CC-BY-NC 3.

SIALOLITHIASIS: TRADITIONAL & SIALENDOSCOPIC

TECHNIQUES

Robert Witt & Oskar Edkins

Sialoliths vary in size, shape, texture, and The anterior FOM has a covering of delicate
consistency; they may be solitary or multi- oral mucosa through which the thin-walled
ple. Obstructive sialadenitis with or without sublingual/ranine veins are visible (Figures
sialolithiasis represents the main inflamma- 1 & 2). The veins are visible on the ventral
tory disorder of the major salivary glands. surface of the tongue, and accompany the
Approximately 80% of sialolithiasis in- hypoglossal nerve (Figure 2).
volves the submandibular glands, 20% oc-
curs in the parotid gland, and less than 1%
is found in the sublingual gland. Patients
typically present with painful swelling of the
gland at meal times when obstruction
caused by the calculus becomes most acute.
When conservative management with sial-
ogogues, massage, heat, fluids and antibiot-
ics fails, then sialolithiasis needs to be surgi-
cally treated by transoral, sialendoscopic Figure 2: Ranine veins
and sialendoscopy assisted techniques; or as
a last resort, excision of the affected gland The paired sublingual salivary glands are
(sialadenectomy). located beneath the mucosa of the anterior
FOM, anterior to the submandibular ducts
Surgical anatomy and above the mylohyoid and geniohyoid
muscles (Figures 3 & 4). The glands drain
The paired submandibular ducts (Whar- via 8-20 excretory ducts of Rivinus into the
ton’s ducts) are immediately deep to the submandibular duct and also directly into
mucosa of the anterior and lateral floor of the mouth on an elevated crest of mucous
mouth (FOM) and open into the oral cavity membrane called the plica fimbriata which
to either side of the frenulum (Figure 1). is formed by the gland and is located to ei-
The frenulum is a mucosal fold that extends ther side of the frenulum of the tongue).
along the midline between the openings of
the submandibular ducts. In the anterior floor of mouth the lingual
nerve is located posterior to the duct; it
crosses deep to the submandibular duct in
the lateral floor of mouth (Figures 3, 4, 5).
Ranine veins

Frenulum

Puncta of submandib-
ular ducts
Submandibular duct
Figure 1: Anterior FOM

www.openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 7-1
 Robert Witt & Oskar Edkins
Lingual nerve
intraoral examination. The salivary ductal
Intraoral SMG
orifice may be red and oedematous. One
Floor of mouth
should massage the gland to milk and in-
Ducts of Rivinus
spect the saliva; frank infection may be rep-
Sublingual gland
resented by plaques or whitish secretions
Mylohyoid
emanating from the duct. Manual palpation
Submental artery
of the parotid gland allows a surgeon to de-
Cervical SMG
termine the consistency of the gland.
Figure 3: Sagittal view floor of mouth

Lingual nerve

Sublingual gland Parotid duct

Submandibular duct Opening parotid duct

Wharton’s duct
Submandibular gland

Mylohyoid muscle

Geniohyoid muscle

Figure 4: Superior, intraoral view of submandibular

gland, duct, lingual nerve and mylohyoid and gen-
iohyoid muscles Figure 6: Stensen’s duct crosses and hooks around the
anterior aspect of the masseter, and pierces the bucci-
nator muscle to enter the mouth (Gray’s anatomy)

Lingual nerve
Bimanual palpation (finger inside and out-
Submandibular duct
side the mouth) is particularly important
Sublingual gland
when examining the submandibular gland
Submandibular gland
and its duct.
Mylohyoid muscle

Figure 5: Intraoral view of left sublingual gland with Salivary Imaging

ducts of Rivinus, submandibular gland and duct, lin-
gual nerve and mylohyoid muscles Imaging modalities for inflammatory con-
ditions of glands are plain X-rays (Figures
The parotid (Stensen’s) duct exits the ante- 7a, b), sialography (Figure 8), ultrasound
rior edge of the parotid gland, and crosses (Figure 9), and computed tomography (Fig-
the surface and hooks around the anterior ure 10).
aspect of the masseter, traverses the buccal
fat pad, and pierces the buccinator muscle Plain X-rays have less value with parotid
to enter the mouth opposite the 2nd upper stones because of the higher percentage (60-
molar (Figure 6). 70%) of radiolucent stones; approximately
20% of submandibular stones are not visible
Clinical Evaluation with plain X-rays.

