Phase 1 & 2: 50% OFF On NABARD Courses Code: NABARD50

SEBI Gr A 2020
Economics
Phase
1&2
Business Cycles
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Code: NABARD50
Introduction
“A trade cycle is composed of periods of good trade characterised by rising prices and
low unemployment percentages with periods of bad trade characterised by falling prices
and high unemployment percentages.”
- J.M. Keynes
▪ These fluctuations in economic activity are recurrent and have been

occurring periodically in a more or less regular fashion.
▪ Therefore, these fluctuations have been called business cycles.
▪ These fluctuations are called as ‘cycles’ means that they are periodic and occur
regularly, though perfect regularity has not been observed.
▪ Also, the duration of a business cycle has not been of the same length - it has
varied from a minimum of two years to a maximum of ten to twelve years.
Phases of Business Cycles:
Business cycles have shown distinct phases the study of which is useful to understand
their underlying causes.
Generally, the following phases of business cycles have been distinguished:

1. Expansion (Boom, Upswing or Prosperity)
2. Peak (upper turning point)
3. Contraction (Downswing, Recession or Depression)
4. Trough (lower turning point)
Phases of Business Cycles
▪ We start from trough or depression when

the level of economic activity i.e., level of
production and employment is at the
lowest level.
▪ With the revival of economic activity the
economy moves into the expansion phase,
but the expansion cannot continue indefi-
nitely, and after reaching peak, contraction
or downswing starts.
▪ When the contraction gathers momentum,
we have a depression.
▪ The downswing continues till the lowest
turning point which is also called trough is
reached. In this way cycle is complete.
▪ However, after remaining at the trough
for some time the economy revives and
again the new cycle starts.
Pattern of Cyclic changes
There are two types of patterns of cyclic changes:
1. In this pattern, fluctuations occur around a

stable equilibrium position as shown by the
horizontal line.
2. It is a case of dynamic stability which

depicts change but without growth or trend.
1. In this pattern, cyclical changes in

economic activity take place around a
growth path (i.e., rising trend).
2. Such a pattern of fluctuations can be

explained with long-run rising trend in
economic activity by imposing factors such
as autonomous investment and
technological progress.
Phases of Business Cycles
Expansion and Prosperity:

In its expansion phase-
▪ Both output and employment increase till we have full-employment of resources
▪ Production is at the highest possible level with the given productive resources
▪ There is no involuntary unemployment (whatever unemployment prevails is only of
frictional and structural types).
Thus, when expansion gathers momentum and we have prosperity, the gap between
potential GNP and actual GNP is zero, that is, the level of production is at the maximum
production level.
▪ A good amount of net investment is occurring and demand for durable consumer
goods is also high.
▪ Prices also generally rise during the expansion phase but due to high level of
economic activity people enjoy a high standard of living.
Then something may occur, that bring an end to the expansion or prosperity
phase.
Economists differ regarding the possible causes of the end of prosperity and start of
downswing in economic activity:
▪ Monetarists have argued that contraction in bank credit may cause downswing.
▪ Keynes have argued that sudden collapse of expected rate of profit (which he calls
marginal efficiency of capital, MEC) caused by adverse changes in expectations of
entrepreneurs lowers investment in the economy.
▪ This fall in investment, according to him, causes downswing in economic activity.
Contraction and Depression:
We have learned that expansion or prosperity is followed by contraction or depression.
During contraction-
▪ There is a fall in GNP and also level of employment is reduced.
▪ As a result, involuntary unemployment appears on a large scale.
▪ Investment also decreases causing further fall in consumption of goods and
services.
▪ At times of contraction or depression prices also generally fall due to fall in
aggregate demand.
▪ A significant feature of depression phase is the fall in rate of interest. With lower
rate of interest people’s demand for money holdings increases.
▪ There is a lot of excess capacity as industries producing capital goods and consumer
goods work much below their capacity due to lack of demand.
▪ Capital goods and durable consumer goods industries are especially hit hard during
depression.
▪ Depression occurs when there is a severe contraction or recession of economic
activities.
Trough and Revival:
▪ There is a limit to which level of economic activity can fall. The lowest level of
economic activity, generally called trough. It lasts for some time.
▪ Capital stock is allowed to depreciate without replacement. The progress in

