher tensile strength of the fiber, to produce an
increase in load bearing capacity of the matrix. Addition of high-strength fiber to a weaker
ceramic has not always been successful and often the resultant composite has proved to be
weaker.

The use of reinforcement with high modulus of elasticity may take care of the problem to some
extent and presents pre-stressing of the fiber in the ceramic matrix is being increasingly resorted
to as an option.

When ceramics have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than reinforcement materials, the
resultant composite is unlikely to have a superior level of strength. In that case, the composite
will develop strength within ceramic at the time of cooling resulting in micro cracks extending
from fiber to fiber within the matrix. Micro cracking can result in a composite with tensile
strength lower than that of the matrix.

3.3.4. Carbon and Graphite matrix composites:-

Carbon–carbon composites consist of carbon fibers in a graphite matrix. The carbon fibers used

have high modulus, and exhibit relatively high tensile strength (Mallick, 2007). Carbon fibers are
manufactured by graphitization of precursors such as a textile or pitch.

The specific advantage of carbon-carbon is light weight and low density, high strength and
stiffness, high thermal conductivity, low co-efficient of thermal expansion, high fracture
toughness, and high thermal conductivity means that carbon- carbon materials also possess
excellent thermal shock resistance. More ever, almost uniquely among materials, the strength of
these composites increases with increasing temperature.

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3.4 ALUMINUM IS A METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE:

Basically, aluminum is used as a metal matrix material in this project report. Aluminum
metal matrix composites (AMMC's) with high specific stiffness and high strength could be used in
long-term application in which saving weight is an important feature; such applications include
robots, high speed machinery, high-speed rotating shafts, and automotive engine and brake parts.

 ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:

 Aluminum alloys in which aluminum (Al) is the predominant metal. The typical alloying

elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin and zinc. There are two principal
classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into
the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminum is used for wrought
products, for example rolled plate, foils and extrusions. Cast aluminum alloys yield cost-effective
products due to the low melting point, although they generally have lower tensile strengths than
wrought alloys. The most important cast aluminum alloy system is Al–Si, where the high levels of
silicon (4.0–13%) contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminum alloys are widely used
in engineering structures and components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required.

ALUMINUM ALLOYS GRADE SERIES:

The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted naming scheme
for wrought alloys. Each alloy is given a four-digit number, where the first digit indicates the major
alloying elements, the second — if different from 0 — indicates a variation of the alloy, and the
third and fourth digits identify the specific alloy in the series. For example, in alloy 3105, the
number 3 indicates the alloy is in the manganese series, 1 indicates the first modification of alloy
3005, and finally 05 identifies it in the 3000 series.

There are following the different types of aluminum alloy grade series.

 1000 series are essentially pure aluminum with a minimum 99% aluminum content by
weight and can be work hardened.
 2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to strengths comparable
to steel. Formerly referred to as duralumin, they were once the most common aerospace alloys,
but were susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series in
new designs.
 3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work hardened.

4000 series are alloyed with silicon. Variations of aluminum-silicon alloys intended for casting
(and therefore not included in 4000 series) are also known as silumin.

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 5000 series are alloyed with magnesium, and offer superb corrosion resistance, making
them suitable for marine applications. Also, 5083 alloy has the highest strength of not heat-
treated alloys. Most 5000 series alloys include manganese as well.
 6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon. They are easy to machine,
are weldable, and can be precipitation hardened, but not to the high strengths that 2000 and
7000 can reach. 6061 alloy is one of the most commonly used general-purpose aluminum
alloys.
 7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to the highest strengths
of any aluminum alloy (ultimate tensile strength up to 700 MPa for the 7068 alloy). Most 7000
series alloys include magnesium and copper as well.
 8000 series are alloyed with other elements which are not covered by other series.

In this vertical centrifugal casting project Al 1100 (aluminum alloy) grade series were used.
Because, it is an aluminum-based alloy in the "commercially pure" wrought family (1000 or 1xxx
series). With a minimum of 99.0% aluminum, it is the most heavily alloyed of the 1000 series. It is
also the mechanically strongest alloy in the series, and is the only 1000-series alloy commonly used
in rivets. At the same time, it keeps the benefits of being relatively lightly alloyed (compared to
other series), such as high electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, and
workability. It can be strengthened by cold working, but not by heat treatment

Alloy composition of 1100 aluminum is:

 Aluminum : 99.0–99.95%
 Copper : 0.05–0.20%
 Iron : 0.95% max
 Manganese : 0.05% max
 Silicon : 0.95% max
 Zinc : 0.1% max
 Residuals : 0.15% max

3.5 APPLICATIONS
3.5.1 Aerospace:

The absolute requirement for light structures, made only stronger by environmental
regulations, make aluminum and its alloys now more than ever the number one material in the sky.
In the last 35 years, newly designed alloys and increasingly innovative conversion and assembly
processes have halved the weigh to fan air plane's
structure.Theirpercentageinaircraftstructuressoldtoairlinescompanies70% of what goes into an
airframe and are an indispensable part of the programs in the world.

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3.5.2 Marine:

Marine transport is increasing its use of aluminum by capitalizing on its two leading
qualities: lightness and corrosion resistance. Advanced alloys have enabled the design of high-
speed ships, by lightening hulls by 40%to50%oversteel.Corrosionresistance,even on the water,
make for more durable hulls, may stand super structures on pleasure boat sand the bridges and
superstructures of passenger ship sand merchant ships.

Rail –Lighter structures, resistance and durability have made aluminum crucial to rail transport
applications .The FrenchSNCF 2-levelhigh-speedtrainismadeof aluminum alloy sheet metal and
extrusions, as are many subways and computer trains throughout the world.