Visual scanning of submandibular,

Sialography provides images of the mor-
preauricular, and postauricular regions is
phology of the ductal system and allows di-
the first step to assess for the presence of
agnosis of strictures, dilatations, and filling
swelling and erythema; this is followed by

www.openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 7-2
 Open Access Atlas of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Operative Surgery

defects (Figure 8). Ultrasound (Figure 9) is noninvasive and

has no associated discomfort. Failure to de-
MR sialography is good means to measure tect a stone with ultrasound is not uncom-
ductal stenosis. Although avoiding ionising mon as the distal portion of the submandib-
radiation, it has less resolution than con- ular and parotid ducts can be difficult to vis-
ventional sialography, thereby limiting vis- ualise using extraoral ultrasound; and ultra-
ualisation of the peripheral ducts. sound may be of limited value for the deep
portion of the submandibular gland. An ob-
structed duct that may otherwise not be ev-
ident may be better visualized after giving
the patient something sour like lemon juice
or sour sweets as this may cause ductal dila-
tation with obstructive pathology
(Figure 10).

a
Figure 7a: Calculi within the duct (occlusal view)

Figure 9: Ultrasound: acoustic shadow cast by calcu-

lus
b
Figure 7b: Calculi within submandibular gland

Figure 10: Calculus in right mid Stensen’s duct with

dilatation of duct proximal to left-sided of stone

Computed tomography (CT) imaging is a

Figure 8: Sialogram demonstrating stricture of sub-
good imaging modality to see sialoliths (Fig-
mandibular duct
ures 11, 12). Another advantage is its ability
to diagnose and locate intraparenchymal
stones and calcification.

http://openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 25-3
 Robert Witt & Oskar Edkins

Limitations of ultrasound and CT include 1. Can be removed via intraoral sialoli-

distinguishing non-echogenic stones from thotomy approaches, including palpa-
strictures, determining the length of a ste- ble stones up to the 1st molar tooth
nosis and the diameter of the duct distal to 2. Cannot be removed through intraoral
an obstruction. Ultrasound is a dynamic approach and require sialadenectomy;
and operator-dependent investigation and this includes stones posterior to the 1st
pathology may be therefore be overlooked. molar region, or stones in the middle
part of Wharton’s duct that cannot be
palpated intraorally

Traditional Intraoral Submandibular Si-

alolithotomy (Figure 13)

• Local or general anaesthesia

• Administer local anaesthesia with a vas-
oconstrictor in the floor of mouth at the
site of the planned incision
• Place two 3/0 silk sutures around the
duct, posterior to the stone, to isolate
Figure 11: CT scan of calculus within hilum of sub-
the stone and to prevent displacing the
mandibular gland stone to the proximal part of the duct or
hilum of the gland (Figure 13)

Figure 13: Suture placed posteriorly around subman-

dibular duct which has been incised to expose the cal-
culus
Figure 12: CT scan shows 2 small calculi within distal
segment of Stensen’s duct
• Cut through mucosa directly onto the
stone with a cold blade, electrosurgery,
Traditional Surgical Approaches to Sub-
or CO2 laser
mandibular Gland Sialolithiasis
• Remove the calculus
• Marsupialise the opening in the duct by
Prior to sialendoscopy, sialoliths in the sub-
mandibular duct and gland were divided suturing the cut edges of the duct to the
oral mucosa with interrupted 4/0 Vicryl
into two groups:
sutures (Optional)

www.openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 7-4
 Open Access Atlas of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Operative Surgery

