Introduction

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans and

groundwater).

Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water; and,
in almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and
populations, but also to the natural biological communities.

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into

water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.

Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested
that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, [1][2] and that it
accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. [2] An estimated 700
million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of
diarrheal sickness every day.[3] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some
degree of water pollution,[4] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe
drinking water.[5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing
countries, industrialized countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as
well. In the most recent national report on water quality in theUnited States, 45
percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32
percent of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted.[6]

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired

by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, like
serving as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support
its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such
asvolcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in
water quality and the ecological status of water.
Water pollution categories

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate
resources, although they are interrelated.[7] Sources of surface water pollution are
generally grouped into two categories based on their origin.
Point source pollution
Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a
discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category
include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.
The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement
purposes.[8] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to
include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as
fromconstruction sites.[9]
Non–point source pollution
Non–point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not
originate from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative
effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. The leaching
out of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land which has been fertilized is a
typical example. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from "sheet flow" over
an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution.

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways,

called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution.
However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and
discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. However
where such water is not channeled and drains directly to ground it is a non-point
source.
Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently,

groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not
as easily classified as surface water pollution. [7] By its very nature,
groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not
directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point
source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical
or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body)
may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the
aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, a plume front,
can be part of a Hydrological transport model or Groundwater model. Analysis of
groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and
site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants.

Marine pollution occurs when harmful effects, or potentially harmful effects, can

result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural
and residential waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Most sources of
marine pollution are land based. The pollution often comes from nonpoint
sources such as agricultural runoff and wind blown debris.

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up
byplankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders.
In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many
particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen,
causing estuaries to become anoxic.

When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become
absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause
mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire
food web.

Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a
change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behaviour, reproduction, and suppress
growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish
hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals,
and appear later in meat and dairy products.

Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to

counter it were enacted in the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern
during several United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Seabeginning in the
1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they had
unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render harmless, pollution. In the late 1950s
and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste
off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy
Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at Windscale,
and into the Mediterranean Sea by the French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique.
After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became
a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made
further international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey
Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California.
Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the
signing of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The London
Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for
substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide
and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the black list. The
London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to
regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines. [1]
Pathways of pollution

There are many different ways to categorize, and examine the inputs of pollution
into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generally there are three main
types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: direct discharge of waste into the
oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain, and pollutants that are released from
the atmosphere.

One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. The evaporation
of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance is restored by rain over
the continents entering rivers and then being returned to the sea.
The Hudson in New York State and the Raritan in New Jersey, which empty at the
northern and southern ends of Staten Island, are a source
of mercury contamination of zooplankton (copepods) in the open ocean. The highest
concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these rivers
but 70 miles south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It
takes a few days before toxins are taken up by the plankton[2].

Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source

pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, and localized source of the
pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the
ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint
source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse
sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind
blown debris are prime examples.
Direct discharge
Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and industrial
waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous and toxic wastes.

Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of

the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However,
some minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such
as copper, a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life
history and development of coral polyps. [2] Mining has a poor environmental track
record. For example, according to the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% of
watersheds in the western continental US.[3] Much of this pollution finishes up in
the sea.
Land runoff
Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the
construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours, can carry soil
and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient-
rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas,
known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by
using all available oxygen.

Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water
pollution in coastal areas. About 75 percent of the toxic chemicals that flow
into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and
driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land. [4]

Atmospheric pollution
Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Wind blown dust and
debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward from landfills and other areas.
Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical
ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge
builds and moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be
attributed to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts
across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands.[11] Since
1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is
a large variability in dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year;
[12]
 however, the flux is greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic
Oscillation.[13] The USGS links dust events to a decline in the health of coral reefs
across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s. [14]

Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[15] and raising levels of carbon

dioxide in the atmosphere. These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the
oceans.[16] This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fish
distributions,[17] with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods
of the communities that depend on them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also
important for the mitigation of climate change.[18]
Toxins

Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxins that do not
disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment. Examples of
persistent are PCBs, DDT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and radioactive
waste. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high
density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples
are mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic and cadmium. Such toxins can accumulate in the
tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are
also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds:
a geological record of human activities of the last century.
Specific examples

 Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in

the Amur River have devastated fish stocks and damaged itsestuary soil.[62]

 Wabamun Lake in Alberta, Canada, once the best whitefish lake in the area,

now has unacceptable levels of heavy metals in its sediment and fish.

 Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern

California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on
both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure. [63][64][65][66][67]

 Due to their high position in the food chain and the

subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be
high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004
the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women,
nursing mothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of
predatory fish.[68]

 Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating

heavy metals or toxins in their tissues. For example, crabs have a remarkable
ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including polluted waters.
  The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if
[69]

they are to be used as a food.[70][71]

 Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species

genetically, transforming male into female fish. [72]

 Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills - such as the Prestige

oil spill on the Galician coast - or from other natural or anthropogenic.[73]

 In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking

at least 30 ships loaded with toxic waste, much of it radioactive. This has led to
widespread investigations into radioactive waste disposal rackets. [74]

 Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union,
the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, have disposed of chemical
weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concerns of environmental contamination. [75][76]

Causes of water pollution

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum
of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated
temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that
are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium,sodium, iron, manganese, etc.)
the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of
water, and what is a contaminant.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g.
leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic
substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant
growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.[10]

Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne

diseases in either human or animal hosts.[11] Alteration of water's physical
chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and
eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical
nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity
of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative
environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in
water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.
Pathogens
Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution,
although not an actual cause of disease.

