MECHANICAL OPERATIONS
(CHE1022)
Dr. Chandan Sharma
Assistant Professor (sr.)
Chemical Engineering Department,
SCALE
Contact information:
Room no. SMV G20
Open hrs: Mon 10.00 am - 11.30 am
Thurs 9.30 am – 11.30 am
Email: [email protected]
Dr. Chandan Sharma
• PhD and M. Tech from IIT Kharagpur
Area of Specialization:
1. Polymer rheology
2. Polymer nanoparticle interactions
3. Bio based polyurethanes
4. Membrane technology for waste water treatment
Current interest:
• Polymer nanoparticle dynamics at very high loading.
• Lithium salts aided polymer phase segregation.
• Membrane synthesis and modules for portable water.
Class representatives (CR)
• Boys – 1
• Girls – 1
• Create a google group – admin (CRs) and Me
• Add each and every student of this class to this group.
Subject
• Code: CHE1022
• Title: Mechanical Operations
• Credits: LTPJ : C 2024 : 4
• Prerequisites: NIL
Course objective:
To impart concepts of particulate solids, size reduction techniques, methods of
separation of particulate solids from liquids by classification, sedimentation,
filtration techniques and mixing of solids and fluids.
Syllabus
J component
• 10 Projects – 10 Groups
• Group size: ≤6 students
• Will generate google spreadsheet for allotment of project
titles and students.
• Link will be provided in the google group
Assessment
• CAT – I
• CAT – II
• FAT
• E-Quiz I, II & III (MCQ)
• Assignment - I and II (Problem + Design)
• J component
• Laboratory (To be discussed in Lab)
Evaluation
• Assignment:
• Submitted before deadline: eligible for 100% marks
• 1 week delay: eligible for 80% marks
• After that: eligible for 50% marks
• Project:
• Report: 50%
• Introduction 5
• Objective 5
• Methodology/design 5
• Procedure/materials methods 5
• Result and discussion 20
• Conclusion 5
• References 5
• Final Presentation: 30%
• Attendance (once in a week): 20%
Time Line
CAT I will be based on Module – 1 to 4
CAT II will be based on Module – 5, 6 and 8(IV)
J component projects
Theme
Eco-friendly
Power efficient
Books
Module 1
• Introduction to particulate solids
• Particle shape, size
• Mixed particle sizes
• Size analysis – cumulative and differential
• Various mean diameters
• Screen analysis
• Standard screens
• Various Industrial screens
• LO’s
• Will be able to use different size analysis methods to determine
particle size.
• Will be able to calculate the particle size distribution using screen
analysis.
Particulate – Assembly of small particles
They are characterized by
*Size
*Shape
*Density
Regular –specified by size, shape
Irregular-arbitrarily defined
Equivalent diameter (irregular shaped
particles)
•
• Sphericity (Φs)
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝜙𝑠 =
• 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
6𝑉𝑝 Sp
𝜙𝑠 =
𝐷𝑝 𝑆𝑝
where Vp is the volume of the particle, Ap is its
surface area, and Dp is the diameter of a sphere
with the same volume
Volume: V
Answer: 0.806
Particle size- specified by diameter.
Size expressed in different units according to size range
*coarse – inch (or) mm
*Fine - screen size (mesh)
*Very fine - µm (or) nm
*Ultra fine – m2/gm (specific surface area)
Mixture of particles (same size)
No. of particles in the sample
𝑚
𝑁=
𝜌𝑝 𝑣𝑝
Total surface area
6𝑚
𝐴 = 𝑁𝑆𝑝 =
𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝
Specific surface of mixture(different size)
6𝑥1 6𝑥2 6𝑥𝑛
𝐴𝑤 = + +…+
𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝1 𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝2 𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑛
𝑛
6 𝑥𝑖
=
𝜙𝑠 𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1
xi is the mass fraction
Volume shape factor:
Volume is proportional of cube of diameter, the constant of proportionality is
knows as volume shape factor (a).
a=π/6 for spheres
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑎𝐷𝑝3
Number of particles in Mixture (Different sizes)
𝑛
1 𝑥𝑖 1
𝑁𝑤 = 3
=
𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑎𝜌𝑝 𝐷𝑣 3
𝑖=1
Average particle size
Volume – Surface mean diameter
6
𝐷𝑠 =
𝜙𝑠 𝐴𝑤 𝜌𝑝
1
𝐷𝑠 = 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝐷𝑝𝑖
Arithmetic mean diameter
𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖 𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝐷𝑁 = 𝑛 =
𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖 𝑁𝑇
Mass mean diameter
𝐷𝑤 = 𝑥𝑖 𝐷𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1
Volume mean diameter
Determining Particle Size:
Various methods are used for measurement of particle size.