Note: Although feasible in selected cases, • Dissect bluntly and sharply around the
the same sialolithotomy procedure for the duct up to the stone’s location (Figure
more posterior ductal region carries a sig- 14a)
nificant risk of injury to the lingual nerve • Incise the wall of the duct over the stone
and the possibility of severe bleeding from (Figure 14b)
the lingual vessels (Figure 2). • Remove the stone with curettes
• Following sialolithotomy, massage the
Traditional Surgical Approaches to Pa- gland to release saliva and plaque
rotid Sialolithiasis • Suture the ductal layer to the oral mu-
cosa with several 4/0 Vicryl sutures to
Prior to the advent of sialendoscopy, sialo- maintain ductal patency
liths in the parotid duct and gland were di- • Inserted a stent (silastic tube) to pre-
vided into two groups: vent the higher incidence of ductal ste-
nosis encountered with Stensen’s as
1. Can be removed via intraoral sialoli-
compared to Wharton’s duct
thotomy; this technique is useful only
for stones located in the distal part of Parotidectomy for Sialolithiasis
Stensen’s duct which is anatomically de-
marcated by the curvature of the duct The difference between parotidectomy for
around the masseter muscle to where sialolithiasis and a benign tumour is the
the duct penetrates the buccinator mus- condition of the gland; inflammation, scar-
cle (Figures 6, 12) ring and fibrosis both inside the gland and
2. Cannot be removed via intraoral ap- around Stensen’s duct make the operation
proach, requiring extirpation of the pa- difficult and heighten the risk of facial nerve
rotid gland injury.

The 1st step therefore is to precisely locate

the stone to select a surgical approach.

Traditional Intraoral Parotid Sialolithot-

omy
Calculus

• Local or general anaesthesia

• Administer local anaesthesia with vaso-
constrictor around the papilla of Sten- a
sen’s duct Figure 14a: Exposure of parotid duct and opening of
• Advance a lacrimal probe along the duct duct to remove calculus
until one feels the stone
• Hold the papilla and probe with a hae-
mostat to ensure a safe tract to the stone
• Make a circumferential elliptical inci-
sion around the papilla and the probe

http://openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 25-5
 Robert Witt & Oskar Edkins

Contraindications to sialendoscopy

Acute sialadenitis is a contraindication as

the risks of ductal injury and perforation are
increased due to the inflammation and ina-
bility to visualize during the procedure
from purulent material within the duct.

Figure 14b: Exposure of parotid duct and opening of Sialendoscopy equipment

duct to remove calculus
Rigid and semi-rigid endoscopes have a
Modern sialendoscopic approaches to si- larger diameter, greater stability, and can be
alolithiasis autoclaved (Figures 15, 16). Instrumenta-
tion includes an array of grasping forceps,
Salivary gland endoscopy has been a major balloons, baskets, graspers, burrs, lasers fi-
advance, not only in terms of providing an bers, and stents (Figure 17).
accurate means of diagnosing and locating
intraductal obstruction, but for permitting
minimally invasive surgery that can suc-
cessfully relieve blockages not amenable to
intraoral approaches. Sialendoscopy also
permits both diagnostic assessment and de-
finitive treatment in the same operative ses-
sion. 1
Figure 15: Example of rigid endoscope with working
Indications for sialendoscopy and irrigation ports

1. Diagnostic e.g. recurrent episodes of

swelling of major salivary gland without
an obvious cause
2. Treatment (interventional sialendos-
copy) of submandibular and parotid si-
aladenitis, including sialolithiasis
3. Exploration of the ductal system follow-
ing removal of calculi from the anterior
or middle parts of the submandibular
Figure 16: Rigid endoscope, camera and irrigation sys-
and parotid ducts
tem
4. Strictures or kinks of the salivary ductal
system
5. Paediatric inflammatory and obstruc-
tive pathology

www.openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 7-6
 Open Access Atlas of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Operative Surgery

e h
Figure 17g-h: Balloons, basket, grasper, hand drill, cy-
tology brush, grasping & biopsy forceps

Sialendoscopy technique
f
Introducing the endoscope into the ductal
Figure 17a-f: Balloons, basket, grasper, hand drill, cy-
tology brush
papilla, the narrowest portion of the duct,
can be challenging. The following methods
progressively lead to accomplishing this:

• Use magnification with surgical loupes

to visualize and dilate the ductal open-
ing
• Use conical dilators and probes (Figure
18) of increasing diameter to dilate the
duct prior to introducing the scope. Al-
ternating the conical dilator between
two serial sizes of probes can facilitate
this access

http://openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 25-7
 Robert Witt & Oskar Edkins