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges.

[14]
 This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary
treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older
cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes,
pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows.

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.

Chemical and other contaminants
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

Organic water pollutants include:

 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats

and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and
other chemical compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels,
and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts,
from stormwater runoff[16]
Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power

plants)
 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found
in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential
use[16]
Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some
areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by
studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such
as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to
examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species
such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York
Bight, for example. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due
to coriolis force. Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by
chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from
algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported,
because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then
large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes
a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury)
and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as
biomagnifications.
Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution
because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-
porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration
(adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and
biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil
contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and caverns is not filtered
and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be aggravated
by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas
of Karst topography.

Measurement of water pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods:

physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by
specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without
sampling, such as temperature. Government agencies and research organizations
have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the
comparability of results from disparate testing events. [19]
Sampling
Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods,
depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant.
Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in
association with rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate
for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data
often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time
ordischarge intervals.

Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the
surface water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be
identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or
they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.
Physical testing
Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentration like total
suspended solids (TSS) and turbidity.
Chemical testing
See also:  water chemistry analysis  and  environmental chemistry

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many
published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds.
Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals
(including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum
hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides.
Biological testing
Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to
monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem.

For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

Deep sea mining
Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on
the ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic
nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 - 3,700 meters
below the ocean’s surface.[19] The vents create sulfide deposits, which
contain precious metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc.[20]
[21]
 The deposits are mined using either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that
take ore to the surface to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep sea
mining raises questions about environmental damages to the surrounding areas

Because deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full
scale mining operations are unknown. However, experts are certain that removal of
parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic layer,
increased toxicity of the water column and sediment plumes from tailings.
[22]
 Removing parts of the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms,
possibly, depending on the type of mining and location, causing permanent
disturbances.[19] Aside from direct impact of mining the area, leakage, spills
and corrosion would alter the mining area’s chemical makeup.
Acidification

Island with fringing reef in the Maldives.Coral reefs are dying around the world.[25]

The oceans are normally a natural carbon sink, absorbing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Because the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide are increasing, the
oceans are becoming more acidic.[26][27] The potential consequences of ocean
acidification are not fully understood, but there are concerns that structures
made of calcium carbonate may become vulnerable to dissolution, affecting corals
and the ability of shellfish to form shells.[28]

Oceans and coastal ecosystems play an important role in the global carbon

cycle and have removed about 25% of the carbon dioxide emitted by human
activities between 2000 and 2007 and about half the anthropogenic CO 2 released
since the start of the industrial revolution. Rising ocean temperatures and ocean
acidification means that the capacity of the ocean carbon sink will gradually get
weaker,[29] giving rise to global concerns expressed in the Monaco [30] and
Manado[31] Declarations.

A report from NOAA scientists published in the journal Science in May 2008

found that large amounts of relatively acidified water are upwelling to within four
miles of the Pacific continental shelfarea of North America. This area is a critical
zone where most local marine life lives or is born. While the paper dealt only with
areas from Vancouver to northern California, other continental shelf areas may be
experiencing similar effects.[32]

A related issue is the methane clathrate reservoirs found under sediments on the

ocean floors. These trap large amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, which
ocean warming has the potential to release. In 2004 the global inventory of ocean
methane clathrates was estimated to occupy between one and five million cubic
kilometers.[33] If all these clathrates were to be spread uniformly across the ocean
floor, this would translate to a thickness between three and fourteen meters. [34] 
Plastic debris
Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in
the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic - a component that has been
rapidly accumulating since the end of World War II. [41] The mass of plastic in the
oceans may be as high as one hundred million metric tons.[42]

Discarded plastic bags, six pack rings and other forms of plastic waste which finish
up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife and fisheries. Aquatic life can be
threatened through entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion. Fishing nets, usually
made of plastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost nets,
these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks,
dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, restricting movement,
causing starvation, laceration and infection, and, in those that need to return to
the surface to breathe, suffocation.

Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often

looks similar to their natural prey. Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult
to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these
animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or
infection.

Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way many other

substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so
properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits this process. In marine
environments, photo degraded plastic disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while
remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level.

