1.1.

Historical Review
Two terms “Nanomaterials” and "Nanotechnology", along the last
forty decades have a wide renown and high attention in the scientific media.
The term "nano" is derived from the ancient Greek word "nanos",
means a dwarf, but in science, nano means 1 billionth or ."
"[1].
So, we can say, one nanometer may be contains about ten hydrogen
atoms[2] or five silicon atoms[3].
Despite of known the nano- dimensions in the atomic and molecular levels known
from the chemists and physicists. At 1905, of both hydrogen atom ( 0.1 nm) and sugar
molecule ( 1 nm) diameters were determined by Einstein using the diffusion techniques,
but the actual interesting began after 50 years of the Richard Feynman's lecture[7] "
There is plenty of room at the bottom" in the annual meeting of the American Physical
Society at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)[8], published in ( Caltech's
Engineering and science, Vol. , No. 5, p. p. 22-36)[4]. At that time Richard's talk
was received as a pure science fiction[9], because we hadn't the suitable devices to enter
the world of these dimensions.

"What I want to talk about is the

problem of manipulating and
controlling things on a small
scale … What are the limitations
as to how small a thing has to be
before you can no longer mold
it? How many times when you
are working on something
frustratingly tiny like your wife’s
wrist watch have you said to
yourself, “If I could only train an
ant to do this!” What I would
like to suggest is the possibility
of training an ant to train a mite
to do this … A friend of mine
(Albert R. Hibbs) suggests a very
interesting possibility for
relatively small machines. He
says that, although it is a very
wild idea, it would be interesting
in surgery if you could swallow the surgeon. You put the mechanical
surgeon inside the blood vessel and it goes into the heart and “looks”
around. It finds out which valve is the faulty one and takes a little knife and
slices it out"
In fact, Feynman was not the first scientist addressed this subject.
There were some practical attempts to enter to the nanoscale, in 1952 L. V.
Radushkevich and V. M. Lukyanovich got a first images of 50 nm diameter
carbon nanotubes. Next, the achievements have gone up in this field. In
1968, both A. Cho and J. Arthur developed the theoretical foundation of the
processing surface in nanotechnology.
In 1974, the first shown of term "nanotechnology" in the report ( On the
basic of nanotechnology) by N. Taniguchi. He referred to the occurred
processes in objects of size less than . In 1981, the scanning tunneling
microscope (STM) has been developed by G. Binnig and H. Rohrer, which
was the most important event in the nano(science and technology)'s journey
after the Feynman's lecture.
1.2. Nanotechnology and Nanoscience:
Nanotechnology has emanated as a new scientific growing and
rapidly changing field[4]. In 1974, This label used in the first time by the
Japanese N. Taniguchi to refer to the precise and accurate tolerances
required for machining and finishing materials[8]. But due to the
interdisciplinary nature of nanotechnology, there are many definitions to
characterize this term, that, made this term a squishy term. Some of the
works in the field considered the study of the micromaterials using the
electron microscopes, growing and characterization of thin films is
nanotechnology. Other, considered Bottom-Up methods in the preparation
and manufacture of materials, such as self-assembly, biomineralization
processes to convert the materials to hierarchical structures, delivery of
drugs, the micro-electrochemical systems (MEMS), lab-on-a-chip and the
thin films tests as the thin film sensors are also considered nanotechnology.
Generally, Nanotechnology is design, fabrication and application of
nanostructures or nanomaterials, and the fundamental understanding of the
relationships between physical properties or phenomena and material
dimensions[3]. Then now, The scientists in the world have the drawing up a
working definition during committee was formed (the National
Nanotechnology Initiative) which the following defining features of
nanotechnology were hammered out[13]: " Nanotechnology involves
research and technology development at the 1nm-to-100nm scale,
nanotechnology creates and uses structures that have novel properties
because of their small size, nanotechnology builds on the ability to control or
manipulate at the atomic scale", or is “the design, characterization,
production and application of structures, devices and systems by controlling
shape and size at nanometer”[14]
scale.
Nanotechnology it has led to emergence a new science Interested in
studying the fundamental relationships between physical properties and
phenomena and material dimensions in the nanometer scale is called
nanoscience. Many science contribute in nanoscience, such as physics,
chemistry, biology, and quantum mechanics[3].
Both nano - (technology and science) are about the nanomaterials.
Nanomaterials are classified into several types. Nanomaterials as a term,
which are substances that have at least one dimension within the nanoscale.
Such as quantum dots (QDs), nanotubes, nanowires, nanorods, thin Films,
and nanostructure materials. Many techniques have discovered to the
manufacture of nanomaterials. These branches have classified to several
groups in several ways. We'll be detailed in next.
So, we can define “Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and
manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular
scales”[14].
Now, what are nanomaterials?
2.1. Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are all structures are found into scale of (1-100)nm,
that are found in several shapes and types[1]. Those materials have been
very different to the bulk materials ( materials in large scale), and often
posses unique physical and chemical properties that due to the size effect
which lead to increase in the surface area with the volume particle.
Generally, nanomaterials’ properties depend on several factors such
as;
 Size.
 Shape.
 Surrounding media.
 Structure.
2.2. Classification of nanomaterials
Most popular classification of nanomaterials depends on the
geometrical dimension numbers of nanoparticle or on the electron
confinement into these dimensions;
A. According to the dimension into scale[2];
1- Zero-dimensional (0D): all three dimensions sit into the
nanoscale (e.g. ), such as nanoparticles and
nanopores. In semiconductors, this systems are called (quasi-
zero) dimensional due to electron is unable to move freely.
2- One-dimensional (1D): there is one dimension does not sit into
nanoscale, but into macroscale, such as nano(tubes, wires,
rods).
3- Two dimensional (2D): there are two dimensions do not sit into
nanoscale such as thin films, nano(layers, coating).
4- Three dimensional (3D): there are not any dimensions of
material into nanoscale, these materials are called bulk
materials but consist nanocrystalline assemblages in the
nanosize and have nano- properties.
Figure (2-1) illustrates the classification of nanomaterials
according to the dimensions’ scale.
Figure (2-1) illustrate the classification of nanomaterials according to the
dimensions’ scale.
B. There is another classification based on the confinement the electron
into nanoparticle ( is called quantum confinement), this classification is
opposite the last classification;
1- One-dimensional (1D): the electron is confined into one direction due
to the material possesses one dimension in nanoscale such as ( thin
films, nanolayers, nanocoating).
 2- Two dimensional (2D): the electron is confined into two directions
due to the material possesses two dimensions in nanoscale such as
nano(tubes, wires, rods).
3- Three dimensional (3D): the electron is confined into three directions
because of all dimensions into the nanoscale such as nanoparticles
and nanopores.
Additionally, there are another classifications of nanomaterials such as
according to shape ( spherical, stare shape, cage shape, rods, flowers, cubic,
….., etc), according to the structure (crystalline and amorphous).