technology makes the existing capital stock obsolete.
▪ If the banking system starts expanding credit or there is a spurt in investment activity
due to the emergence of scarcity of capital as a result of non-replacement of
depreciated capital and also because of new technology coming into existence
requiring new types of marines and other capital goods.
▪ The stimulation of investment brings about the revival or recovery of the economy.
▪ The recovery is the turning point from depression into expansion.

▪ As investment rises, this causes induced increase in consumption.
▪ As a result industries start producing more and excess capacity is now put into full
use due to the revival of aggregate demand.
▪ Employment of labour increases and rate of unemployment falls. With this the cycle is
complete.
Features of Business Cycles
1. Business cycles occur periodically

▪ Though they do not show same regularity, they have some distinct phases such
as expansion, peak, contraction or depression and trough.
▪ Further the duration of cycles varies a good deal from minimum of two years to a
maximum of ten to twelve years.
2. Business cycles are Synchronic

▪ Synchronic means that they do not cause changes in any single industry or sector
but are of all embracing character. It means that depression or contraction occurs
simultaneously in all industries or sectors of the economy.
▪ Recession passes from one industry to another and chain reaction continues till
the whole economy is in the grip of recession.
▪ Similar process is at work in the expansion phase, prosperity spreads through
various linkages of input-output relations or demand relations between various
industries, and sectors.
3. Fluctuations occur not only in level of production
but also simultaneously in other variables such as employment, investment,
consumption, rate of interest and price level.
4. Investment and consumption of durable consumer goods are affected

most by the cyclical fluctuations
▪ As stressed by J.M. Keynes, investment is greatly volatile and unstable as it
depends on profit expectations of private entrepreneurs.
▪ These expectations of entrepreneurs change quite often making investment quite
unstable.
▪ Since consumption of durable consumer goods can be deferred, it also fluctuates
greatly during the course of business cycles.
5. Consumption of non-durable goods and services does not vary much

during different phases of business cycles
▪ Past data of business cycles reveal that households maintain a great stability in
consumption of non-durable goods.
6. The immediate impact of depression and expansion is on the
inventories of goods
▪ When depression sets in, the inventories start accumulating beyond the desired level.
This leads to cut in production of goods.
▪ On the contrary, when recovery starts, the inventories go below the desired level.
▪ This encourages businessmen to place more orders for goods whose production picks
up and stimulates investment in capital goods.
7. Profits fluctuate more than any other type of income

▪ The occurrence of business cycles causes a lot of uncertainty for businessmen and
makes it difficult to forecast the economic conditions.
▪ During the depression period profits may even become negative and many businesses
go bankrupt.
8. Business cycles are international in character

▪ It means, once started in one country they spread to other countries through trade
relations between them.
Happy Learning!

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SEBI Gr A 2020

50% OFF on NABARD courses

▪ These fluctuations in economic activity are recurrent and have been

▪ Therefore, these fluctuations have been called business cycles.

Generally, the following phases of business cycles have been distinguished:

▪ We start from trough or depression when

There are two types of patterns of cyclic changes:

1. In this pattern, fluctuations occur around a

2. It is a case of dynamic stability which

1. In this pattern, cyclical changes in

2. Such a pattern of fluctuations can be

Expansion and Prosperity:

We have learned that expansion or prosperity is followed by contraction or depression.

▪ Capital stock is allowed to depreciate without replacement. The progress in

▪ The recovery is the turning point from depression into expansion.

1. Business cycles occur periodically

2. Business cycles are Synchronic

4. Investment and consumption of durable consumer goods are affected

5. Consumption of non-durable goods and services does not vary much

7. Profits fluctuate more than any other type of income

8. Business cycles are international in character

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