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Word stress and distinguishing strong and weak syllables. Strong syllable rules. When you
say a word alone: - each word has a strong syllable. -- The vowel in a strong syllable is long and higher in pitch (=is more pitch
prominent, ‘stands out’ and in this way and is prominent). e.g., banAna. Weak
syllable rules. – Some vowels keep their regular sound, but some vowels get weak. -- A weak vowel sound is short and not clear.
---Most weak vowels sound the same.

Levels/degrees of syllable stress: There are three types of stress in English. The type of the strongest stress is primary (main)
(represented ′); unstressed; the type of stress that is weaker than unstressed is called secondary (represented ˌ).

How to select the correct syllable/-s to stress in an English word? Make use of the information: - if the word is
morphologically simple or complex (containing prefixes or affixes) or being a compound word (of two words); -- if it is a noun,
a verb, an adjective, etc.); ---the number of syllables in the word; ---- the sound structure of the word.

Note: Syllabic consonant. The great majority of syllables in all languages (also English) have a vowel at their centre,and may
have one or more consonants preceding and following the vowel. There are syllables in which no vowel is found. In this case l, r
or a nasal stands as the centre of a syllable (=is syllabic) instead of the vowel. Mostly l is found in words ending in one or more
consonant letters followed by –le or –les. Syllabic ‘n‘is most common after alveolar plosives and fricatives, e.g., eaten /i:tn/.
In present-day English: words such as ’bottle’ and ’button’ would not sound acceptable in BBC pronunciation if pronounced /
‘bɒtəl /, */ ‘bʌtən / (though these are normal in some other English accents).

Word stress in two-syllable words. Most two-syllable nouns have front stress (=stress on the first syllable DAda). Most two-
syllable verbs, by contrast, have end stress (=stress on the last syllable daDA). (Test 9).

Word stress in two-syllable nouns and verbs. In English the position of stress can change the meaning of a word. Some words,
with identical spelling, have front stress if used as a noun, and end stress if used as a verb. (Test 10).

Word stress. Primary and secondary stress (Test 29)

In two-syllable words, a syllable is either strong or weak. In some three-syllable words, and in most words of four syllables or
more, there are two stressed syllables: one carries primary (main) stress, the other secondary stress.

Word stress in English is variable-any polysyllabic word can carry the main stress. English word stress is also mobile (e.g.,
economy-econOmic).

Rules for stress placement.

Rule1. English common nouns and adjectives have stress on the 1st syllable. (WA-ter, BROth-er, PREt-ty, Ug-ly).

Rule2. Two- and three-syllable words which have a prefix. In words with prefixes such as ‘be-‘, ‘in-‘, ‘dis-‘, ‘ex-,’ un-‘, etc., the
stress is almost always on the 2nd or 3rd syllable, i.e., prefixes are not stressed in English words. E.g., re-PEAT, be-CAUSE, un-
der-STAND.

Rule 3. Words with suffixes. Suffixes are never stressed. E.g., -ly/quietly, -al/original, -ic/automatic. In words of four, five, six
syllables the stressed syllable tends to be in the middle of the word.

Rule 3.1. Certain suffixes determine the stressed syllable. There are very many suffixes which cause the syllable before the suffix
to be stressed: -ive/impressive -iate/deviate -ient/incipient
-iary/pecuniary –iant/deviant -iable/negotiable -ial/substantial -ish/diminish -ion/invention -ify/identify
-ic/geographic -ium/premium -ian/median -ior/superior -ious/infectious -io/radio –
ical/economical -iar/familiar -ity/opportunity -ible/impossible

The stress will move from wherever it was to the syllable before the suffix when any of these suffixes are added. It does not
matter if the stress was on a different syllable in the form of the word without the suffix (the ‘base’ word).