2.3. Size Effects

Frequently, we hear the phrase that says “nanomaterials posses unique
properties”?!.
Where did these materials get these properties despite keeping their
chemical composition unchanged?.
The reduction in the size leads to many effects in the parameters and
properties of the material.

2.3.1. Surface area to volume ratio

One of the most fundamental differences between nanomaterials and
bulk materials is the difference in the ratio of the surface area of the particle
to its size, the electronic properties are now tunable via the particle size.
With respect to the electrical properties of nanoparticles and of all types of
arrangement built from nanoparticles, the most important property is the
amount of energy required to add one extra electron to an initially uncharged
particle, in other words, makes the appearance of the electrical activity of the
particle on the surface, this makes the nanoparticles different in their
behavior, as the normal material is bound to the interaction of their internal
atoms with each other, which makes the interaction between these atoms
confined within the inside substance and affects on the quantitative activity
of the substance.
As a result of the different forms of nanomaterials, this causes a
change in the ratio of surface/size according to a geometrical form. This
explains possession nanoparticles different properties depending on their
size and shape, although they retain their chemical composition. This size
effect may be regarded as the start of the metal-nonmetal transition such
that, in another terminology, these nanoparticles may also be labeled as
artificial atoms[3].
Now we can calculate the ratio between the surface area and the
volume for varied geometrical shapes, as following[1];
1- Spherical Shape:
the surface area of sherical shape is
( )
the volume of sherical shape is