These depends on size range, the physical properties and the
condition of dryness or wetness.
The following methods are used in laboratory.
1. Microscope
2. Screening
3. Sedimentation
4. Elutriation
5. Centrifuging
Screening (Sieving)
Importance of screening:
• Removes the fine from the feed material before a reduction equipment.
• Prevents oversized material to enter into unit operations.
• Produce a process grade material to meet specific feed size.
• Removes fines from finished product before packing.
Types of standard screens:
1. Tyler standard screen series
2. Indian standard test sieves
Types of Screen/sieve analysis
1. Differential Analysis
2. Cumulative Analysis
Particle size distribution
(a) Differential (b) Cumulative
Differential
Mesh Screen Avg. Particle Weight
Openings, size, μm fraction Find: diameters
μm retained, mg • Surface mean
• Mass mean
6/8 2362 2845 0.017
• Volume mean
8/10 1651 2006 0.235 • No. of particles
10/14 1168 1410 0.298 • Specific surface area
14/20 833 1000 0.217
20/28 589 711 0.105
28/35 417 503 0.062
35/48 295 356 0.028
48/65 208 252 0.017
65/100 147 178 0.010
100/150 104 126 0.005
150/200 74 89 0.002
Pan 0.004
1.0
Cumulative
Mesh Screen Weight fraction
Openings, μm retained, mg
6 3327 0.00
8 2362 0.017
10 1651 0.252
14 1168 0.55
20 833 0.767
28 589 0.872
35 417 0.934
48 295 0.962
65 208 0.979
100 147 0.989
150 104 0.994
200 74 0.996
Pan 1.0
Screening Equipment
• Screening Effectiveness: is a measure of the
success of the screen in closely separating undersize and
oversize, materials.
• See book for derivation
• F: feed
• D: overflow
• B: underflow
A dolomite mixture having the following screen analysis
through a standard 100 mesh screen. Calculate the
effectiveness of the screen and the mass ratio of
overflow and underflow to feed.
Mesh Feed Oversize (wt.%) Undersize (wt.%)
35 7.07 13.67 0.00
48 16.60 32.09 0.00
65 14.02 27.12 0.00
100 11.82 20.70 2.32
150 9.07 4.35 14.32
200 7.62 2.07 13.34
- 200 33.80 0.00 70.02
100 100 100
Mass ratio of overflow: 0.517, Mass ratio of underflow: 0.483, E=91.31
Screening Equipments
1. Grizzlies
2. Trommels or revolving screen
3. Vibrating screen
4. Shaking screen
5. Oscillating screen
6. Reciprocating screen
7. Gyratory screen
Grizzlies
Screening of lumps
Stationary(angle 20-50 degree)
Vibrating (back and forth movement)
Flat(bars are horizontal)
Trommels
Screening of relatively large particles
Rotating cylinders of perforated sheet or wire screen ,
5-10degree inclination,15-20 rpm
Operatting conditions of various screens
apparatus Particle size efficiency capacity
Grizzlies 20mm-300mm Low Very high
Trommels 6mm-55 mm Average Low
Vibrating screens 4 mesh-325 mesh High High
Gyratory screens 6 mm-40 mesh Very high Low
Banana screens 100mm high high
Module 2: Particle separation
• Introduction to Particle Separation
• Electrostatic Precipitation and Magnetic Separation
• Storage of Solids
• LO’s:
• Will be able to comprehend the working principle of ESP and
Magnetic separation units.
• Will be able to know about how solids are stored, and various
problems related to it.
Introduction
• Screening is effective method for separating relatively
coarse particle according to size.
• For very fine particles: according to terminal falling
velocity.
• Please read about: classification; cyclone separator;
Jigging; froth flotation.
Electrostatic separation
• It is a method of separation based on attraction or
repulsion of charged particles under electric field.
• Charging of particle is done by
• Contact electrification
• Electrification by conductive induction
• Electrification by bombardment
Electrostatic separator
• 1 : ESP
• 2 : How to make lab scale ESP
Magnetic separator
• Separation by means of magnetic field
• Diamagnetic solids: repelled by magnetic field
• Paramagnetic: attracted
• Video 1
• Video 2
• Wet Drum magnetic separator
Storage of solids
1. Bulk storage
2. Bin storage
Bin - not so tall but usually wider
Silo – tall and relatively small in diameter
Hopper - vessel with sloping at the bottom
Flow out of Bins
Mass flow-All the material moves whenever any is withdrawn
Funnel flow- Only a portion of the material flows when any is withdrawn
• Common flow problems
The following are used for designing the storage vessel.