Rule 3.2. Weak suffixes –ly, -er, -ness, -ful, -less, -able do not change the stress pattern of a word to which it is added. E.g.
adapt/adaptable-knowledge/knowledgeable-happy/happiness—colour/colourless—norther/northerner. Exceptions:
demonstrate/demonstrable—admire/admirable—prefer/preferable.
Rule 3.3. The following suffixes cause the stress to be placed on the 4 th syllable from the end of the word (only in words of four
or more syllables): -ary/vocabulary -ator/investigator -mony/testimony -acy/intimacy
-ory

Rule 4. Compound words (formed of two nouns, a noun and an adjective, a verb and a preposition, etc.). Compound words
which are nouns have stress on the 1st element (=Rule 1). E.g. a teapot a put-on a newspaper a walkout

Rule. 4.1. Compounds formed from an adjective plus a noun when used separately in a sentence will have equal or independent
stress. E.g. What a beautiful blackbird! Look at that big black bird!

Rule 5. The words that can be used as either a verb or a noun in English. The nouns have the stress on the 1st syllable and the
verb has the stress on the last syllable. (=Rule1&Rule2). E.g. increase export content insult overflow, etc.

In general:

a. Nouns and verbs of more than two syllables ending in –vowel consonant or –vowel consonant silent ‘e’ have their
stress on the 3rd last syllable(two before the last=antepenultimate), e.g., fortitude, detonate, gratitude
a. Words ending in –ee, -eer, -ese, -oo, -ette, -oon have their stress on the 3rd last syllable(two before the
last=antepenultimate), e.g., refugee, Japanese, mountaineer
b. Words ending in –ery, -ate, -orous, -mentary, -eous have their stress on the antepenultimate syllable, e.g., fortunate,
sonorous, complimentary
c. c) Words ending in –ic, -ish, -ive, -ure, -ation, -mental have their stress on the penultimate (immediately before
the last one) syllable, e.g., terrific, admonish, revelation
d. Words of Greek, Latin or Romance origin often show a shift of stress when a prefix or suffix is added/changed. E.g.
words beginning with seismo-, micro- or hexa- and continuing with –graph, -phone, -gon, -scope, etc. are stressed on
the 1st syllable seismograph microscope hexagon
e. Words with the suffixes can often have stress shift (i.e., prominence can move to the secondary stressed syllable in a
word like 'controversial' when it is followed by a word with another prominent syllable, p raarticularly when the first
syllable of the following word is prominent). E.g., She gave a CONtroversial ANswer.
f. In words with de- and re- prefixes, the prefix is usually pronounced /dr-/ and /n-/ if it is unstressed and /di:-/ and /ri:-/ if
it has secondary stress. Compare: d e ' gra de /dr-/ but: , decom ' pose /di:-/re ' c \ a i lll /n-/ but: , recon ' sider /ri:-/.
g. Come compound nouns have main stress on the first part and others have main stress on the second part.
h. The noun+noun compounds have main stress on the first part, e.g., ‘arms race’. If the first part gives the material that
the second part is made out of, main stress usually goes on the second part. E.g., cotton ' wool but: a ' cotton , plant.
i. Step-ups –contrasts and new topics May 6th 2020
j. A Rec D58 Contrasts
k. We can use a step-up to a relatively high pitch to show that information contrasts with previous information or what
was expected. The step-up is in the first prominent word of a speech unit which includes the contrasting information.
In these examples step-ups are marked with
l. We expected profits to drop this quarter, // but they ROSE by a THIRD //.  a contrast between an expected
drop and an actual rise
m. Patients are now encouraged // to EXercise // instead of rest after their operations.  a contrast between the
past encouragement to rest and the new practice of encouraging exercise
n. Although many people think of ants as a nuisance, they play // a VItal ROLE // in many ecosystems.  a
contrast between the common belief that they are a nuisance and their actual vital role
o. We know that vegetarians have low rates of heart disease, // but we DON'T fully understand WHY //.  a
contrast between what we know to be the case and our lack of understanding
p. Rather than wait for the authorities to solve the problem, // we should ACT NOW //.  a contrast between
waiting and acting now
q.
r. B Rec D 59 New topics
s. Step-ups are also used, particularly in prepared speech, to show that we are starting a new topic. Here is the beginning
of a speech made by a senior manager from the car company Rovoda to a conference of scientists discussing
environmental problems. Notice how step-ups are used at the beginning of new topics:
t.
 u. Good morning!
v. It's a pleasure to be here to represent Rovoda and participate in this valuable discussion.