Plastic debris tends to accumulate at the centre of ocean gyres. In particular,

the Great Pacific Garbage Patch has a very high level of plastic particulate
suspended in the upper water column. In samples taken in 1999, the mass of plastic
exceeded that of zooplankton (the dominant animal life in the area) by a factor of
six.[41][56] Midway Atoll, in common with all the Hawaiian Islands, receives
substantial amounts of debris from the garbage patch.
Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into
their surroundings when exposed to water.
Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic
debris,[42] thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land.
[41]
Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to bioaccumulate in fatty
tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators.
Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed;
others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates. [56] Floating
debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater,
including PCBs, DDT and PAHs.[60] Aside from toxic effects,[61] when ingested some
of these are mistaken by the animal brain for estradiol, causing hormone disruption
in the affected wildlife.[55]

Effects of pollution
Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest
impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are
dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two
types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes. [19] Near bottom
plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The
floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water,
clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms.[23] Surface plumes
cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water
currents the plumes could spread over vast areas. [19][24] The plumes could
impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the
area.[19][24]
Eutrophication

Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds

containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in
the ecosystem's primary productivity(excessive plant growth and decay), and
further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality,
fish, and other animal populations.
The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many
chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste
from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen depleting chemicals in the water
can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[36]

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are

concentrated where runoff enters the marine environment in a confined channel. In
the ocean, there are frequent red tide algae blooms[38] that kill fish and marine
mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals
when the blooms reach close to shore.

In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the

open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of
the ocean’s external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the
annual new marine biological production.[39] It has been suggested that accumulating
reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[40]

Control of water pollution

Domestic sewage
Domestic sewage is 99.9% pure water, the other 0.1% are pollutants. While
found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. [20] In
urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage
treatment plants. In the U.S., most of these plants are operated by local
government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment
works(POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional
pollutants: BOD and suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems
(i.e., secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these
pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and
pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants
found in industrial wastewater.[21]

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one
or more engineeringapproaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage,
including:
 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater
management capacity throughout the system, and reduce
the hydraulicoverloading of the treatment plant[22]
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment [15]
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often
a very expensive option).
A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an
individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into
the soil. Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately
owned treatment system (e.g. in a rural community).
Industrial wastewater
Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be
treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high
concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants
(e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional
pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of
these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic
components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal
system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate
their own complete on-site treatment systems.

Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing

processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution
prevention.
Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be
controlled with:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling

by evaporation, convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to
the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or
industrial heating purposes.[23]
Agricultural wastewater
Nonpoint source controls
Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural
pollution in the United States.[10]Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce
runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour
plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and
installing riparian buffers.[24][25]:pp. 4-95–4-96

Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as

commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial
wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.[25]:p. 2-9 Farmers
can develop and implementnutrient management plans to reduce excess
application of nutrients.[24][25]:pp. 4-37–4-38

To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest

Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to
maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and
protect water quality.[26]

Point source wastewater treatment

Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are
called concentrated animal feeding operations or confined animal feeding
operations in the U.S. and are being subject to increasing
government regulation.[27][28] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment
in lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to
grassland.Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of
animal wastes, as are anaerobic lagoons. Some animal slurries are treated by
mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a
bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.
INTRODUCTION
What is soil pollution?
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds,
chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have
adverse effects on plant growth and animal health.

Soil pollution!! One of the most grave problems existing on the earth. Well, (on the
earth?), the earth itself is getting contaminated and polluted! Collectively, aren't
we all responsible for this? The conquest of utilizing land and soil resources and
conducting experiments on it, for our benefits, is quite understandable, but it
certainly is not, at the cost of its health and wellness! Mankind has been trying out
several different things and has made several arrangements in the soil, to make
life happy and comfortable. However, how often have we thought of contamination
of soil? Its never too late in life, so I think this is the right time, to know about
soil pollution causes and effects. Read more on soil science.

What is soil pollution anyways? Soil pollution is defined or can be described as the
contamination of soil of a particular region. Soil pollution mainly is a result of
penetration of harmful pesticides and insecticides, which on one hand serve
whatever their main purpose is, but on the other hand, bring about deterioration in
the soil quality, thus making it contaminated and unfit for use. Insecticides and
pesticides are not to be blamed alone for soil pollution, but there are many other
leading causes of soil pollution too. 

Soil contamination (soil pollution) is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-

made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This type of
contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks,
application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface
strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge
of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are
petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This
occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrialization
and intensities of chemical usage.
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct
contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from
secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil [1]. Mapping
of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and
expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology,
chemistry and computer modeling skills.

It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land

is most well known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework
to identify and deal with this environmental problem; this however may well be just
the tip of the iceberg with developing countries very likely to be the next
generation of new soil contamination cases.

The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the

1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The State
Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the
environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a
scientific sampling, 150 million mi (100,000 square kilometers) of China’s cultivated
land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further
32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometers) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square
kilometers) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area account for
one-tenth of China’s cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed
areas. An estimated 12 million tones of grain are contaminated by heavy metals
every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion Yuan (US$2.57 billion).
Land degradation
Land degradation is a concept in which the value of the biophysical environment is
affected by one or more combination of human-induced processes acting upon the
land.[1] It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be
deleterious or undesirable.[2] Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however
human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bushfires.

It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously

degraded.[3]
Causes of Land Degradation

Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major

causes include:
 Land clearance, such as clear cutting and deforestation
 Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices
 Livestock including overgrazing
 Inappropriate Irrigation [4] and over drafting
 Urban sprawl and commercial development
 Land pollution including industrial waste
 Vehicle off-roading
 Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals

 Climate change

Significant land degradation from seawater inundation, particularly in river

deltas and on low-lying islands, is a potential hazard that was identified in a
2007 IPCC report.[citation needed] As a result of sea-level rise from climate change,
salinity levels can reach levels where agriculture becomes impossible in very low
lying areas.