REINFORCEMENT MATERIALS:

A reinforcement material was added to the matrix material to enhance the physical
properties of the final composite material. Two kind of reinforcement material was used mostly by
the researcher's, namely synthetic fiber and natural fiber. Secondary reinforcement was added to the
composite material to further enhance the properties of the composite. When two or more
reinforcement material were added to the matrix material, then this kind of composite was called as
hybrid composite.

Some examples of reinforcement materials:- Al₂O₃, sic, carbon fibers, Ceramic etc…..,

Silicon Carbide-Aluminum MMC one such example of MMC is an aluminum matrix

composite reinforced with silicon carbide (Al-Sic). The most important property of aluminum-

silicon carbide with reference to the aerospace industry is its strength to weight ratio, which is three

times more than mild steel[14]. In addition, composites containing Sic (reinforcing material) and Al

(matrix) have high modulus, strength values; wear resistance, high thermal stability, less weight

and a more effective load carrying capacity compared to many other materials. It is also expected

that this composite will exhibit good corrosion/ oxidation properties since silicon carbide forms a

protective coating of silicon oxide at 1,200°C [9] and, as discussed earlier; aluminum also displays
21
a similar reaction. Therefore, it can be seen that this material offers considerable advantages to the

aerospace industry especially in applications that require good thermal and tensile properties.

22
 CHAPTER 4

BASIC EQUIPMENTS AND OPERATIONS USED IN VERTICAL

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE

4.1 PARTS OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE:

4.1.1 Mold:

Sand molds, semi permanent molds, and permanent molds can be used for the
centrifugal casting process. Centrifugal action can also be combined with other molding methods
such as investment casting. Selection of the type of mold is determined by the shape of the casting,

the degree of quality needed, material to be cast, and the production (number of castings) required.
In addition to the processing parameters, proper mold design and selection is vital to producing
quality castings. More details on mold design are provided in the articles “Horizontal Centrifugal
Casting” and Vertical Centrifugal Casting” in this Volume. Molds consist basically of four parts:
the mold body, track grooves or roller tracks on the body (these can be absent if the machine has
thrust wheels to hold the mold axially), endplates attached to the mold body, and endplate swing
locks or taper pins/wedges. A vertical mold needs fixtures to fasten it onto the adapter table, and the
table is bolted onto the spinner shaft. A mold used on a dual-faceplate horizontal machine can have
a mold body without other mold parts. Mold materials include metallic permanent molds,
refractory-lined metal molds, sand-lined metal molds, and other materials such as graphite and
rubbers. The metallic permanent molds are most widely used because of their reusability, accurate
casting geometry, and high productivity. Mold inside diameters are subject to thermal fatigue no
matter what mold material is used. The low-carbon and low-alloyed forged steel molds have much
longer fatigue lives than cast steel or cast iron molds, and they are also safer to use. However,
forged steel molds are more expensive to make than molds made of cast steel and iron. Copper
alloys, tool steels, and super alloys are sometimes used for small castings that require high pour
temperatures or high cooling rates. Hardened rubber molds are used for some metal jewellery with
low melting points.

23
 Both horizontal and vertical molds must meet certain geometrical precisions
(straightness, smoothness, roundness, concentricity, freedom from internal pores) to minimize
machine vibration, which can be critical to safety, bearing life, machine life, and product quality.
The mold should also be maintained or repaired during the life of its service. For example, the
inside diameter of a ductile iron pipe mold is periodically penned to eliminate tensile stress caused
by thermal fatigue. Large grooves or cracks on the mold inside diameter can be repaired by sub arc
welding and grinding. The mold geometric accuracy can be maintained through re machining and
grinding. Mold endplates should be properly designed to prevent molten metal leakage. It cannot be
overemphasized that the mold endplate locks and mold fasteners are designed with a safety factor
greater than 10 to prevent the endplates from coming off the mold or the molds from coming off the
machine, which can cause catastrophic molten metal spilling. The push force (F) on the endplates
generated by the spinning metal is expressed by the following equation:

Where r is the molten metal density (kg/m3), N is the mold spinning speed (rpm), do
is the casting outside diameter (m), and di is the casting inside diameter (m).

This equation illustrates that the pushing force increases rapidly with the spinning
speed (squared), casting diameter (squared), casting thickness (squared), as well as the metal
density. Therefore, whenever a large or thick casting is to be poured, the pushing force on the
endplates must be calculated so that the stresses of the endplate locks, bolts, pins, and fasteners can
be calculated and properly designed.

4.1.2 Pulley:
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and
change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt.
In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is
used to guide the cable or exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be
called a sheave.

A pulley may have a groove or grooves between flanges around its circumference to

locate the cable or belt. The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain.
24
 Figure 4.1: pulley

These are different types of pulley systems:

 Fixed: A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A

fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its
circumference. Mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable
pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter.

 Movable: A movable pulley has an axle in a movable block. A single movable pulley is

supported by two parts of the same rope and has a mechanical advantage of two.

 Compound: A combination of fixed and movable pulleys forms a block and tackle.
A block and tackle can have several pulleys mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further
increasing the mechanical advantage.

25
 Figure 4.2: Pulley systems

Advantages of pulleys:

 It provides mechanical advantage while lifting heavy loads.

 Silent in operation.
 At acts as a support for long distance moving ropes.
 Easy and cheaper to manufacture than gears.
 No lubrication required.
Disadvantages of pulleys:

 It works makes use of friction while transferring motion hence there are chances of slip.
However, this problem can be solved using timing belt and timing pulley as discussed above.
 It is not a suitable solution for very high-power transfer at high rpm.
 While taking mechanical advantage lifting distance increases.
 In long time fatigue and creep happens to rope.
 Not as reliable when compared with gears.
Applications of pulleys:

 I-pulley can be used as can idler: the same case which is used for fetching water from the
well.
 For motion transfer between shaft and rope (or belt).