w. One of the things I enjoy about working for Rovoda is that the company recognises the importance of balancing
the needs of business and society. As a car manufacturer, we know that we are part of the environmental problem, and

need to be part of the solution. With that in mind, I'd like to propose that the mission for all of us, starting with this
meeting, is to find ways that people can continue to enjoy the freedom and lifestyles they do now, but by running cars

that won't damage the planet. I realize that is a huge task, but it's not an impossible dream. Think of the
talent, creativity and influence we have at this meeting. If we, together with governments, decide to move forward
together, a solution can be found.
x. Step-downs - adding information and ending topics
y. A Rec D62 Adding information
z. When we use a noun phrase to add information about the previous noun phrase (and both refer to the same person or
thing), we often step down and say the second noun phrase with a relatively low pitch in its own speech unit. The step-
down is in the first prominent word of this speech unit. In these examples, step-downs are marked with

aa. The head TEAcher ↘ // Mr LEE ↘// will be talking to parents.

bb. The report is published // by the WHO↘ // the WORLD HEALTH organisation↘.

cc. The reSEARCH team ↘↗ // SCIentists from the university of LEEDS ↘↗ // will be spending six months in the
Arctic.
dd. We can also add information in a whole clause beginning with a step-down:

ee. A mySTErious arc of LIGHT ↘// KNOWN as the LYNX arc↘// has been found to be the biggest star-forming
region ever seen in space.
ff. Note: The noun phrases (the main information and the added information) have a falling tone if they are 'news' and a
rising or fall - rising tone if they are 'not news'; that is, the speaker assu mes the hearer already knows the information.
Notice that the same tone is usually used in the first noun phrase and in the stepped-down speech unit. However, this is
not always the case:

gg. The AusTRAlian author PEter THOMas↘ // NOW based in New YORK ↘↗ // is this year's Brook Prize winner.
 here the speaker 'tells' hearers that she is talking about Peter Thomas, but 'reminds' them that Peter Thomas lives in
New York - this is information she assumes hearers already know
hh.
ii. B Rec D 63 Ending topics
jj. Step-downs are also used, particularly in prepared speech, to show that we are ending a topic. Here is part of a
conference talk given on the subject of education. Notice that step-downs are often followed by step-ups marking new
topics.

kk. In my talk I want to outline three ways of improving school students’ attainment, behaviour and aTTENDance.
The FIRST is to raise teaching quality through continuing professional development and the opportunity to observe

outstanding teachers working in difficult classrooms. We also need greater flexibility in the subjects
available to students, particularly offering students who are less able academically the option of taking work – related

COURSes. FINally, there should be increased opportunities outside the classroom, ensuring that children from

sport and arts-related acTIVities. I will now go on to talk about each of these in DEtail. EXcellent teaching
is the key to motivating students.

What is a syllable? The nature of the syllable. Basic structure of the syllable. Syllable Division Rules. A few
tips to divide a word into syllables. Syllable stress patterns.

A
What is a syllable? It’s the sound of a vowel (A, E, I, O, U) that is created when pronouncing the letters A, E, I, O, U,
or Y. ----------“Y” is a vowel only if it creates an A, E, I, O, or U sound, e.g., fry , try, cry, & dry, / aɪ /.

 The number of times you hear the sound of a vowel is the number of syllables in a word. If two (or more) vowels are
next to each other, the number of syllables is the number of vowel sounds, e.g., free / i: / (1 syllable), eat (1 syllable), &
bio / ‘baɪ-əʊ / (2 syllables).

 A silent vowel is not a syllable, e.g., fire /ˈfaɪə(r) / (1 syllable), tire (1 syllable), & sale (1 syllable).

 If a word ends with “-le” or “-les” and the “ - ” is not a vowel, “-le” is a syllable, e.g., apple / ˈæp - l / (2 syllables).