Figure 19: Note light at tip of sialendoscope within the

Figure 18: Conical dilator, probes of different diame-
duct
ters and papillotomy scissors

• With Wharton’s duct:

o Expose the oral cavity with a mouth
prop to permit an unobstructed
view of the floor of mouth
o Stabilise the floor of mouth with
toothed forceps placed posteriorly
and superiorly relative to the punc-
tum Figure 20: Guide wire inserted through the working
o An alternative method is for the sur- channel assists with insertion of endoscope through a
tight papilla
geon to retract the tongue posteri-
orly and to the opposite side with a
Submandibular Stones
finger, thereby straightening out the
punctum, duct and angle-of-ap- Stenosis of the papilla of Wharton’s duct
proach
may require a cut-down procedure onto the
o After dilating the duct, pass the tip
duct; dissecting the sublingual gland later-
of the scope into the duct (Figure 19) ally and exposing the duct and lingual nerve
• With Stenson’s duct: deep to the duct; and then inserting the si-
o Expose the oral cavity with a mouth alendoscope. Healing is by secondary inten-
prop to permit an unobstructed tion, or ductoplasty (suturing edges of the
view of the cheek and punctum duct to the floor of mouth at the end of the
o Stabilise the bucal mucosa by gently procedure) can be performed. With this ap-
retracting the cheek anterolaterally proach, the duct is best opened along its
at the corner of the mouth length superiorly, with the size of the cut
o Negotiating the natural bend in the limited to the size of the scope used, firstly
duct around the masseter muscle is to avoid transecting the duct and secondly
also facilitated by the manoeuvre to facilitate not diminishing the hydrostatic
• Passing a guide wire through the work- pressure required to dilate the duct during
ing channel of the scope facilitates in- the procedure due to escape of wash around
serting the scope into a tight papilla the scope.
(Figure 20)
Saline irrigation is used to expand the oth-
erwise collapsing duct distally. The saline is

www.openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 7-8
 Open Access Atlas of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Operative Surgery

delivered from a 50-100mL syringe via in-

travenous tubing which is attached to the ir-
rigation port of the endoscope (Figure 16).

Stones located distally (<1cm) from the

punctum of Wharton’s duct can be re-
moved by slitting the duct along its length
with insulated needle-tip electrocautery, re-
moval of the lith/stone, followed by sialen-
doscopy and lavage of the ductal system.
The duct heals by secondary intention, and
Figure 22: Duct translocated to lateral floor of mouth
stents are not required to prevent stenosis.

Alternatively, treatment for distal stones <5

Figure 21 illustrates the unusual situation of
a duct that is completely fibrosed at the mm is by interventional sialendoscopy.
punctum following removal of a distally lo- Papillotomy frequently has to be performed
cated calculus; the distended duct has been to deliver the calculus because the ostium is
exposed (note lingual nerve immediately the narrowest part of the duct.
behind the duct). In Figure 22 the duct has
Mobile stones located proximally within
been transected and translocated to the lat-
Wharton’s duct and measuring <5mm, are
eral floor of mouth; absorbable sutures an-
best removed by interventional sialendos-
chor the walls of the duct to the oral mu-
cosa. copy using baskets passed through the
working channel of the sialendoscope (Fig-
ures 17c, 23).

Lingual
nerve

Stenosed
punctum

Distended
duct

Sublingual
gland

Figure 21: Duct completely fibrosed at the punctum

Figure 23: Calculus clutched by basket

Once a stone is engaged in the basket it of-

ten cannot be released. Therefore the basket
is passed beyond the stone and only then
opened so as to avoid the risk of entrapping
an immobile, large stone. Another tech-
nique is to hold and extract the stone with

http://openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 25-9
 Robert Witt & Oskar Edkins

grasping forceps, without bypassing the has a good outcome. Incising the duct from
stone (Figures 17g, 24). punctum to hilum and then suturing the
duct to the floor of the mouth usually avoids
ductal stenosis 4. Alternatively Marchall 5
stents the duct. A guide wire is passed
through the working channel of the sialen-
doscope and through a ductotomy; the si-
alendoscope is withdrawn; a stent is ad-
vanced over the guide wire; the stent is su-
tured to the papilla with a nonabsorbable
suture and is left in situ for about 3 weeks.