26
4.1.3 Belt: A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more
rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion,
to transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over pulleys and may
have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.

In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction
(the same if on parallel shafts), or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the driven shaft is
reversed (the opposite direction to the driver if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion,
a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously between
two points.

Figure 4.3: Belt

4.1.3.1 Types of Belt Drives:

In a two pulley system, depending upon the direction the belt drives the pulley, the
belt drives are divided into two types. They are open belt drive and crossed belt drive. The two
types of belt drives are discussed below in brief.

27
Open belt drives:

An open belt drive is used to rotate the driven pulley in the same direction of driving
pulley. In the motion of belt drive, power transmission results make one side of pulley more
tightened compared to the other side. In horizontal drives, tightened side is always kept on the
lower side of two pulleys because the sag of the upper side slightly increases the angle of folding of
the belt on the two pulleys.

Figure 4.4: Open belt drive

Crossed belt drives:

A crossed belt drive is used to rotate driven pulley in the opposite direction of
driving pulley. Higher the value of wrap enables more power can be transmitted than an open belt
drive. However, bending and wear of the belt are important concerns.

Figure 4.5: Crossed belt drive

28
4.1.3.2 Advantages of belt drives:

 Belt drives are simple are economical.

 They don’t need parallel shafts.
 Belts drives are provided with overload and jam protection.
 Noise and vibration are damped out. Machinery life is increased because load
fluctuations are shock-absorbed.
 They are lubrication-free. They require less maintenance cost.
 Belt drives are highly efficient in use (up to 98%, usually 95%).
 They are very economical when the distance between shafts is very large.

4.1.3.3 Disadvantages of belt drives:

 In Belt drives, angular velocity ratio is not necessarily constant or equal to the ratio of
pulley diameters, because of slipping and stretching.
 Heat buildup occurs. Speed is limited to usually 35 meters per second. Power
transmission is limited to 370 kilowatts.
 Operating temperatures are usually restricted to –35 to 85°C.
 Some adjustment of canter distance or use of an idler pulley is necessary for wearing
and stretching of belt drive compensation.
4.1.4 Prime Mover:
Three Phase Induction Motor:

An electrical motor is such an electromechanical device which converts electrical

energy into a mechanical energy. In case of three phase AC operation, most widely used motor is
three phase induction motor as this type of motor does not require any starting device or we can
say they are self-starting induction motors. For better understanding, the principle of three phase
induction motor, the essential constructional feature of this motor must be known to us.

29
This Motor consists of two major parts:
Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor:

Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to construct

a 3 phase winding circuit which we connect with 3 phase AC source. We arrange the three-phase
winding in such a manner in the slots that they produce one rotating magnetic field. When we
switch on the three-phase AC supply source.

Figure 4.6: Stator

Rotor of Three Phase Induction Motor:

Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with
parallel slots that can carry conductors. The conductors are heavy copper or aluminium bars fitted
in each slot and short-circuited by the end rings. The slots are not exactly made parallel to the axis
of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed because this arrangement reduces magnetic humming
noise and can avoid stalling of the motor.

30
 Figure 4.7: Rotor

4.1.6 Flange mount bearing:

Flange mount bearing are a form of bearing unit that supports

heavy loads when the shaft axis is perpendicular to the mounting surface. It is a rigid housing
which allows the unit to rotate within a stable and carefully controlled environment. The housing is
bolted to the foundation of the unit, and allows the outer ring to stay still while the inner ring is able
to freely rotate.

Figure 4.8: Flange mount bearing

It is the high speed the flange mount bearing can safely function at before failure. It
is also known as the rating life L10, a statistical measure of the lice which 90% of a group of
apparently identical ball bearing will achieve it exceed. It is a combination of radial loads and
thrust forces.

31
 Flange mount bearings can be used for many applications is rotary motor, micro-motor soft
drive, pressure rotor, dental drive, power tools, food processing machinery, textile, baggage
systems, and various other light duty industrial applications.

4.2 MACHINING OPERATIONS:

4.2.1 Facing: This operation is almost essential for all works. In this operation, as shown in fig.,
the work piece is held in the chuck and the facing tool is fed from the centre of the work piece
towards the outer surface or from the outer surface to the centre, with the help of a cross-slide.

4.2.2 Plane Turning: It is an operation of removing excess amount of material from the surface
the surface of the cylinder work piece. In this operation, shown in fig., the work is held either in the
chuck or between centers & the longitudinal feed is given to the tool either by hand or power.

4.2.3 Step Turning: It is an operation of producing various steps of different diameters of in the
work piece as shown in fig. This operation is carried out in the similar way as plain turning.

4.2.4 Reaming: It is an operation of finishing the previously drilled hole. In the operation as
shown in fig., a reamer is held in the tailstock and it is fed into the hole in the similar way as for
drilling.

4.3JOINING PROCESSES:

Two methods used to join of materials permanent and semi-permanent, different materials can be
joined in many different ways depending on the joint needs to be permanent or semi-permanent.
They are (Welding, Brazing, Soldering, Riveting, Adhesives, Nuts and bolts and washers, Knock-
down fittings, Screws).

32
4.3.1 Permanent Joining Process (welding):

4.3.1.1 Permanent: This term refer to welding, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding. In
these processes a permanent joint between the parts is formed and cannot be separated easily, if
separate these parts are damage.

4.3.1.2 Welding:

The process of joining two similar or dissimilar materials by application of heat, with or without
the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.