( )

then , the ratio of area/volume is,

( )

2- cubic Shape:
the surface area of cubic shape is
 ( )
and the volume of cubic shape is
( )
then , the ratio of area/volume is,

( )

3- Cylindrical Shape
the surface area of Cylindrical shape is
( )

𝐿
and the volume of Cylindrical shape is
( )
then , the ratio of area/volume is

( )
 Properties of Nanomaterials

1- Thermal Properties of Nanomaterials

There are two mechanisms of the thermal transport in solids, that are thermal
vibrations and free electrons movement. In metals, free electrons are appropriate because
of large number of free electrons be found that are not easily scattered.
But in nanometals, that is different. Free electrons will be confined due to the quantum
confinement. So, the phonons mechanism dominates on the thermal transport processes,
In addition, the scattered phonons are more efficient.
In nanomaterials, there will be quantitative confinement and classic effects of the
scattering.
The photons wavelengths in the homogeneous metals are so shorter than the
dimensions of the microstructures; however, the quantum confinement in the
nanostructures will lead to change the distribution of the phonon’s frequencies as a
function of phonon wavelength, addition to the appearance of surface modes of phonon.
These processes lead to change in the velocities and the shapes of the traveled thermal
waves that are called “group velocity”; this likes the formed waves when the thrown rock
into the water. In addition, the phonon live is modified due to the phonon-phonon
interaction, the scattering of the free surface, and the grain boundaries.

According to the above, a phonon suffers from movement limitation that means the
nanoparticles will behave badly as a heat transfer. One dimensional nanomaterial behave
as a phonon waveguide similar to optical ones for light, because of have free electrons
can freely move in the macroscales. For example, for carbon nanotubes, several authors
have predicted very high thermal conductivity along the nanotubes, close
to , while, the thermal
conductivity of copper is approximately 400
.
.
 In this regard, we must distinguish between nanotubes with nano-thickness in
multilayer membranes and thin films consisting of nanomaterials that can be divided into
nanoscale, nonporous materials, and containing nanoparticles. In general, these materials
are generally chosen as dielectric materials in the industry because of their low dielectric
constants. However, thermal conductivity is low and is itself a problem in this area.
As a comparison in terms of thermal conductivity, the experimental results indicate
that the thermal conductivity of nano-thin films with single layer is less than that of
materials in its bulk phase. That is, whenever the thickness of the membrane is decreased,
its thermal conductivity decreases, as shown in the behind figure.

In the case of multilayered thin films and materials in nanograin size, we need to
consider that the interfaces produce a heat resistance due to a distortion of the regular
crystal lattice on which phonons propagate. The interface can separate two crystals of the
same material with different orientations, such as a grain boundary, across which the two
regions have a different distribution of phonons.
On the other hand, an
interface can separate
dissimilar materials, such as
a multi-layer structure, for
which the two different
materials have different
densities and sound
velocities. These effects are
similar to electron transport
in nanomaterials. The end
result is that the presence of
an interface produces
phonon scattering and therefore a reduction in thermal conductivity.
For example, single-crystal silicon mono-layers embedded between amorphous silicon
dioxide layers show a strong reduction in thermal conductivity with respect to bulk (see
above Figure), especially at low temperatures. This effect is even more pronounced for
polycrystalline silicon films, for which grain boundary scattering dominates over surface
or multilayer scattering. In addition to these effects, alloying a material with additional
elements also leads to phonon scattering. Overall, the idea is to take different approaches
to control phonon transport in the various regions of the phonon spectrum. For example,
high-frequency phonons can be blocked by alloy scattering because the wavelengths are
on the order of a few atomic spicing.

Nanoporous Materials:

Generally, the homogenous nonporous materials like the homogenous

nanocomposites, the difference being that nanoparticles are replaced by nanopores.