Effects of Land Degradation

The main outcome of land degradation is a substantial reduction in the productivity

of the land.[5] The major stresses on vulnerable land include:

 Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water

 Soil acidification and the formation of acid sulfate soil resulting in barren
soil
 Soil alkalinisation owing to irrigation with water containing sodium
bicarbonate leading to poor soil structure and reduced crop yields
 Soil salination in irrigated land requiring soil salinity control to reclaim the
land [6]
 Soil water logging in irrigated land which calls for some form of subsurface
land drainage to remediate the negative effects [6]
 Destruction of soil structure including loss of organic matter
Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrub
lands -- to obtain timber, fuel wood and other products -- at a pace exceeding the
rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-arid environments, where fuel
wood shortages are often severe.

Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the

livestock carrying capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a
leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is a significant factor in Afghanistan.

Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation include shifting cultivation
without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, fertilizer
use, and a host of possible problems arising from faulty planning or management of
irrigation. They are a major factor in Sri Lanka and the dominant one in
Bangladesh.

The role of population factors in land degradation processes obviously occurs in the
context of the underlying causes. In the region, in fact, it is indeed one of the two
along with land shortage, and land shortage itself ultimately is a consequence of
continued population growth in the face of the finiteness of land resources. In the
context of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-1990, has
led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out
of eight countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).

Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural

practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good
lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too
steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to
obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils.

Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the earth's arable lands,
decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. Land by improved crop
yields and reduced population. As the land resource base becomes less
productive, food security is compromised and competition for
dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sown.
Causes
What Causes Soil Pollution?
The wars that hit the earth are the most likely cause of soil pollution.
Soil pollution is a result of many activities and experiments done by mankind and
some of the leading soil pollution causes are discussed below.

 Industrial wastes, such as harmful gases and chemicals, agricultural

pesticides, fertilizers and insecticides are the most important causes of soil
pollution.
 Ignorance towards soil management and related systems.
 Unfavorable and harmful irrigation practices.
 Improper septic system and management and maintenance of the same.
 Leakages from sanitary sewage.
 Acid rains, when fumes released from industries get mixed with rains.
 Fuel leakages from automobiles, that get washed away due to rain and seep
into the nearby soil.
 Unhealthy waste management techniques, which are characterized by
release of sewage into the large dumping grounds and nearby streams or
rivers.

The intensity of all these causes on a local or regional level might appear very small
and you may argue that soil is not harmed by above activities if done on a small
scale! However, thinking globally, it is not your region or my place, that will be the
only sufferer of soil pollution. In fact, it is the entire planet and mankind that will
encounter serious problems, as these practices are evident almost everywhere in
the world. Want to know what are those problems, which can turn more serious in
the near future?

Soil can become contaminated in many ways. Chemicals, like herbicides and
pesticides, are major polluters; oil dumps, landfills, and industrial wastes can also
wreak havoc. But how do these chemicals and oils get into open spaces far away
from industrial sites and dumps?

This land houses a small stand of trees, a nice meadow, and a small creek. Long
before it reaches our plot, though, the creek runs beneath a hill by a factory.
When it rains, water carries factory waste down the hill and into the creek, which
carries it to our plot. In addition, there’s a farming operation a hundred miles away
from our plot. The farmers use pesticides to protect their crops. However, some
of the pesticides evaporate when temperatures rise; the next rainfall brings those
chemicals to our plot as acid rain.

How Soil Gets Polluted

Soil is a sort of ecosystem unto itself, and it is relatively sensitive to foreign

matter being applied to it. That's good for us in the case of wanting to add soil
amendments, fertilizer and compost to make the soil healthier, but not so good
when it comes to soil pollution.
There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as:

 Seepage from a landfill

 Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
 Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
 Rupture of underground storage tanks
 Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
 Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:

 Petroleum hydrocarbons
 Heavy metals
 Pesticides
 Solvents
Soil pollution happens when these chemicals adhere to the soil, either from being
directly spilled onto the soil or through contact with soil that has already been
contaminated.
As the world becomes more industrialized, the long term effects of soil pollution
are becoming more of a problem all over the world. It is thought that a full 150
million miles of China's farmland is contaminated.

This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground

storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water
to subsurface strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or
direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals
involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy
metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of
industrialization and intensities of chemical usage.

Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become

controversial as a fertilizer to the land. As it is the byproduct of sewage
treatment, it generally contains contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and
heavy metals than other soil.[3]

There is also controversy surrounding the contamination of fertilizers with heavy

metals; a series of newspaper articles in the Seattle Times made the issue a
"national focus" in the United, and culminated in a book called Fateful Harvest.[4]

Effects of Soil Pollution

What are the Effects of Soil Pollution?
The effects of pollution on soil are quite alarming and can cause huge disturbances
in the ecological balance and health of living creatures on earth. Some of the most
serious soil pollution effects are mentioned below.