Welding is a material joining process in which two or more parts are assembled (joined together) at
their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Sometimes parts are
united together by application of pressure only without external heat. In some welding process a
filler material is added to facilitate united. Welding is used most commonly with metallic parts but
for plastics also it is used.

The main method of permanently joining metals is by welding. Two main types of welding are
conventional and nonconventional welding. There are many types of welding as MIG and TIG,
oxyacetylene welding, electric arc and spot and seam welding, all involve permanently joining
metals by the use of heat, causing the two main pieces of metal to become molten and using a
joining material to mix them before they solidify, forming a permanent, strong joint.

4.3.1.3 Conventional Welding Classification:

Welding processes usually divided into three main groups, solid state and liquid state welding, but
there are third type namely solid/liquid state. With three types the materials are joined together with
these methods cannot separate easily and achieved by pressure, pressure and heat, or heat only.

Solid-state Welding Processes; In solid state welding such as friction welding, forge welding,
explosion welding, etc. The surfaces to be joined are brought into close proximity by heating the
surfaces without causing melting and applying normal pressure and providing relative motion

33
between the two surfaces, after stop the motion is applying high pressure without heating. In these
processes the materials remain in solid state and welding is achieved through the application of heat
and pressure, or high pressure only.

Liquid State (Fusion) Welding Processes; arc welding, resistance welding, oxy fuel gas welding,
etc. There are two inherent problems with fusion welding, effect of localized heating and rapid
cooling on the microstructure of the parent metals and effect of residual stresses developed in the
parent metals due to restrained expansion or contraction.

Solid / Liquid State Bonding; In this state low temperature joining methods are used when the
metal to be joined cannot withstand to high temperature, or complex sections are to be joined, or
dissimilar metals are to be joined, or weld ability of material is poor. Also in these methods, the gap
between the metal pieces to be joined is filled with molten filler material after heating the base
metal. Melting point of filler material is much lower than base metals. The bonding is not due to
melting of parent metal.

Filler material is drawn into the gap between the metal pieces to be joined by capillary action and
the bond formation is started when the molten filler metal comes to contact with the solid surface as
in solid state welding. The nature of bond formed is much complex here, there is some of inter-
solubility between filler and base metals to produced resulting alloy. This inter-diffusion at the base
metal surface and resulting alloy has a strength which is very close to that the base metal.

Also for a good joint strength the liquid filler metal; must flow into the gap between the metal
pieces to be joined and cover the entire surface area, without gaps or blow holes. Usually to good
bonding are doing the following:

1. Clean base metal surfaces

2. Maintain optimum gap.

34
3. Heat the joining area above melting temperature of the filler material.

4. Use fluxes for welding of base metal surfaces.

Welding which is the process of joining two components for the desired purpose, can be defined as
the process of joining two similar or dissimilar materials components with the application of heat,
with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. Heat may be
obtained by chemical reaction, electric arc, electrical resistance, frictional heat, sound and light
energy etc.

4.3.2 Temporary Joining Process (Bolt and Nut):

4.3.2.1 Semi-permanent: this type of joint is a method of joining that is designed to be

permanent, this term refer to nuts and bolts and washers, knock-down fittings; however, it can be
disassembled without damage the materials.

4.3.2.2 Nuts, bolts and washers:

Nuts and bolts are used to hold two or more pieces of materials together in a semi permanent
method of joining. Bolts tend to be made from high tensile steel and are threaded (square or
hexagonal threaded) for all or part of the length of the shaft. Nuts used with bolts must have
matching diameter and thread form. They come in various forms, from wing nuts (made for easy
removal by hand) to hexagonal nuts and special locking nuts that resist coming loose. Types of
washers: Washers are used to protect the surface when nuts are tightened. They spread the load
applied to the surface and prevent loosening that can be caused by vibrations.

35
 CHAPTER 5

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) BY USING CATIA AND DESIGN

CALCULATIONS OF SPIN CASTING MACHINE
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO CAD:-

Computer-aided design (CAD) involves creating computer models defined by geometrical

parameters. These models typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional
representation of a part or a system of parts, which can be readily altered by changing relevant
parameters. CAD systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of representations
and to test these objects by simulating real-world conditions.

CAD had its origins in three separate sources, which also serve to highlight the basic operations
that CAD systems provide. The first source of CAD resulted from attempts to automate the drafting
process. These developments were pioneered by the General Motors Research Laboratories in the
early 1960s. One of the important time-saving advantages of computer modeling over traditional
drafting methods is that the former can be quickly corrected or manipulated by changing a model's
parameters. The second source of CAD was in the testing of designs by simulation. The use of
computer modeling to test products was pioneered by high-tech industries like aerospace and
semiconductors. The third source of CAD development resulted from efforts to facilitate the flow
from the design process to the manufacturing process using numerical control (NC) technologies,
which enjoyed widespread use in many applications by the mid-1960s.

5.2 CAD SOFTWARE:-

Here we focus on CAD (Computer Aided Design) software for mechanical objects. The software
can be highly specific, it is designed to be a technical tool with functions in industrial design,
mechanical design, architecture, and areas such as aerospace engineering and astronautics. A CAD
model will contain data like material properties, dimensions, tolerance and manufacturing process
specific information. Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and
animation capabilities to better visualize product design.