These materials, the pores work a potential barriers reverse the particles that be
quantum boxes. Then, for nanoporous materials, the nanosize effect is determined by the
number and size of the pores. Due to the porosity, these materials have a low permittivity
and thermal conductivity. The current problem is that it is still not theoretically
understood how to treat nano-scale pores for thermal transport. One possibility is the
similarity between the size of the pores and relevant phonon wavelengths, which suggests
that phonons would not see a continuum field.
Melting Point:

In nanoscale solids, for which the ratio of surface to mass is large, the system may be
regarded as containing surface phases in addition to the typical volume phases. In
addition, for 0-D and 1-D nanomaterials, the curvature of the surface is usually very
pronounced.
Consequently, for nanomaterials, the melting temperature is size dependent.
Generally, surface effects can be expressed mathematically by introducing an additional
term ( ) into the total energy change ( ) resulting from the solid-liquid
transformation.
( )

where is the free energy of the bulk material given by

( )
( )

and is the latent heat of melting, is the melting temperature of the bulk material,
is the melting point of the extended system, where surface effects are included, and
is the volume of liquid.
When the surface of a body is increased, the change in surface
energy is given by
( )

where γ is the surface tension and is the increment in surface area. Evidently, at the
melting temperature, a layer of liquid with
thickness is formed on the surface and
moves at a certain rate into the solid. During
the change, a new liquid surface and
liquid/solid interface are created, whereas the
solid surface is destroyed as shown in behind figure. In other words, can be
written as
( )
 where is the new liquid surface area, is the surface energy of the liquid per unit
area, is the new liquid/solid interfacial area, is the solid/liquid interfacial energy
per unit area, is the surface area of the solid destroyed, and is the solid surface
energy per unit area.
At equilibrium, the solid core of radius has the same chemical potential as the
surrounding liquid layer of thickness , which occurs when the differential time in energy
is zero.

( )

For a sphere, this happens when;

( )
( )

Assuming t → 0, which represents the appearance of the first melting, the upper
melting temperature for a sphere can be found from the expression

( ) ( )

in which the term is associated with the increase in internal pressure resulting

from an increase in the curvature of the particle with decreasing particle size. Because in
Equation (2-103), the variables , , and rare all positive quantities, this means that
the upper melting temperature of a spherical nanoparticle decreases with decreasing
particle size. Some results are shown in below figure, where the change in melting
temperature as a function of particle size can be seen for gold (Au), lead (Pb), copper
(Cu), bismuth (Bi), and silicon (Si).
 If these same nanoparticles are embed in a matrix, as for the fabrication of a
nanocomposite? Will the nanoparticles melt below the melting temperature of the
respective bulk material? To answer this question, we need to consider the fact that now
the surface of the nanoparticle is in contact with a matrix instead of being exposed to the
surrounding atmosphere. Therefore, the solid/liquid interfacial energy per unit area
shown in Equation (2-102) must be energetically balanced according to Young’s
theorem, in the form
( )

where is the liquid/matrix interfacial energy per unit area, is the solid/matrix
interfacial energy per unit area and θ is the dewetting angle. By rearranging Equation (2-
105) and assuming that , it can be shown that when the melting
temperature of the embedded nanoparticles should be
lower than the bulk melting temperature. On the other hand, if , the melting
temperature of the embedded nanoparticles
should be higher than the bulk melting
temperature. The latter is called superheating,
and it has been shown experimentally for the
case of indium nanoparticles embedded in an
aluminum-indium alloy matrix. From this
discussion we can thus learn that due to
nanoscale effects, the melting temperature can be either increased or reduced with respect
to the bulk material.

2- Electrical Properties of Nanomaterials

As we know, the bulk metals depend on the free electrons to transport the
electrical current. But at the size reduction the quantum confinement will occur as
previously presented. That affect on the electrons movements and restricts it.

However, as the system length scale is reduced to the nano-scale, two effects are
of importance:
(1) the quantum effect, where due to electron confinement the energy bands are replaced
by discreet energy states, leading to cases where conducting materials can behave as
semiconductors or insulators, and
(2) the classical effect, where the mean-free path for inelastic scattering becomes
comparable with the size of the system, leading to a reduction in scattering events.
In 3-D nanomaterials, the three spatial dimensions are all above the nanoscale.
Therefore the two aforementioned effects can be neglected. However, bulk
nanocrystalline materials exhibit a high grain boundary area-to-volume ratio, leading to
an increase in electron scattering. As a consequence, nanosize grains tend to reduce
electrical conductivity.