 Decrease in soil fertility and therefore decrease in the soil yield. Definitely,
how can one expect a contaminated soil to produce healthy crops?
 Loss of soil and natural nutrients present in it. Plants also would not thrive in
such a soil, which would further result in soil erosion.
 Disturbance in the balance of flora and fauna residing in the soil.
 Increase in salinity of the soil, which therefore makes it unfit for
vegetation, thus making it useless and barren.
 Generally crops cannot grow and flourish in a polluted soil. Yet if some crops
manage to grow, then those would be poisonous enough to cause serious
health problems in people consuming them.
 Creation of toxic dust leading is another potential effect of soil pollution.
 Foul smell due to industrial chemicals and gases might result in headaches,
fatigue, nausea, etc. in many people.
 Soil pollutants would bring in alteration in the soil structure, which would
lead to death of many essential organisms in it. This would also affect the
larger predators and compel them to move to other places, once they lose
their food supply.

The effects of soil pollution are: Not enough oxygen in the soil, acidic soils
that may burn the plant, bugs will go and start an infestation in the soil, it
 effects plants growth, the soil pollution eats away at the nutrients and
becomes a bigger soil polluter, not enough drainage, new soil diseases develop
every year, not enough moisture in the soil.

As you can see, pollutants can impact soil everywhere. And the effects are
potentially disastrous: small chemical changes in soil can render an area
inhospitable to plants, virtually eliminating the food chain’s foundation. Also,
chemicals that runoff through soil into rivers and streams can contaminate
drinking water. For farmers, pollutants can reduce crop yields and lead to
heavy erosion.

Health effects

Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact
with soil or via inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized; potentially
greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into
groundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently
far removed from any apparent source of above ground contamination.

Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on

pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population.
Chronic exposure to chromium, lead and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and
many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic, can
cause congenital disorders, or can cause other chronic health conditions. Industrial
or man-made concentrations of naturally-occurring substances, such as nitrate and
ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also
been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater. [5]
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated
with higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce
higher incidences of kidney damage, some irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are
linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of
responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce
liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There
is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue,
eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient
dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct
contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater contaminated
through soil. [6]
Ecosystem effects

Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences

for ecosystems[7]. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from
the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the
contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration
of metabolism of endemic microorganisms andarthropods resident in a given soil
environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food
chain, which in turn have major consequences for predator or consumer species.
Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of
the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more
concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain. Many of these effects
are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for
avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and
potential extinction of species.

Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination.

Contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop
yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing
crops cannot shield the Earth's soil mantle from erosion phenomena. Some of these
chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals
are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.

Long Term Effects of Soil Pollution

The long term effects of soil pollution are many and can be difficult to deal with,
depending on the nature of the contamination.
Soil Pollution Problems

Even when soil is not being used for food, the matter of its contamination can be a
health concern. This is especially so when that soil is found in parks, neighborhoods
or other places where people spend time.
Health effects will be different depending on what kind of pollutant is in the soil.
It can range from developmental problems, such as in children exposed to lead, to
cancer from chromium and some chemicals found in fertilizer, whether those
chemicals are still used or have been banned but are still found in the soil.
Some soil contaminants increase the risk of leukemia, while others can lead to
kidney damage, liver problems and changes in the central nervous system.
Those are just the long term effects of soil pollution. In the short term, exposure
to chemicals in the soil can lead to headaches, nausea, fatigue and skin rashes at
the site of exposure.
Environmental Long Term Effects of Soil Pollution

When it comes to the environment itself, the toll of contaminated soil is even more
dire. Soil that has been contaminated should no longer be used to grow food,
because the chemicals can leech into the food and harm people who eat it.
If contaminated soil is used to grow food, the land will usually produce lower yields
than it would if it were not contaminated. This, in turn, can cause even more harm
because a lack of plants on the soil will cause more erosion, spreading the
contaminants onto land that might not have been tainted before.
In addition, the pollutants will change the makeup of the soil and the types of
microorganisms that will live in it. If certain organisms die off in the area, the
larger predator animals will also have to move away or die because they've lost
their food supply. Thus it's possible for soil pollution to change whole ecosystems.

Control Measures
Most importantly, recycle. The less trash we put out, the less chance that
trash will end up in our soil. If you’re a gardener, use environmentally-friendly
insect control methods. And, if you can, buy organic food that wasn’t grown
using harmful pesticides. It’s hard to worry about the soil’s health as new
factories, highways, and buildings go up, but it deserves some serious
consideration [edit]

Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field

measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models for analyzing
transport[8] and fate of soil chemicals. There are several principal strategies for
remediation:

 Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for
human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging
of bay muds containing toxins.
 Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of
creating air pollution)
 Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface
temperatures sufficiently high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil
for vapour extraction. Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain
organic chemicals. Techniques used in bioremediation include land
farming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially
available micro flora.
 Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an
active electromechanical system, with subsequent stripping of the contaminants
from the extract.
 Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in
place).
 Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals
Dealing with Soil Pollution

There are some ways to get soil back to its pristine condition or to remove the
spoiled soil so the land can be used for agriculture again. Tainted soil can be
transported to a site where humans won't be exposed to the chemicals, or the soil
can be aerated to remove some of the chemicals (which can add the problem of air
pollution if the chemicals can be released into the air).
Other options include what's known as bioremidiation, where microorganisms are
used to consume the pollution-causing compounds as well as electromechanical
systems for extracting chemicals, and containment of chemicals by paving over the
tainted area.
None of these are an ideal solution. Preventing contamination in the first place is
the best way to go. It won't eliminate all potential pollution problems, but choosing
to farm organically is a good way to protect the soil (and yourself) from chemicals
found in pesticides and other common garden chemicals.