TYPES OF CAD SOFTWARES:-

Basically, there are different types of software’s. We are mainly mentioned the top 10
commercial CAD software’s. There are:-

36
1. TinkerCAD

2. FreeCAD

3. BlocksCAD

4. Creo

5. Fusion 360°

6. Solidworks

7. AutoCAD

8. CATIA

9. OpenSCAD

10. Rhino
In these project we are used the Catia software to draft the vertical casting setup and
molding setup.

The CATIA CAD solution has historically been developed for Dassault Aviation’s own needs. It is
more than a simple CAD Software, as it is also a multi-platform software suite for CAD, CAM
(Computer Aided Manufacturing), CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) and more. It is powered
by Dassault Systems’ 3DEXPERIENCE platform.  CATIA innovates product design and
experience by integrating various approaches in product design and development, enabling multiple
disciplines to leverage their existing tools throughout the stages of product development process.
Therefore, the software is very useful for industrial and creative designers, mechanical engineers,
and systems architects. CATIA provides a 3D design environment that enables online people and
stakeholders to share product designs and collaborate on product modeling.

Applications of Catia software in industries:-

 Aerospace industries
 Automotive industries
 High tech industries
 Ship building industries
 Energy, processes and utilities industries etc….,

37
5.3 CAD BY USING CATIA SOFTWARE:

Figure.5.1: Spin casting setup

Figure.5.2: Mould setup

From the above figures4.1 & 4.2 is drawn in assembly design by using Catia software. In
assembly design to assemble the more no. of parts and to get a one component, then component
parts are drawn in part design. From the figure4.1 as the vertical centrifugal casting machine setup
and figure4.2 is a mold setup.

38
PROCEDURE FOR DRAFTING THE SPIN CASTING SETUP:

Frame:

 Open the Catia software and select the part

design.
 Set the data setting at a required parameters
like.., (dimensions in mm).
 Select the point, axis system, geometrical
set and part body.
 Select the line command and draw the line
at a required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad command. Figure5.3 (frame)
 Set the required dimension of a pad for a part body.
 Click the ok button.
 Part1 is ready then, select the part1 face.
 Draw the part2 as above the same procedure.
 Select the chamfer command, chamfering the sharp edges.
 Repeat the same steps for a 12 frames (L- angular).
 Select the another dashboard and open the assembly design.
 Drag the frame1 to assembly bench work to given the command.
Figure.4.3 Frame
 Then, click the update command immediately.
 Fix the frame1 to use the fix command.
 Drag the frame2 by use the command to assembly bench work and update it
 Frame2 is to assemble the frame1 at a certain position.
 Then, select the update command.
 Repeat the same procedure frame2 and frame12 for a required position.

Flat plates:

 Open the Catia software and select the part

design.
 Set the data setting at a required parameters
like.., (dimensions in mm).
 Select the point, axis system, geometrical set and
part body.
 Select the line command and draw the line at a
required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad
command Figure.5.4 (flat plates)
39
  Set the required dimension of a pad for a body.
 Click the ok button.
 Part1 is ready then, select the part1 face.
 Select the circle command and to draw the circle
 To draw the circle for the centre of a part1 face.
 Select the pocket command to remove the material from part1.
 Repeat the same steps for a 3 flat plates
 Select the another dashboard and open the assembly design of frame
 Drag the flat plate1 to assembly bench work to given the command
 Then, click the update command immediately.
 Command the engineering connections to a flate plate1 and assembly frame
 And set the connections at required positions.
 Click the update command
 Repeat the same assembly procedure for a flate plate2 and 3.
 Give the engineering connections at a required position.

Flange mount bearings:

 Open the Catia software and select the part design.

 Set the data setting at required parameters like… (Dimensions in mm).
 Select the point, axis system, geometrical set and part body.
 Select the rectangular command and draw the rectangle at a
required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad command
 Set the required dimension of a pad for a part body.
 Click the ok button.
 Part1 is ready then, select the part1 face.
 Select the circle command and to draw the circle
 To draw the circle for the centre of a part1 face.
Figure5.5(flanged bearing)
 Select the pocket command to remove the material from part1.
 Again, select the part1 face and select the circle command.
 Draw the 4 circles at a required dimension to an edge.
 Select the pocket command to remove the material from part1.
 Select another dashboard and open the assembly design of frame.
 Drag the flanged bearing to assembly bench work to given the command.
 Then, click the update command immediately.
 Command the engineering connections to a flanged bearing and assembly frame
 And set the connections at required positions.
 Click the update command

40
  Repeat the same assembly procedure for a flanged bearing2.
 Give the engineering connections at a required position.

Shaft:

 Open the Catia software and select the part design.

 Set the data setting at a required parameters like..,(dimensions in mm).
 Select the point, axis system, geometrical set and part
body.
 Select the circle command and draw the circle at a
required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad command
 Set the required dimension of a pad for a part body.
 Click the ok button.
 Select the another dashboard and open the assembly
design of frame Figure5.6 (Shaft)
 Drag the shaft to assembly bench work to given the command
 Command the engineering connections to a shaft and flanged bearing
 And set the connections at required positions.
 Click the update command.

Keys, bolts and nuts:

 In these parts are as follows the above parts procedure

 Basically, these commands are used i.e.., (pad, circle, pocket, line, draft, hexagonal etc….,)
 Dashboards are part design and assembly design for these parts.

PROCEDURE FOR DRAFTING THE MOLD SETUP:

Base plate(flange):

 Open the Catia software and select the part design.

 Set the data setting at a required parameters like..,
(dimensions in mm).
 Select the point, axis system, geometrical set and
part body.
 Select the circle command and draw the circle at a
required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad command
 Set the required dimension of a pad for a part body. Figure5.7 (Top plate)
41
  Click the ok button.
 Part1 is ready then, select the part1 face.
 Select the circle command and to draw the circle
 To draw the circle for the centre of a part1 face.
 Select the pocket command to remove the material from part1.
 Again, select the part1 face and select the circle command
 Draw the 6 circles at a required dimension to an edges
 Select the pocket command to remove the material from part1
 Part1 can be called as base plate
 Select the another dashboard and open the assembly design
 Rename the title and save as mold setup
 Drag the base plate to assembly bench work to given the command
 Then, click the update command immediately.
 Select the fix command to fix the base plate
 Click the update command.
 Give the engineering connections at a required position.
Main body:

 Open the Catia software and select the part design.