Proximal submandibular stones >5mm in

diameter and not able to be removed by
Figure 24: Calculus extracted with grasping forceps
transoral techniques can be treated with
Larger stones may be fragmented with a Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy
hand drill (Figure 17e) and with forceps (ESWL) followed by sialendoscopy. Be-
(Figures 17g, h)); this can be time consum- cause of the high calcium content of sub-
ing. Calculi measuring >5mm and located mandibular calculi, this technique is less
in the proximal part of Wharton’s duct can successful compared to parotid calculi that
be removed by Nahlieli et al.’s ductal have lower calcium content. ESWL is not
stretching procedure 2 (Figure 25) and by available or approved for calculi in many
limited duct incision. countries including the USA.

Parotid Stones

Dissecting along the parotid duct from its

oral end may cause stenosis. Interventional
sialendoscopy and basket retrieval is the
treatment of choice of both proximal and
distal parotid stones measuring <4-5mm.
Small calculi not amenable to inter-
Figure 25: Larger calculi in proximal Wharton’s duct
venetional sialendoscopy, and stones meas-
removed by ductal stretching procedure with limited
duct incision uring >5mm can be treated with ESWL (if
available) followed by sialendoscopy. If
A safe surgical approach requires a detailed ESWL is not available, sialendoscopy with
knowledge of the ductal and lingual nerve any of the various intracorporial fragmen-
anatomy, good exposure with a mouth tation techniques described above may be
prop, and lateral retraction of the sublingual performed. Alternatively, a gland-sparing
gland with stay sutures passed between the approach using an external parotid ap-
teeth. 3 proach combined with sialendoscopy is ad-
vocated for calculi of >5mm within Sten-
Repairing the duct proximally can be tech- sen’s duct. Stones are located endoscopi-
nically challenging; leaving it open usually cally or by intraoperative ultrasound if there

www.openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 7-10
 Open Access Atlas of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Operative Surgery

is a stenosis distal to the stone. Coloured si- excimer, flash-lamp pulsed dye, the
lastic tubing passed up the duct helps to sta- Ho:YAG, and the erbium:YAG laser. An
bilise the duct. An external parotid ap- important advantage of most lasers is that
proach is then used to locate the stone. the fibers are of small diameter, sometimes
Nerve monitoring is used, because the duct only 200µm, yet allow one to deliver high-
crosses several branches of the facial nerve. watt intensities to fragment stones even in
Stensen’s duct is then slit length-wise and the peripheral the ductal system or behind
the stone is removed. The duct is repaired stenotic segments. Visibility is often com-
using 7-0 Prolene. Stenoses can be repaired promised by floating fragments which are
with a vein graft ductoplasty patch. Check removed by irrigation, baskets, or forceps
that the closure is watertight by means of before proceeding. Lasers used for intracor-
transoral back-pressure saline irrigation of poreal lithotripsy are expensive, time con-
Stensen’s duct administered via the irriga- suming, carry a risk of perforating the duct,
tion channel of the sialendoscope. Fibrin may require multiple procedures, and can
glue may help to secure a salivary seal. Si- result in the development of abscesses re-
alostenting introduced either externally or quiring gland removal.
via a sialendoscope and advanced over a
guide wire is recommended for 2-4 weeks. Complications of sialendoscopy

The severity of complications is generally

Impalpable intraparenchymal or impac- quite modest and includes ductal perfora-
ted stones measuring >5mm tion, basket entrapment, ductal avulsion,
postoperative infection and ductal stric-
With both submandibular and parotid tures, swelling in the floor of mouth with
stones, ESWL followed by sialendoscopy potential airway compromise and recur-
can be performed. A better outcome can be rence of symptoms. 6 Risks associated with
expected for parotid stones (lower calcium transoral submandibular approaches in-
content). Multiple intraparenchymal symp- clude lingual nerve injury and bleeding.
tomatic stones not amenable to conserva- Transfacial sialendoscopic approaches can
tive therapy are treated with sialoadenec- result in trauma to the buccal branches of
tomy. Where ESWL is not available, si- the facial nerve and formation of a sialo-
aloadenectomy is advocated for fixed intra- coele; this is managed with Botox (Allergan,
parenchymal stones and stones not amena- Inc. Irvine, CA) and anticholinergics, but is
ble to the gland-sparing techniques. An ex- best avoided by a creating a watertight seal
pertly performed sialoadenectomy carries a and using tissue glue.
low risk of complication to cranial nerves
(V, VII, and XII) and it is a once-off event Practical tips for the new sialendoscopist
for the patient without a concern for xero-
stomia. A balanced informed consent • Attend a hands-on course or get a sen-
should include sialoadenectomy as an alter- ior colleague trained in the procedure to
native initial approach. assist you