The nature of the syllable

 The syllable is basically carried by obligatory vowels. A minimum syllable is a

single vowel in isolation. E.g. err /ɜː(r) mmmm /m/ fur /fɜː(r)/
furs /fɜːz/

 The syllable is the basis rhythmical phonic (i.e., relating to sound) unit. Phonologically, it is the basic unit at the
intonation level as it bears stress, tone and rhythm.

 The syllable can be defined both phonetically (i.e., in the way we produce it and the way the syllable sounds) and
phonologically (i.e., in the way vowels and consonants are distributed).

 Phonetically, the syllable is defined at all levels: articulatory, auditory and acoustic.

Phonetically a syllable consists of a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds loud (i.e., a
vowel -that makes the centre- is a speech sound in which the mouth is open and the tongue is not touching the top of
the mouth, the teeth, etc., so that the flow of air escapes freely.
Before (at the beginning of the syllable ) and after this centre (at the end of the syllable) there will be greater
obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound (i.e., because a consonant is a speech sound made by completely or partly
stopping the flow of air through the mouth or nose by some organ of speech).

 Articulatorily, the syllable is a puff of air forced upward through the vocal channel by a compression of the inter-costal
(tarpšonkaulinis) muscles. The syllable is a problem of chest pulse.
3 stages: - onset (release), -peak (culmination) – the most important element, primarily represented by vowel sounds
and also some consonants [m, n, ŋ, l, r], -coda (arrest). See: The basic
structure of the syllable (below).

 In auditory terms, one can decode the number of syllables on the basis of the prominence of certain sounds in the
continuous flow of speech.

 Phonologically, it is the basic unit at the intonation level as it bears stress, tone and rhythm. The syllable is the basis
of rhythmical phonic (i.e., relating to sound) unit.

Basic structure of the syllable (Skiemens sandara)

Basic structure of the syllable:

 the obligatory vowel within the syllable structure=peak(centre) (centras/branduolys/pagrindas)

 the optional consonant(s) that can preceed the peak=onset) (pradžia)

 the optional consonant(s) –if there is one-that can follow the peak =coda (pabaiga)

 the peak (normally the vowel) and the coda make the rhyme (rimas).

The structure of the ONSET

 the maximum number of consonants within the onset is three:

 the 1st consonant in the onset is called pre-initial; if present it is always represented by /s/;

 the 2nd second consonant in the onset is called initial (pirmasis/pirminis) ; this can basically be any English consonant,
especially if the onset only consists of this initial consonant;

 the 3rd consonant in the onset is called post-initial; this is exclusively represented by /l/, /r/, /w/ and /j/;

 the onset without consonant is called zero onset;

 obviously, some combinations are preferable, some combinations of consonants are impossible in English: *sʒw *mr
*hl (Note: / ʃw/ is only present in the vowel name ‘schwa’ and the
brandname of the soft drinks, Schweppes: / ʃ w ʌ/ , / ʃ weps/.)

The structure of the CODA:

 the maximum number of the consonants within the coda part is four;

 the individual ‘slots’ bear the following names:

- pre-final (priešpaskutinis)consonants (only a small set: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /s/);

 -- final (galutinis)consonants (basically any English consonant – but combinations within consonant clusters are
limited); --- post-final (galutinis) consonants – again a
small set /s/, /z/, /t/, /d/, /θ/.

E.g.: fifths /fІfθ/ - 2 post-final consonants next /nekst/ - 2 post-final consonants twelfths /twelfθs/ -
2 post-final consonants sixths /sІkθs/ - 3 post-final consonants texts /teksts/ - 3

-final consonants

Note: if the peak (centre) of the syllable is not carried by a vowel we need to consider a syllabic consonant /l/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /r/,
e.g. middle /mɪdl/.