Introduction.
Definition of Noise Pollution: annoying and potentially harmful environmental noise
Noise pollution
Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human, animal or machine-created
sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life. The word noise comes
from the Latin word nauseas, meaning seasickness.

The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly construction and transportation

systems, including motor vehicle noise, aircraft noise and rail noise.[1][2] Poor urban
planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential
buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential area.

Indoor and outdoor noise pollution sources include car alarms, emergency service sirens,
mechanical equipment, fireworks, compressed air horns, ground skeeping equipment,
barking dogs, appliances, lighting hum, audio entertainment systems, electric megaphones,
and loud people.

While noise pollution is not pollution in the traditional sense of the word, it can

have similar negative effects on people and the world. Noise pollution is created by
displeasing noises from any source: human, animal, or machine. These noises fill
specific areas with sound, and cause many health and behavioral effects. Noise
pollution does not produce the same kind of physical substance as industrial or
environmental pollution, but is just as prevalent around the globe, and can be just
as damaging in ways.

Noise pollution, though some may see it as any noise that is irritating or annoying,

generally describes any sound that disrupts human or animal life and behavior. This
type of noise pollution is common among many different types of large machinery.
Often transportation is associated with this pollution, and often produces it
through jet engines, rail noises, automobiles, and car alarms.

No one on earth can escape the sounds of noise- an unwanted, disturbing sound
that causes a nuisance in the eye of the beholder. Noise is a disturbance to the
human environment that is escalating at such a high rate that it will become a
major threat to the quality of human lives. In the past thirty years, noise in all
areas, especially in urban areas, have been increasing rapidly.

Introduction Almost everyone has had one experience of being temporarily

"deafened" by a loud noise. This "deafness" in not permanent, although it is often
accompanied by a ringing in the ears, and one can hear another person if he raises
his voice. Likewise, normal hearing comes back within a few hours at most. This
sort of partial hearing loss is called Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) (Bugliarello,
et al., 1976). A TTS may be experienced after firing a gun or after a long drive in
the car with the windows open. It may not be considered that if exposure to this
type of loud noise at a rate of eight hours a day, five days a week can is a threat to
develop permanent hearing loss. This type of exposure to noise does not have to be
as loud as a gun being fired; it can be as simple as a person shouting across the
room. The type of hearing loss is any degree from partial to complete hearing loss.
This loss, usually, is permanent and is not satisfactorily corrected by any devices
such as, hearing aids. The loss is caused by the destruction of the delicate hair
cells and their auditory nerve connections in the Organ of Corti, which is contained
in the cochlea (Bugliarello, et al., 1976). Every exposure to loud noise destroys
some cells, but prolonged exposure damages a larger amount of cells, and ultimately
collapses the Organ of Corti, which causes deafness.

All of us are constantly exposed to sound.  Those like the twittering of birds, the
rustling of leaves, the gentle lapping of waves are natural sounds that would strike
a responsive chord in most of us.  But when even pleasant sounds become too loud,
they become unwanted noise.  Sound levels are measured in decibels (dB).  It is a
unit for expressing the relative intensity of sound on a scale from zero (for the
average least perceptible sound) to about 130 for the average pain level.

CAUSES
Sources of Noises

A survey carried out in Bombay by the Society for Clean Environment (SOCLEEN)
and Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for Hearing Handicapped revealed that the
main sources for noise were:

1. Road Traffic 
2. Use of loudspeakers 
3. Bursting of crackers 
4. Industrial activities 
5. Railways 
6. Aircrafts 
7. Radio and Television

There are a number of causes of Noise Pollution such as:

- Sounds from Motor Vehicles.
- Sounds from musicle instruments.
- poor urban planning
- Noise from aircrafts and railways.
- Car alarms
- Office equipment
- Factory machinery
- Construction work
- Groundskeeping Equipment
- Barking animals
- Appliances
- Power tools
- Lighting hum
- Audio instruments
- Loudspeakers
- Noise created by people.

Causes Of Noise Pollution 

• Traffic noise is the main source of noise pollution caused in urban areas. With the
ever-increasing number of vehicles on road, the sound caused by the cars and
exhaust system of autos, trucks, buses and motorcycles is the chief reason for
noise pollution. 
• With the low flying military aircrafts soaring over the national parks, wasteland
and other vacant areas, the level of noise pollution has drastically increased in
these previously unaffected zones. 
• People living beside railway stations put up with a lot of noise from locomotive
engines, horns and whistles and switching and shunting operation in rail yards. This
is one of the major sources of noise pollution. 
• To meet the demands of the basic necessity of living, the construction of
buildings, highways and city streets causes a lot of noise. Pneumatic hammers, air
compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks and pavement breakers are the
major sources of noise pollution in construction sites. 
• Though not a prime reason, industrial noise adds to the noise pollution. Machinery,
motors and compressors used in the industries create a lot of noise which adds to
the already detrimental state of noise pollution. 
• Plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners and fans create a lot of noise in
the buildings and add to the prevailing noise pollution. 
• Household equipments, such as vacuum cleaners, mixers and some kitchen
appliances are noisemakers of the house. Though they do not cause too much of
problem, their effect cannot be neglected.
 Complain to Regional Transport Commissioner or the Deputy Commissioner of
Police (Traffic).  Give the offending vehicle number/s, and the date, time
and place of the offense.
.