In the case of 2-D nanomaterials with thickness at the nanoscale, quantum

confinement will occur along the thickness dimension. This results to only electron
wavelengths that are multiple integers of the thickness will be allowed in this space,
others can be moved into xy- directions classically.

In other words, there is a reduction in the number of energy states available for
electron conduction along the thickness direction. The electrons become trapped in what
is called a potential well of width equal to the thickness. In general, the effects of
confinement on the energy state for a 2-D nanomaterials with thickness at the nanoscale
can be written as

[ ] [ ] ( )

Where

In the case of 1-D nanomaterials,

quantum confinement occurs in two
dimensions, whereas unrestricted motion
occurs only along the long axis of the
nanotube/rod/wire.

Because of the confinement, the

nanoscale dimensions of 1-D nanomaterials act as reflectors, not allowing the electrons to
exit the surfaces. In addition, scattering by impurities and/or phonons become restricted
to the long axis of the tube, despite the fact that boundary scattering is more pronounced
due to the high surface-to-volume ratio of 1-D nanomaterials.

Considering now the electron free motion along the x-direction (long axis), for 1-D
we can modify equation (2-106) to

[ ] [ ] ( )
 As a consequence, the transport of electrons along the tube occurs without significant
loss of kinetic energy. In other words, the transport is ballistic, particularly at low
temperatures.

For example, in the case of metallic carbon nanotubes, the conductivity is extremely
high, as much as one billion amperes/cm2, in contrast to 1 million amperes/cm2 for
copper. In addition to the effects described here, carbon nanotubes also exhibit a low
density of defects and high thermal dissipation, reducing even further the chances for
scattering.

For 0-D nanomaterials, the motion of electrons is now totally con-fined along the
three directions . Therefore, the total energy can be given by

[ ] ( )

In this fashion, all the energy states are discreet and no electron delocalization occurs.
Under these conditions, metallic systems can behave as insulators due to the formation of
an energy band gap, which is not allowed in the bulk
form.

So far we have been discussing the electrical

properties of 0-D, 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D nanomaterials as
isolated entities. However, from a practical point of view,
these materials need to be coupled to external circuits by
electrodes. For 2-D and 3-D nanomaterials, ohmic
contacts are possible. However, for 0-D and 1-D
nanomaterials, the contact resistances between
nanomaterials and the connecting leads are usually high. Thus one mechanism of
providing conduction is through electron tunnelling. This is a quantum mechanical effect
in which an electron can penetrate a potential barrier higher than the kinetic energy of the
electron. To better understand this phenomenon, think of a configuration in which two
metals are separated by a thin insulator.
 For an electron to tunnel from one metal to the other across the insulator, one of the
metals must have unoccupied energy states. A simple way of achieving this is to apply a
voltage cross the circuit to raise the Fermi energy (the energy of the highest occupied
quantum state) of one of the metals. In this fashion, electrons can tunnel from the metal
with the highest Fermi energy to the metal with the lowest Fermi energy, producing a
current along the circuit.

As in regular electronic circuits, the current , where Ris the resistance.

However, in this case, the resistance is primarily due to electron tunnelling. As an
example, arrays of gold nanoparticles have been electrically coupled by connecting the
nanoparticles to each other by organic molecules. The nanoparticles act as the metal
electrodes, whereas the organic molecules play the role of a thin insulator. Under these
conditions, the conductance C, defined as C =I/V, was shown to increase due to electron
tunnelling compared to the case in which the nanoparticles were not connected by the
organic molecules.