1.Angle of Repose
2.Angle of Slide
3.Angle of internal friction
1. Silo design for cement storage
Best flow depends on the following physical characteristics of
materials.
1. Particle size
2. Moisture content
3. Temperature
4. Age
5. Oil content.
LO’s:
• Will be able to use crushing laws to find power requirement in comminution
• Will understand the difference in various size reduction equipment
MODULE 3: SIZE REDUCTION
Principles of comminution
Energy and power requirements in comminution
Mechanical efficiency
Laws of crushing
Size reduction equipment's
Crushers
Grinders
Cutting machines
Open and closed circuit operation
Size reduction
Process of converting large size to small size.
Large size ore - workable size
Plastic sheet - small pieces
Crystal - powder
Advantages:
1. Increases the reactivity of solids
2. Permits easy separation of unwanted materials
3. Easy handling and easy waste disposal
Comminution
Solids are broken in many ways.
The four methods are commonly used.
1. Compression - coarse
2. Impact - coarse, medium, fine
3. Attrition (or) Rubbing - very fine
4. Cutting - definite shape
Characteristics of Ideal size reduction equipment
1. Have large capacity
2. Require small power input/unit product
3. Yield a product of single size (or) desired size.
Energy and power requirement:
Energy fed to machine - to create new surface
- friction in bearing, moving part
- heat
Crushing Efficiency (ηc):
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑤𝑏 −𝐴𝑤𝑎
𝜂𝑐 = = 𝑒𝑠
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑛
• Where, es is the surface energy per unit area and W n is the energy absorbed.
Mechanical Efficiency (ηm):
It is the ratio of surface energy absorbed to energy input (W).
𝑊𝑛
𝜂𝑚 =
𝑊
𝐴𝑤𝑏 − 𝐴𝑤𝑎
𝑊 = 𝑒𝑠
𝜂𝑐 𝜂𝑚
• Grinding energy used per unit mass
𝑷 𝑾 𝟔𝒆𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
= = −
𝒎 𝒎 𝜼𝒄 𝜼𝒎 𝝆𝒑 𝝓𝒃 𝑫𝒔𝒃 𝝓𝒂 𝑫𝒔𝒂
• Where, m is the mass of material being ground
𝑫𝒔𝒂 , 𝑫𝒔𝒃 = Volume-surface mean diameter of the feed and
product, respectively
𝝓𝒂 , 𝝓𝒃 = sphericity of feed and product, respectively
𝝆𝒑 = particle density
𝑷 𝒅𝑫𝒔
𝒅 = −𝒌 𝒏
𝒎 𝑫𝒔
Kick’s Law, n = 1
Work required for crushing a given mass of material is
constant for the same reduction ratio.
𝑷 𝑫𝒔𝒂
= 𝑲𝒌 ln
𝒎 𝑫𝒔𝒃
Rittinger’s Law, n = 2
Work required for crushing is proportional to new
surface created.
𝑷 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑲𝒓 −
𝒎 𝑫𝒔𝒃 𝑫𝒔𝒂
Bonds law, n = 3/2
It states that power required for crushing is proportional to the
square root of the surface to volume ratio of the product.
𝑷 𝑲𝒃
=
𝒎 𝑫𝒑
𝑲𝒃 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 , 𝑾𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟐𝑾𝒊
𝑷 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔𝟐𝑾𝒊 −
𝒎 𝑫𝒑𝒃 𝑫𝒑𝒂
Work index – It is defined as gross energy requirement in kW
hr/ton of feed needed to reduce a very large size to such a size
that 80% of the product passes through 100μm screen.
What is the power required to crush 100 ton/h of limestone if
80 % of the feed passes a 2-in screen and 80 percent of the
product a 1/8-in screen?