Effects
Human health: Noise effects are both health and behavioral in nature.The unwanted
sound is called noise. This unwanted sound can damage physiological and psychological
health. Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress
levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. [3][4][5]
[6]
 Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the leading causes to health problems,
whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression and at times panic attacks. [4]
[7]

Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to
significant occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than
their non-exposed peers, though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and
the two groups are indistinguishable by age 79. [8] A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who
were insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S.
population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise
contributes to hearing loss.[3]

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high
levels during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to
ten points and an increase in stress[3] and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood
pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease.
Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found
that in urban areas households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel per
year for noise reduction.[9]

Environmental effect
Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress, increasing risk of death
by changing the delicate balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by
interfering with their use of sounds in communication especially in relation to reproduction
and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of
hearing.[10]

An impact of noise on animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may
cause, which in the case of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction.
Noise pollution has caused the death of certain species of whales that beached themselves
after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar.[11]

Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called Lombard vocal response.
 Scientists and researchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length
[12]

is longer when submarine-detectors are on.[13] If creatures do not "speak" loud enough,
their voice will be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be
warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins
speaking louder, it will mask other species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem to
eventually speak louder.

European Robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with
high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it
is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly. [14] The
same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than
night-time light pollution, to which the phenomenon is often attributed.

Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This
could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources
normally devoted to other activities and thus lead to profound genetic and evolutionary
consequences.[15]

Most of society is now aware that noise can damage hearing. However, short of a
threat that disaster would overtake the human race if nothing is done about noise,
it is unlikely that many people today would become strongly motivated to do
something about the problem. Yet, the evidence about the ill effects of noise does
not allow for complacency or neglect. For instance, researchers working with
children with hearing disorders are constantly reminded of the crucial importance
of hearing to children. In the early years the child cannot learn to speak without
special training if he has enough hearing loss to interfere effectively with the
hearing of words in context (Bugliarello, et al., 1976). In this respect, there is a
clear need for parents to protect their children’s hearing as they try to
protect their eyesight. If no steps are taken to lessen the effects of noise, we
may expect a significant percentage of future generations to have hearing damage.
It would be difficult to predict the total outcome if total population would suffer
hearing loss. Conceivably, the loss could even be detrimental to our survival if it
were ever necessary for us to be able to hear high frequencies. Colavita has
consistently been unable to find among university students in his classes any who
could hear 20 kHz, although the classical results of Fletcher and Munson show 20
kHz as an audible frequency (Fletcher, 1953).

There are two types of hearing loss: conductive and sensorineural (see fig.1 for
anatomy of the ear). In conductive deafness sound-pressure waves never reach the
cochlea, most often as a consequence of a ruptured eardrum or a defect in the
ossicles of the middle ear (Bugliarello, et al., 1976).

The three bones form a system of levers linked together, hammer pushing anvil,
anvil-pushing stirrup. Working together, the bones amplify the force of sound
vibrations. Taken together, the bones double, often treble the force of the
vibrations reaching the eardrum (Bugliarello, et al., 1976).

Mitigation of potentially harmful amplification occurs via muscles of the middle

ear. These muscles act as safety device protection the ear against excessive
vibrations from very loud noises, very much like an automatic damper or volume
control.

When jarring sounds with their rapid vibrations strike the eardrum; the muscles
twist the bones slightly, allowing the stirrup to rotate in a different direction.
With this directional shift, less force is transmitted to the inner ear: less, not all
(Bugliarello, et al., 1976).

The human ear is a delicate and fragile anatomical structure on the other hand
it’s a fairly powerful physical force. These muscles act quickly but not always
as in examples of when the ear catches the sound of gun being shot unexpectedly.
The muscles of the ear were relaxed and were unprepared for such a blast,
because of this damage was done.
Conductive hearing loss can be minimized, even overcome by use of the familiar
hearing aids. The most common is worn over the mastoid bond behind the pinna. It
picks up sound waves and transmits them through the skull to the cochlea.

Sensorineural hearing loss, the most common form in the United States, occurs as
a result of advancing age as well as exposure to loud noises. In both instances
there is a disruption of the organ of Corti. The organ serves two functions:
converting mechanical energy to electrical and dispatching to the brain a coded
version of the original sound with information bout frequency, intensity, and
timbre. The hair cells of the organ of Corti send their electrochemical signals into
the central nervous system, where the signals are picked up by thousands of
auditory nerve fibers and transmitted to the brain. It is the decoding of all the
information that enables a person to distinguish the unique ant separate sounds of
a violin, trumpet, and clarinet, even all three are playing the same note.