Organic Organic Organic

molecul molecul molecul

Au Au Au Au

3- Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials

There are two magnetic effects, one is the

resulted with the orbital motion of an electron
around atom, that relates with the quantum
number ( ). Other is the spin of electron, that
relates with the quantum number ( ). Beside
figure shows tow related movement with the
two magnetic effects of electron, that gives an
electron the magnetic dipole properties, which will been affected in the atom totally.
 The magnetic properties of an electron deferent depending on the location of electron
from the ionic cores or in the energy band.
Orbital moments of the electron:
Magnetism relates with the angular momentum of the elementary particles strongly.
Then, the magnetic properties relate with the quantum angular momentum.
All protons, neutrons, and electrons have an angular momentum equal to ( ), is

called spin. The magnetic effects of nucleus are ignored because of its large nucleonic
mass. Therefore, the main acquired magnetic properties of the atom come from the
magnetic activity of electrons.
When electron round around the nucleus, an orbital moment is resulted, that written
as;

( )

where is the radius of orbital, is a linear speed of electron into the orbital. The
quantum orbital moment in Z- direction can be given as;

( )

where is the quantum orbital magnetic number.

Bohr’s magneton is the measurement unit of the magnetization, which is given as;

( )

where

Spin moment:

An electron has a quantum angular momentum number equal to ( ), that relates

with the magnetic moment, not relates with the orbital motion of the electron. Its
direction depend on the magnetic field direction, where the quantum angular momentum
number has two values ( ).

We can write the moment spin as;

⁄ ( )

That is meaning, there are two possibilities for angular momentum in z- direction.

( )

Therefore, when the magnetic moment arises the orbital angular momentum value equal
to half the angular spin momentum.

Spin- Orbit coupling:

Total angular momentum is produced by reaction of both momentums, which is equal to;

̂ ̂ ̂ ( )

To understanding the magnetic properties of materials, some fundamental basic o

electronic distribution in the sub-orbital of the energy bands of material must be
reviewed.

Hund’s Role:

Simply, every orbital in the sub-shell is singly occupied with one electron before any one
orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied orbital have the same spin.

That means, add an electron to the equivalent orbital must be filled all orbital in one
direction before add electrons in the opposite direction.
 Pauli exclusion principle:

The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle which states that two
or more identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same
quantum state within a quantum system simultaneously.

Since the electron is a small magnet has a moment in one direction, then, the presence of
two electrons in the same orbital will be in opposite directions, thus, one completely
remove the effect of anther.

Generally, there are three types of the materials as the magnetisms;

1. Paramagnetic materials.
2. Diamagnetic materials.
3. Ferromagnetic materials ( Atoms of these materials have not a primary magnetic
moment).
For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, the magnetism proportional with the
magnetic field (H).

( )

where is the magnetic susceptibility of material. Generally, paramagnetic materials have

positive magnetic susceptibility values. Thus, the magnetism value be in the same direction of the
applied field. While, the diamagnetic have negative values, that results a magnetism factor in the
opposite direction of the applied field.

Where the relation between the magnetic permeability and susceptibility is;

( ) ( )

Where comparing, we found that,

Paramagnetic Materials
Diamagnetic Materials

To both types have a small value of , then is closed to . While of ferromagnetic be

greater than other types by many thousands times as result, these crystalline solids have strong
magnetic effects,
These materials have atomic moments parallel with each other even with a weak external
magnetic field be found. All ferromagnetism include micro-regions are called domains.
Each domain has a magnetic moment in a direction depend on the crystalline direction.
These domains are surrounded by boundaries like the grain boundaries, shown in below
figure.

The equivalent moment in these materials is zero normally because of the random
direction of the magnetic moments, but these moments become in the same direction and
increasing in the domain size when the external magnetic field is applied. When the
external field is greatly increased, the domains that are not in the line with the field
direction begins to decrease in size, thus, its effect is blocked on the total result.
The distribution of the domains depends on;

1. Crystalline type.
2. Crystalline shape.
3. Crystalline direction.
Thus, one grain may be contains on more one of domains in deferent directions, that
results deference in the magnetic hysteresis behaviour.