Crushers (coarse and Grinders (intermediate
Ultrafine grinders
fine) and fine)
Hammer mills
Hammer mills;
Jaw crusher with internal
impactors
classification
Rolling-compression mills
• Bowl mills
Gyratory crusher Fluid-energy mills
• Roller mills
Crushing rolls Attrition mills Agitated mills
Tumbling mills
• Rod mills
• Ball mills; pebble mills
• Tube mills; compartment mills
1.Crushers
Primary 150-250 mm
Secondary 6mm
2.Grinders 74 µm
3.Ultra fine grinders 1-50 µm
Video 1
Product size 250-50 mm
Video
Swinging jaw 20-30o
Jaws close & open 250-400 times/min
125-425 gyrations/min
Feed rate 4500 ton/hr
Capacity depends on
impact strength of feed
and speed
Trap rock is crushed in a gyratory
crusher. The feed is nearly uniform 2-
in. spheres. The differential screen
analysis of the product is given
below. The power required to crush
this material is 400 kW/ton. Of this 10
kW is needed to operate the empty
mill. By reducing the clearance
between the crushing head and the
cone, the differential screen analysis
of the product becomes (given in
column 2). From (a) Rittinger’s law
and (b) Kick’s law, calculate the
power required for the second
operation. The feed rate is 110 ton/h
Roll dia 600 mm max size of product 2d
Product size 12-1 mm cos α = (r + d) / (r + R)
Angle of nip (α)
It is the angle formed by the tangents to the roll faces at a
point of contact with a particle to be crushed.
𝝁 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶
𝒓+𝒅
𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜶 =
𝒓+𝑹
What should be the diameter of a set of rolls to
take feed of size equivalent to 38 mm spheres
and crush to 12.7 mm? Coefficient of friction is
0.35.
• Answer:
• Diameter: 400 mm
Capacity 500 ton/hr
Particles are broken by impact alone.
Grind fibrous solid, steel turnings, sticky clay
Primary reduction machine for rock and ore, processing up to
600ton/hr
It gives more equidimensional particles
Reduction of lime stone
Cement clinker, coal
Feed rate 50 ton/hr
Product size
99% pass thro’200mesh
Single runner mill 350-700 rpm
Double runner mill 1200-7000 rpm
Reduction of starch, insecticide powders
Half of its volume is filled by balls
Conical grate-prevents small balls comes out the mill
Video
At critical speed
Centrifugal force = centripetal force
Feed rate 6000 kg/hr
Oval loop- 25 to 200 mm dia
Product size ½ -10 μm
6-9kg air/kg of product
1-4kg steam/kg of product
video
Grind hard materials such as silica or titanium oxide
Grinding medium is suspended in the liquid which
contains hard materials. It is taken in agitated vessel
and vibrated about 20 Hz.
product is withdrawn through a screen at the bottom. It
gives a product size of 1µm or finer
Clearance -25µm
Capacity
Small mill 3lit/min
Large mill 440lit/min
Knife Cutters
Rotor speed 200-900 rpm
Knife attached to rotor 2-12
Bed knife 1-7
Used in the manufacture of
Rubber or plastic.
Gives product of cube, squares
depending upon knife angle
Calculate the operating speed of the ball mill if
the diameter of the mill is 500 mm, diameter of
the ball is 40 mm and the operating speed is
50% of the critical speed of the mill.
• Answer 31 rpm
Equipment Operation
Requirements for good performance
1. Feed suitable size and enters at uniform size
2. Product removed as soon as possible
3. Unbreakable material kept out of the machine.
4. Heat generation in the mill should be removed
Open circuit operation - no oversize particle returned to
the mill
Closed circuit grinding
Closed circuit operation- oversize particle returned to the mill
Open circuit grinding
Disadvantage:
More power requirement because more energy is wasted in
regrinding the particles that are already fine enough
Mill Discharge:
• In continuous mill to avoid buildup of material
rate of discharge = rate of feed
• Discharge rate must be such that the working parts of the mill
can operate most effectively on particle.
• If particles are crushed more than needed, then more energy
will be wasted. This type of crushing operation is called
choke crushing.
- It requires more power - May damage the mill
• If particles are readily dropout of the machine and screened
to separate particle oversized, then this goes as recycle, this
kind of operation is called free discharge crushing or free
crushing.
• The product usually drops out the bottom of the mill. In
revolving mill it escapes through openings in the mill wall
at one end of the cylinder- peripheral discharge.
• If crushed particles are lifted by scoops and dropped
into a cone that directs it out through a hollow trunnion-
trunnion discharge.
Energy consumption
Size reduction is the most inefficient of all unit operations.
99% of the energy goes to operating the equipment,
producing undesirable heat and noise, leaving less than 1%
for creating new surface.
Removal of heat
• Cooling water is circulated through coils in the mill
• Sometimes air is blown through the mill
• Solid CO2 (dry ice) is admitted with the feed
• Liquid N2 also used to bring more drastic
temperature reduction.