 Set the data setting at a required parameters like..,(dimensions in mm).
 Set the point, axis system, geometrical set and part body.
 Select the circle command and draw the circle at a required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the
pad command
 Set the required dimension of a pad for
a part body.
 Click the ok button.
 Again, select the part1 face and select
the circle command
 Draw the 6 circles at a required
dimension to an edges
 Select the pocket command to remove
the material from part1 Figure5.8 (main body)
 Select the circle command and draw the 2 circles at a required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad command
 Set the required dimension of a pad for a part body.
 Click the ok button.
 Again, Select the circle command and draw the 2 circles at a required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad command
 Set the required dimension of a pad for a part body.
 Click the ok button.
42
  Select the another dashboard and open the assembly design
 Rename the title and save as mold setup
 Drag the main body to assembly bench work to given the command.
 Then, click the update command immediately.
 Select the engineering connections command.
 Give the engineering connections to the main body and mold setup.
 Click the update command.

Top plate:

 Open the Catia software and select the part design.

 Set the data setting at a required parameters like..,(dimensions in mm).
 Select the point, axis system, geometrical set and part body.
 Select the circle command and draw the circle at a required dimension.
 And exit the sketcher then select the pad command
 Set the required dimension of a pad for a part body.
 Click the ok button.
 Part1 is ready then, select the part1 face.
 Select the circle command and to draw the
circle
 To draw the circle for the centre of a part1
face.
 Select the pocket command to remove the
material from part1.
 Again, select the part1 face and select the
circle command
 Draw the 6 circles at a required dimension
to an edges Figure.5.9 (Top plate)
 Select the pocket command to remove the material from part1
 Part1 can be called as top plate.
 Select the another dashboard and open the assembly design
 Drag the top plate to assembly bench work to given the command
 Then, click the update command immediately.
 Select the engineering connections command.
 Give the engineering connections to the top plate and mold setup.
 Click the update command.

Calculations:
Determination of the Speed of Driven Pulley

43
The speed of the driven pulley is determined by (1)

N ₁×d₁
N₂ =
d₂

Where:

Speed of the motor pulley (N₁) = 1450 rpm

Speed of the driven pulley (N₂) = ...... rpm

Sheave diameter of motor pulley (d1) = ……mm

Sheave diameter of driven pulley (d2) = 79.0 mm.

The speed of the driven pulley is determined from Eq. (1) to be 1450 rpm

Determination of the belt speed

The speed of the belt is determined by the relation (2)

π ×d₁×N ₂
Bs =
1000

Where:

Bs = Speed of belt.

The speed of the belt is determined using Eq. (2) to be 114.9 m/min

Determination of belt Length

The length of the belt of the centrifugal casting machine is determined by (3)

π (d ₂−d ₁) ²
L = 2c + (d ₂+d ₁)+
2 4c

Where:

Effective outside length (L) =.... mm

Distance between the two pulleys (C) = 470mm.

The length of the belt is determined from Eq. (3) to be 1188.06 mm

We know that formulae for angular velocity

2 πN
ω= (4)
60

44
Velocity of mold: ϑ=r × ω (5)

Where

r is the internal radius of the mold 112mm

from equations 4 & 5 we get

2 πrN
ϑ= (6)
60

Velocity of the mold (ϑ ¿ = 17.00 m/s

We know that formula for G-factor:

ϑ²
G-factor =
rg

= 25.31

The centrifugal force on the machine is given by

ϑ²
F = M rω ² =M × (7)
r

Where:

Centrifugal force on the machine ( F ) =...N

Total mass of the rotating disc (M) = 1.2 kg

Radius of the disc (r)= 0.0728 m

The centrifugal force of the machine is determined from Eq. (7) to be 347.65 N

The torque generated by the machine is determined by

T=F×r (8)

Where:

T = Torque generated (Nm);

Using Eq. (8) above, the torque generated by the machine is determined to be 18.25Nm

Determination of the required power by the machine

The required power by the centrifugal machine is determined by the relation

45
 2 πNT
P= (9)
60

From Eq. (9), the required power by the machine is determined to be 2446.146 W which runs out to
be3 hp. Motor selected was with 3 phase power rating considering safety at higher load.

46
 CHAPTER 6

VERTICAL CENTRIFUGAL CASTING SETUP FABRICATION

PROCEDURE

Flow Chart:

Purchased material operations

Figure.6.1

47
 Step by step procedure:
Step 1: Steel frame of (600×600×620) was prepared with L-sectioned mild steel bar. These bars are
joined with arc welding process. To avoid the maximum number of welding the bar is bent
to 90⁰.Bearings are placed over the frame to give support to the shaft.

Figure 6.1: Frame along with shaft and bearings

48
 Figure 6.2: Frame with bearings

Step 2: Mold was prepared with iron pipe. This pipe was machined to required dimensions
(Length=50mm, ID=224mm, OD=260mm). Two flanges are attached each side of mold by welding
process. Holes are provided over the flanges, to fit the mold to shaft having flange at one side, by
means of bolts and nuts.

49
 Figure 6.3: Mold

Step 3: Shaft was prepared on lathe machine by turning operation with steel rod. One end of the
shaft was attached to flange by welding. Key way was provided on the shaft to insert pulley.