Size Reduction effect on the magnetic properties:

Generally, the magnetic energy of any ferromagnetic materials can be described by;
( )
 Where is the change energy, is the demagnetization energy, and is related
energy with applied magnetic field.
The first term in equation (2-17) generates due to correlation between quantum mechanics
and the atomic moment, describes the alignment of the magnetization vector in one direction.
While the second term describes the alignment of the spin in the same direction of the
crystalline axes direction. Thus, the soft materials will appear a low symmetry energy, while the
hard materials will be contrasted. In nanoscales, these energy can negated, where equation (2-
17) can be written as;
( )

One of the important consideration be taken with dealing with ferromagnetic materials is
interaction between the energy of change, exchange energy and the loss energy.
For small particles or small grains, change’s energy is dominant because of the coupling
forces that lead to arrangement the moments of the neighboring grains. Therefore, in the critical
size, the particle is individual domain.

( )

Where ( ) , is the exchange stifles, anisotropic constant, and is the

magnetic saturation.
The critical size of iron and cobalt is around (70, 15) nm respectively.
When the size will increases less than the critical size, the material be unstable magnetically
and loss its magnetization because of the thermal
fluctuation (i.e. it’s unstable thermally), that is called
Superparamagnetic, addition to other magnetic effects).
Physically, when study the hysteresis behavior, where the
coercive field increases with the size reduction to critical
size to its greatest value. Then it begins decreasing even to
magnetization becomes unstable because of the
superparamagnetic behavior.
 Optical properties of the nanoparticles

One of the most interesting properties of nanoparticles are the optical

properties. These properties have long been known especially for
nanoparticles of minerals such as gold, silver, and copper. This phenomenon
has been used since The era of BC and Pharaonic and Middle Ages in
painting ornaments, statues, utensils and decorating the glass of the cathedral
and churches.

Matter contains electrical

charges represented by
electrons and nucleus.
Incident light on the
particle reacts with the
charge centers, that leads
to oscillating these
charges. In this case, there are two main processes have been occurring, both
scattering and absorption result to reduced the incident light. Total effect are
resulted on the incident light on the nanoparticle is known extinction.

Generally, there are two forms to description the reaction (light-particle);

a) Mie Theory
b) Ray Optics
Many theoretical models were formed to solve the Maxwell’s equations
which describe the reaction between light and media.

Michael Faraday (1867-1791) is The first to actually study the

interaction between light and colloids of the metallic nanoparticles in 1857,
where study the factors which affect the colors of these colloids, he proved
that the difference in the size of these particles due to a difference in the
colors of solutions for those particles. For example, the color of the gold
particles solution ranges from sapphire to violet, and silver ranges from
yellow to lead as it increases in size.
The resulted unique optical properties are due to the high ratio of
surface/size of nanoparticles, which is increase with the reduction of the
particle size. Then the absorption and scattering of the wavelengths can be
controlled by control in the size and shape of
the particle
By change the particle size, the
interaction mode of light-surface will be
changed, that will effect on all optical Gold
phenomena (diffraction, scattering,
absorption, refraction, and reflection).

Where matter expose to light, there are many processes may be occurred
because of the interaction (light-surface) such as;

1. The light can be absorbed

2. The light can be scattered at the same frequency as the incoming light
( Mie or Rayleigh scattering )
3. The absorbed light can be re-emitted ( i.e., fluorescence)
4. The local electromagnetic field of the incoming light can be enhanced
, thus enhancing any spectroscopic from the molecules at the material
surface - enhanced spectroscopy , such as surface - enhanced
Raman scattering.
In case of NPs, all these processes are enhanced strongly owing to the
unique interaction of light with the free electrons in the metal particles as
shown in figure
Mie Theory:

After about fifty years of Faraday’s studies, specifically in 1908,

German scientist Gustav Mie (1957-1868) developed a proposed solution
presented by the Danish scientist Ludvig Lorentz (1829-1891) to Maxwell's
equations, which is called the Lorentz-Mie theory. In fact, those were
attempts to solve not more.

Mie explained the origin of the bright colours in the colloidal solutions by
solving Maxwell’s equations for interaction of light with the spherical
particles. Where described the oscillation mod of the surface electrons
collections of the spherical particles in the conduction band with energy state
above Fermi’s level, which is caused a sharp absorption of the
electromagnetic waves, that results to resonance in the surface electrons, that
is called “The localized surface plasmon Resonance”. Plasmon as a term was
released by Schopper in 1930.