SUMMARY This is the maximum phonological structure of the syllable:

 ONSET PEAK CODA

pre- initial post- vowel pre- final post- post- post initial initial
final final 1 final 2 final 3

Syllable Division Rules

1. Separate prefixes and suffixes from root words, e.g., pre-view, work-ing, re-do, end-less, & out-ing

2. Are two (or more) consonants next to each other?

- Divide between the 1st and 2nd consonants, e.g., buf-fet, des-sert, ob-ject, ber-ry, & pil-grim

- Never split 2 consonants that make only 1 sound when pronounced together and aren't the same letter (i.e., ‘ff’ ):
th, sh, ph, th, ch, & wh

3. Is the consonant surrounded by vowels?

- Does the vowel have a long sound? (Like the ‘i’ in line) Divide before the
consonant, e.g., ba-by, re-sult, i-vy, fro-zen, & Cu-pid

- Does the vowel have a short sound? (Like the ‘i’ in mill) Divide after the consonant,
e.g., met-al, riv-er, mod-el, val-ue, & rav-age

4. Does the word end with ‘ckle’? Divide right before the ‘le’,
e.g., tack-le, freck-le, tick-le, & buck-le

5. Does the word end with ‘le’ (not ‘ckle’)?

- Is the letter before the ‘le’ a consonant? Divide 1 letter before the
‘le.’ E.g. ap-ple, rum-ble, fa-ble, & ta-ble

- Is the letter before the ‘le’ a vowel? Do nothing. E.g., ale, scale,
sale, file, & tile

A few tips to divide a word into syllables

- Divide off any compound words – e.g., book-end, car-pool, class-room.

- Divide the prefixes and suffixes from the baseword – e.g., re-move, jump-er, price-less, un-sharp-en.

- Underline the vowels in the baseword - Remember, syllables are formed by the vowels. Every syllable has one
and only one vowel sound. Though many vowels are written with two or more letters: e.g.,: igh, au, ough, ay.

- Examine the baseword for: A silent final E needed

for the syllable - Count back two consonants from the silent final E and divide the syllable, e.g., ti-tle, lit-tle,
puz-zle, a-cre.

- Two vowels on either side of a double consonant - Divide the syllable between the consonants. For example:
din-ner, hap-py, rub-ber, but-ter, ap-proach.

- Two vowels on either side of two single-letter consonants - Usually divide the syllable between the consonants
– e.g., un-der, bas-ket, tem-per.

- A single consonant in the middle of the word - Usually divide the syllable before the consonant. These words
follow the spelling rules: A E O U usually say their names at the end of the syllable; and I and Y may say
either their long or short sounds at the end of a syllable. For example: o-pen, ro-tate, ba-by, me-ter.
The rules for splitting words at the end of the line in the English language are quite complicated. To be on the safe side, simply
avoid doing it. If breaking a word is inevitable make sure you put the hyphen after a complete syllable: neg-li-gent. Hyphenating
in the middle of a syllable is regarded as a mistake. There are
a few "never" rules when breaking the words at the end of the line: - Never break up a one-syllable
word. - Never hyphenate a word that already has a hyphen.
- Never split a proper noun (any noun starting with a capital letter). - Never leave one or
two letters on either line. However, you may use hyphen before the inflexion for the past participle (e.g play-ed) with regular
verbs, at the same time it is less common for irregular verbs (e.g brok -en).
- Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line. - Never start the new line
with two-letter suffixes. Compare: Žodžiai į kitą eilutę lietuvių k.
dažniausiai yra keliami fonetiniais skiemenimis (pvz., ra-šy-to-jas) ke-lia-mės, bi-o-lo-gi-ja. (Žr.
http://www.vlkk.lt/aktualiausios-temos/rasyba/zodziu-kelimas).

Syllable stress patterns

The stress pattern of a word is the way all the syllables are stressed in it. There can be main and secondary stress, or unstressed
sounds. There are different ways to show the stress pattern of a
word. Large and small circles, quadrangles and ovals can be used. Colours, an a’postrophe before the main stressed syllable,
humming the tune (DA da, da da DA) or underlining are alternatives.
E.g. O o equal o O oo equality O o o equalise o o o O o equalisation

RHYTHM /ˈrɪðəm/- ritmas

“Rhythm is order in movement.” (Plato) Rhythm is the element that

“establishes order” in the flow of speech is stress: universally, stressed and unstressed positions alternate at different levels.
The rhythm of English reminds that of messages in the Morse code. Languages would differ according to which pieces of speech
must have similar durations, i.e., must be isochronous (/ʌɪˈsɒkrənəs/-occurring at the same time/occupying equal time-
izochroninis).