Figure 6.4: Driven pulley attached to shaft

50
 Figure 6.5: flange

Figure 6.6: vertical centrifugal casting machine

Step 4: Motor was arranged at the bottom of the frame parallel to the shaft. Pulley was attached
to the motor shaft. Power is transmitted from motor to the shaft with the help of belt drive.

51
 CHAPTER 7

VERTICAL CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS

Flow chart:

Figure.7.1 flow chart of vertical centrifugal casting process

Things to do before starting the casting process:

1. Check the gas fired furnace whether it works or not.

2. Check the cylinder to know quantity of gas.
3. Always keep the valves in closed condition.
4. Check the stirrer and weighing machine.
5. Collect tongs and crucibles and it will be readily available.

52
Step 1: volume calculations

Calculate the weight required to get 30mm thick cylinder.

Specimen.1

Length of the cylinder (L) =0.050m

Outer diameter (inner dia of mold) (D) =0.155m

Inner diameter (Di) =0.125m

Density of aluminium=2710 kg/m³

Density =weight/volume

Weight = density × volume

π
Weight =2710 × ×( D₀ ²−Di ²)× L
4

= 0.893 kg (approx.

= 1.20 kg

Calculate the weight required to get 40mm thick cylinder.

Specimen.2:

Length of the cylinder (L) =0.050m

Outer diameter (inner dia of mold) (D) =0.155m

Inner diameter (Di) =0.115m

Density of aluminium=2710 kg/m³

Density =weight/volume

Weight = density × volume

π
Weight =2710 × ×( D₀ ²−Di ²)× L
4
53
 = 1.14 kg (approx.

= 1.40 kg.

Calculate the volume of t he crucible.

Volume of crucible measured with the formulae

πh
V= ׿)
12

Where

h = height of the crucible

d = larger diameter

b = smaller diameter.

Step 2: melting

1. Fill the crucibles with aluminium blocks.

2. Place the crucibles into the furnace.
3. Cover the crucibles with metal plate to avoid oxidation.
4. Apply the flame into furnace by opening the valve and adjust the crucibles in the direction
of flame.
5. Close the furnace and allow it to heat for 45minutes.
6. After melting the aluminium add one percent Clear all. It will purify the molten metal.
7. Remove the slag over the molten metal.

Step 3: stirring

1. Switch on the stirrer, and maintain uniform speed by regulator.

2. Keep the stirrer into the crucible vertically which is having molten metal.
3. Slowly add reinforcements (4% Sic) to molten metal while stirring.
4. Measure the temperature with thermocouple.
54
 5. Again remove the slag anything appears over the molten metal.

Step 4: pouring

1. Need to prepare mold to pour the molten metal into the mold.
2. Mold should be coated with graphite for easy extraction and to control solidification
process.
3. Mold should be pre heated to avoid rapid cooling and to get defect less casting.
4. Switch on the power supply to centrifugal casting machine to make the mold to rotate.
5. Hold the crucible which is having molten metal with the help of tongs and pour the molten
metal into the rotating mold through a pipe attached to basin.

Figure 7.2: Melting Figure 7.3: Stirring

Figure 7.4: Pouring Figure.7.5: Final casted product

55
 CHAPTER 8

TESTING AND RESULTS

8.1 HARDNESS TEST:

Introduction of hardness:

Hardness is the property of the material which enables it to resist plastic deformation,

usually by penetration or by indentation. The term of hardness is also referred to stiffness or
temper, or to resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion, or cutting.

Figure8.1 working of hardness testing

8.2 Rockwell hardness tester:-

To know the hardness of the materials Rockwell cum Brinell hardness testing is
used. Hardness is measured over sector prepared from the specimen1 & specimen2. Hardness
measured in radial direction.

Applications of Rockwell hardness test:

1. Casting industries:-
Use to maintain the quality of there product they ensure the hardness if there.

2. In laboratories :-
Used for checking the strength and hardness of different products for quality
insurance.
3. In machining process:-
Check the hardness of job before doing machining of the job. If it is very hard
then they use special type of cutting tool.
56
 Figure.8.2

Rockwell hardness tester

Machine Name : Rockwell hardness Tester

Testing load range (Rockwell) : 10, 15, 30, 45, 60, 100 & 150 kgf
Least count : 0.1 mm
Maximum testing height : 295mm
Available Hardness testing Scale : HRA, HRB, HRC (Rockwell) & HB (Brinell)
Scale : B – scale
Indentor : 1/16 inch ball indentor
8.3 Specifications of hardness tester:

 MRS  MRS-150  MRB  MRB-250  MSM

Model
 Test Loads   60, 100, 150  60, 100, 150  60, 100, 150  60, 100, 150  60, 100, 150
(Kgf)  (Rockwell)  (Rockwell) (Rockwell) (Rockwell) (Rockwell)
 
 187.5  187.5,  250  15,  30,  45

57
 (Brinell) (Brinell)  (Rockwell
Superficial)
 Initial  10 (Rockwell) & 
Loads  (Kgf)  10  10  10  10  3 (Rockwell
Superficial)

 Max. Test
Height   215  295  215  295  295
(mm)
 Depth of
Throat   132  148  132  148  148
(mm)
 Max. Depth
of Elevating
Screw Below
 230  295  230  295  295
Base  (mm)

 Size of
Base  (mm)  430 x 180  475 x 220  430 x 180  475 x 220  475 x 220
(Approx.)
 Machine
Height   635  865  635  865  865
(mm)
 Net.
Weight 
 65  106  70  125  120
(kg.) 
(Approx.)
 
Table.no8.1

Specifications of Rockwell hardness tester.