A variety of lasers have been used for intra-

corporeal lithotripsy, among them the XeCl

http://openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 25-11
 Robert Witt & Oskar Edkins

• There is a significant learning curve so Multiple or combined measures may prove

choose your initial cases carefully, be effective. A flexible methodology is still re-
patient and allow enough operating quired. 7
time
• Accessing the ducts can be challenging References
(especially Wharton’s duct) so use the
appropriate techniques to stabilize the 1. Geisthoff UW. Techniques for multi-
ducts when dilating them modal salivary gland stone therapy.
• If you perforate a duct, abort the proce- Oper Tech Otolaryngol 2007;18:332–40
dure or call a senior colleague to assist, 2. Nahlieli O, Shacham R, Zagury A, et al.
as the duct may require stenting The ductal stretching technique: an en-
doscopic-assisted technique for re-
Tips about setup and equipment moval of submandibular stones. Laryn-
goscope 2007;117:1031–5
• Take great care when handling the 3. McGurk M. Treatment for non-neo-
scopes as they are easily damaged. Nurs- plastic disease of the submandibular
ing and medical staff need to be ade- gland. In: McGurk M, Renehan A eds.
quately trained to avoid breakages. Controversies in the Management of
• A 1.3mm sialendoscope is the most ver- Salivary Gland Disease. Oxford, UK:
satile as it has a suitable working chan- Oxford Univ Press; 2001:297–309
nel for most basic instrumentation 4. Zenk J, Constantinidis J, Al-Kadah B,
• When setting up the camera head to Iro H. Transoral removal of subman-
scope the duct, it is important that the dibular stones. Arch Otolaryngol Head
orientation of the scope be the same as Neck Surg 2001;127: 432–6
that on the monitor as disorientation 5. Marchall F. Removal of calculi or stric-
will make it impossible to locate the lu- tures in salivary ducts that cannot be re-
men of the duct moved by sialendoscopy. In: Myers EN,
• Guidewires are very useful to access Ferris RL, eds. Salivary Gland Disor-
narrowed ducts as well to dilate ductal ders. Heidelburg, Germany: Springer;
stenoses 2007:149–58
6. Walvekar RR, Razfar A, Carrau RL,
Concluding remarks Schaitkin B. Sialendoscopy and associ-
ated complications: a preliminary expe-
Success is measured by treatment that is ef- rience. Laryngoscope 2008;118: 776–9
ficient, clinically effective, cost effective, 7. Witt R. Iro H, Koch M, McGurk M,
and gland sparing. Diagnostic and interven- Nahlieil O, Zenk J. Contemporary Re-
tional sialendoscopy, and sialendoscopy-as- view: Minimally Invasive Options for
sisted and transoral techniques have been a Salivary Calculi. Laryngoscope
major advance, not only by providing an ac- 2012;122:1306-11
curate means of diagnosing and locating
obstruction, but also permitting minimally
invasive surgical management that can suc-
cessfully address sialolithiasis, and preclude
sialoadenectomy in most cases.

www.openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 7-12
 Open Access Atlas of Otolaryngology, Head & Neck Operative Surgery

Authors Editor

Robert L Witt MD, FACS Johan Fagan MBChB, FCORL, MMed

Professor of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Professor and Chairman
Surgery Division of Otolaryngology
Thomas, Jefferson University University of Cape Town
Philadelphia, PA, USA Cape Town, South Africa
[email protected] [email protected]
Oskar Edkins MBChB, MMed, FCORL
Otorhinolaryngologist
Division of Otolaryngology
University of Cape Town
Cape Town, South Africa
[email protected]

http://openbooks.uct.ac.za/ENTatlas 25-13