English is called a stress-timed language. A stress-timed language is a language where the stressed syllables are said at
approximately regular intervals, and unstressed syllables shorten to fit this rhythm.

English speech has a rhythm that allows us to divide it up into more or less equal intervals of time called feet, each of which
begins with a stressed syllable: this is called the stress-timed rhythm hypothesis. Languages where the length of
each syllable remains more or less the same as that of its neighbours whether or not it is stressed are called syllable-timed.
(P.Roach). A foot begins with a stressed syllable and includes all the following unstressed syllables up to the next stressed
syllable. (foot-pėda-mažiausias eilėdaros elementas.)

The rhythm of an English utterance is characterised by the recurrence (/rɪˈkʌrəns/ /rɪˈkɜːrəns/- i.e., it happens again/
pasikartojimas) of stressed syllables at more or less regular intervals of time.

The unstressed syllables in an utterance are attached either to the following or preceding stressed words and form together with it
a rhythmic group. The words in a rhythmic group are pronounced without any pause, i.e., as one word, e.g. It is nice.

From the point of view of rhythm, a sense group in English is divided into rhythmical groups. There are as many rhythmical
groups as there are stressed syllables. A minimal rhythmical group consists of one stressed syllable.

The basic rules of English rhythm are as follows:

• the stressed syllables in a sense group follow each other at regular intervals of time; only in very long rhythmical
groups, containing many unstressed syllables this rule is not strictly observed;

• most non-initial rhythmical groups begin with a stressed syllable; unstressed syllables in between them cling to the
preceding or the following stressed ones; unstressed syllables clinging to the preceding stressed ones are called enclitics (/ɪn
ˈklɪtɪk/,/enˈklɪtɪk/-a word pronounced with very little emphasis, so that it becomes part of the word before), unstressed syllables
clinging to the following stressed ones are called proclitics (/ˌprəʊˈklɪtɪk/a word that is spoken with very little emphasis, so that it
becomes part of the following word). e.g. I haveproclictics ‘just ‘given
the ↘book to him.enclictics

• the greater the number of unstressed syllables between the stressed ones the more rapidly they are pronounced;

• initial unstressed syllables are always pronounced rapidly;

• each sense group has a rhythm of its own.

The rhythm of the English language has remained unchanged for 350 years. Rhythm and intonation are two features of
pronunciation on which intelligibility rests. The surest way to become unintelligible in a language is to distort its natural rhythm.

The influence of rhythm on the length of vowels. Stressed syllables get shorter when they are followed by unstressed ones. The
vowels in unstressed syllables are shorter. The longer the group of unstressed syllables between the stressed ones, the faster they
are pronounced and the shorter their vowels get.

The influence of rhythm on word stress. There is no tendency in spoken English to stress two adjacent syllables, e.g., 13-19,
compound adjectives (e.g. ‘good-‘natured) have only one stress. e.g. She is a ‘good-natured ↘woman.
There are ‘fourteen ↘boys. He’s ‘just four↘teen.

The influence of rhythm on phrasal stress. Adjacent (/əˈdʒeɪsnt/-next to something/gretimas) unstressed syllables lose phrasal
stress and usually notional words are stressed. To keep the rhythm in a phrase, unstressed form words usually take a phrasal
stress.

The difficulties in learning rhythm. Rhythm is very closely connected to phrasal stress. When we start speaking a foreign
language each word is stressed because of the influence of the Lithuanian language (there are more stressed words in it; learners
tend to stop before saying the next word when they are speaking). The way to learn English rhythm is to concentrate on the
notional/meaningful words, use tones and make a pause.References
Aprijaskytė, R., Pažūsis, L. 1994.Anglų kalbos tarties pratybos.Vilnius. Leidykla „Žodynas“
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e62/a219ccd71779ff1652eb392e3700f04fccb9.pdf
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/stress-timed
Roach P. Glossary – a Little Encyclopaedia of Phonetics, p.76
https:// www.peterroach.net/uploads/3/6/5/8/3658625/english-phonetics-and-phonology4-glossary.pdf