Specimen.1(hardness test 1)

Hardness measurement on periphery layers( load =100kg):-

Table. No.8.2

58
 S.No. LAYERS HARDNESS

1. Outer most periphery layer 51

2. 3mm depth from outer periphery 39

layer
Table. No.8.2

Figure.8.3 (specimen.1)

Hardness measurement on periphery layer

Rockwell hardness measurement graph for specimen.1

59
 60

50

40

30
HARDNESS

Region

20

10

Graph. No. 8.1

Rockwell hardness vs. Periphery layer

Specimen.1 (hardness test 2)

Hardness measurement on walls(load = 100kg):-

Table. No. 8.3

S. NO. WALLS HARDNESS

1. Outer wall 31
2. Middle wall 20
3. Inner wall 20

Table. No. 8.3

60
 Figure.8.4 Specimen.1

Harness test on wall (radially)

Rockwell hardness measurement graph for specimen.1

Region
35

30

25
HARDNESS

20 Region

15

10

0
outer wall middle wall inner wall

Graph. No. 8.2

Rockwell hardness VS walls

61
Specimen.2 (hardness test 1)

Hardness measurement on periphery layer(load = 100kg):-

S.No. LAYER HARDNESS
1. Outer most periphery layer 65

2. 4mm depth from outer periphery 47

layer
3. 7mm depth from outer periphery 71
layer
Table. No. 8.4

Figure.8.5

Hardness measurement on periphery layer

Rockwell hardness measurement graph of specimen.2:

80
70
HARDNESS

60
50
40
30 Region
20
10
0
Rockwell
hardness
vs
periphery layer for specimen.2

62
 Graph. No.8.3

Specimen.2(hardness test 2)

Hardness measurement on walls for specimen.2(load = 100kg):-

Table. No. 8.5

S.NO. WALLS HARDNESS

1. Outer walls 45

2. Middle walls 43

3. Inner walls 39

Table. No. 8.5

Rockwell hardness test on walls for specimen.2:

Figure.8.6

Rockwell hardness test on walls

63
Rockwell hardness measurement graph for specimen.2 (hardness test.2)
46
45
44
43
42
41
Region
40
39
38
37
36
outer walls middle walls Inner walls

Hardness measurement VS walls (Radially)

Graph. No. 8.4

From the above figure 8.3 & 8.5 hardness readings of specimen1&2. We can
observe that hardness decreases from outer periphery layer to inner periphery layer, because
ceramic constituents settled according to the density. Chilling effect of the mold also be the reason
for getting more hardness on outer side.

And also above figure 8.4 & 8.6 hardness readings of specimen1 & 2. We can observe that
hardness decreases from outer wall to inner wall, because of high density. The outer region has
more strength as compared to inner region.

The remaining mechanical properties like…, microstructure, tensile strength, Impact

strength was not tested, due to some reasons, but further we have any time to test the another
properties .we will completed as soon as possible with in a time.

64
 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION
This project led to the design and construction of vertical centrifugal (spin) casting machine which
is made up mould, shaft, belt, bearing, and the motor. Design calculations resulted in appropriate
motor selection. Basically the machine fabricated can be used for casting ring components such as
bearing rings. However, this machine could also be used to produce some other cylindrical casting
with thickness ranges from 5mm to 50mm, such as poison rings depending on the mould
configuration. The mould spinning speed depends on the casting desired and also on pulley
arrangement between the motor shaft and mould shaft. While pouring the molten metal into the
mould, molten metal should be in superheated condition so that molten metal will spread
throughout the length of mould and mould also need to preheated with minimum temperature of
200°C. A particular tests are been carried out on the fabricated centrifugal casting machine with
aluminum composite and the machine was able to cast 2 kg of aluminum and the casting was
successful.

Vertical centrifugal (spin) casting machine was fabricated with simple design, and composite of (Al
1100 + 3% of SIC) was been prepared with the help of gas fired furnace to melt the metal and
poured into centrifugal casting machine. Tests were made on the obtained specimen 1 & 2. While
observing the test results on composite we can understand the effect of centrifugal action. (i.e.
variation in the properties at different locations). Satisfactory results are obtained for hardness test.
Further improvement of properties can also be possible by adding preheating techniques and speed
regulation in design. These machines can be used into centrifuge casting machine with small
changes in molding setup.

65
 CHAPTER 10

REFERENCES

1. Abhay Kumar, Department of Ceramic Engineering National Institute of Technology

Rourkela, Odisha: Design of Centrifugal Casting Experimental Setup For Fabrication Of Alumina
Tube.

2. Design and Development of True Centrifugal Casting Machine by M.D.Patel.

3. Kamlesh centrifugal casting project report.

4. Adedipe Oyewole and Abolarin Matthew Sunday Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Federal University of Technology: Design and manufacturing of centrifugal casting machine.

5. B. Vijaya ramnath1, c. Elanchezhian1, rm. Annamalai1, s.aravind1, t. Sri ananda atreya1, v.

Vignesh1 and c.subramanian2 department of mechanical engineering, sri sairam engineering
college, west tambaram: Aluminium metal matrix composites.

6. Engineering Design of Centrifugal Casting Machine Roni Kusnowo1, a) and Sophiadi Gunara2,
b) 1,2Foundry Engineering Technology Department, Politeknik Manufaktur Negeri Bandung,

7. Saumil H. Desai1 and Saurin M. Sheth2: Study and Proposed Design of Centrifugal
Casting Machine.

8. Siva nanda Kumar 1 and Nissar Ahmed 2: Department of mechanical engineering, N.B.K.R
institute of technology, vidyanagar, Nellore district: Fabrication of horizontal centrifugal casting
machine and production of metal matrix composite.

66