The organ of corti, a gelatinous mass, is on of the best protected parts of the
body, encased as it is within the cochlea which in turn is deeply embedded in the
temporal bone, perhaps the hardest of the 206 bones (Bugliarello, et al., 1976).
None the less, loud noise can damage the hair cells and the auditory nerve,
producing at times, depending on the type of noise, sudden and often total
deafness.

Sustained noise over a period of time can also engender sensorineural deafness in
the form of gradual losses in hearing. This is the most common loss in teenagers
today listening to loud rock music (Bugliarello, et al., 1976).

Harmful effects of Noise:-

Noise is harmful.  Damage caused by noise can range from bursting of eardrum,
permanent hearing loss (in a recent survey 80% of Traffic Police in Pune were
found to be deaf), cardiac and cardiovascular changes, stress, fatigue, lack of
concentration, deterioration in motor and psychomotor functions, nausea,
disturbance of sleep, headaches, insomnia, and loss of appetite and much other
damage is caused.  Pregnant women exposed to high noise levels may be at risk. 
Harmful effects are there even if you don’t feel you are being disturbed. 
Psychological disturbances and emotional distress also occur -  violent conduct by
persons continuously exposed to unbearable noise.
The National Physical Laboratory has found that Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta are
the noisiest cities in the world.  Even the Election Commission has recognized the
harmful effects of noise and banned use of loudspeakers during the elections. 
Widespread ill effects of Noise Pollution such as high blood pressure, increased
acidity and peptic ulcer formation, deafness, mental agitation and disturbance of
sleep generally became known to people in early 1980s.  So far Bombay Police Act
1951 and Bombay Municipal Corporation Act 1888 considered noise as just a
nuisance, now it is known as major health hazard.  We in India are exposed not only
to noises, common to most countries, but in addition we have to face misuse of
loudspeakers, loud and shrill vehicle horns, noisy crackers, etc, which are firmly put
down in most countries.

Control Measures
Mitigation and control of noise

Technology to mitigate or remove noise can be applied as follows:

There are a variety of strategies for mitigating roadway noise including: use of noise

barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation
of heavy vehicles, use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and
acceleration, and tire design. An important factor in applying these strategies is
a computer model for roadway noise, that is capable of addressing
local topography,meteorology, traffic operations and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of
building-in mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the planning
stage of a roadway project.

Aircraft noise can be reduced to some extent by design of quieter jet engines, which was
pursued vigorously in the 1970s and 1980s. This strategy has brought limited but
noticeable reduction of urban sound levels. Reconsideration of operations, such as
altering flight paths and time of day runway use, has demonstrated benefits for
residential populations near airports. FAA sponsored residential retrofit (insulation)
programs initiated in the 1970s has also enjoyed success in reducing
interior residential noise in thousands of residences across the United States.

Exposure of workers to Industrial noise has been addressed since the 1930s. Changes
include redesign of industrial equipment, shock mounting assemblies and physical barriers
in the workplace.
Noise Free America, a national anti-noise pollution organization, regularly lobbies for the
enforcement of noise ordinances at all levels of government. [17]

Legal status

Governments up until the 1970s viewed noise as a "nuisance" rather than an environmental
problem. In the United States there are federal standards for highway and aircraft noise;
states and local governments typically have very specific statutes on building codes, urban
planning and roadway development. In Canada and the EU there are few national, provincial,
or state laws that protect against noise.

Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in
some cities. An ordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a
nuisance, or it may set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain
times of the day and for certain activities.

Dr. Paul Herman wrote the first comprehensive noise codes in 1975 for Portland,
Oregon with funding from the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and HUD (Housing
and Urban Development). The Portland Noise Code became the basis for most other
ordinances for major U.S. and Canadian metropolitan regions. [18]

Most city ordinances prohibit sound above a threshold intensity from trespassing over

property line at night, typically between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., and during the day restricts it
to a higher sound level; however, enforcement is uneven. [citation needed] Many municipalities do
not follow up on complaints. Even where a municipality has an enforcement office, it may
only be willing to issue warnings, since taking offenders to court is expensive.

The notable exception to this rule is the City of Portland Oregon which has instituted an
aggressive protection for its citizens with fines reaching as high at $5000 per infraction,
with the ability to cite a responsible noise violator multiple times in a single day.

Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the
receiver. Escalation procedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with
local authorities, in particular the police. Noise pollution often persists because only five
to ten percent of people affected by noise will lodge a formal complaint. Many people are
not aware of their legal right to quiet and do not know how to register a complaint.

There are numerous effects on the human environment due to the increase in noise
pollution. In the following paper, the cause and effects of noise pollution will be
presented in some detail. Slowly, insensibly, we seem to accept noise and the
physiological and psychological deterioration that accompanies it as an inevitable
part of our lives. Although we attempt to set standards for some of the most
major sources of noise, we often are unable to monitor them. Major sources of
noise can be airplanes at takeoff and landing, and a truck just off the assembly
line, yet we seem accept and enjoy countless other sounds, from hard rock music to
loud Harley Davidson motor cycles.