water

Article
Verification of Calculation Method Using Monte
Carlo Method for Water Supply Demands of
Office Building
Guang-Zheng Wu 1, *, Kyosuke Sakaue 2 and Saburo Murakawa 3
1 Department of Architecture and Environmental Design, College of Architecture and Environmental Design,
Kanto Gakuin University, 1-50-1, Mutsuura-Higasi, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-8501, Japan
2 Department of Architecture, School of Science and Technology, Meiji University, Second School Building
4-4301, 1-1-1, Higashimita, Tama-ku, Kanagawa, Kawasaki 214-8571, Japan; [email protected]
3 The Institute for Sustainable Science and Development, Hiroshima University, 1-3-2 Kagamiyama,
Higashi-Hiroshima City Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8511, Japan; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +81-045-786-7820

Academic Editors: Ling Tim Wong and Kwok Wai Mui

Received: 7 February 2017; Accepted: 19 May 2017; Published: 26 May 2017

Abstract: In Japan, there are four methods of calculating water supply demands for office buildings
based on SHASE-S 206 and two methods based on the design standard of Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT). However, these methods were found to produce
overestimated values when applied to recent sanitary fixtures with advanced water saving features.
To cope with this problem, Murakawa’s Simulation for Water Consumption (MSWC), which utilizes
the Monte Carlo method to calculate water usage dynamically has been developed. In this study,
we evaluated the validity of MSWC on water consumption of an office building. Actual water
consumption data were collected from a six story office building. Water consumption estimates
calculated by the six conventional methods and MSWC were compared with the actual measurement
values. Though the calculations based on the conventional methods significantly deviated from the
actual measurement values, those made by MSWC closely resembled them.

Keywords: water supply demand; calculating method; office building; Monte Carlo method

1. Introduction
In Japan, the design standard of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
(MLIT) [1] (referred to as “the Design Standard”) and The Society of Heating, Air-Conditioning
and Sanitary Engineers of Japan Standard 206 [2] (referred to as “SHASE-S 206”) have been used since
the 1970s as water load calculation methods. However, the traditional water load calculation methods
such as the Design Standard and SHASE-S 206, especially the worldwide used Hunter-based method,
was proved with a risk of overestimation if they are applied to modern sanitary fixtures with advanced
water-saving features, mentioned by Murakawa (1985) [3] and Wu (2013) [4].
On the other hand, Murakawa et al. (1976) mentioned a method to calculate the water supply
load based on Monte-Carlo simulation [5,6], and with the known probability of demand and demand
flow rate in every hour, daily demand time series can be obtained by Monte-Carlo simulations
mentioned by Holmberg (1987) [7], the Monte-Carlo simulations for the calculation of water supply
load was considered provide more accurate results. According to that, more research was taken on the
Monte-Carlo simulations for water supply loads. Murakawa et al. (2005) [8] developed the simulation
tool Murakawa’s Simulation for Water Consumption (MSWC), which is based on the Monte-Carlo
simulation, enabled to dynamically calculate various water usages in buildings by applying them to

Water 2017, 9, 376; doi:10.3390/w9060376 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2017, 9, 376 2 of 21

probability models. Blokker et al. (2011) [9] developed Simulation of water Demand, an End-Use Model
(SIMDEUM) based on probability distribution functions for occupancy, frequency of use, duration
and flow per water-use event, occurrence over the day for end-uses such as flushing the toilet, doing
the laundry, washing hands, etc. to predict water demands at 1-s time step. Wong et al. (2017) [10]
integrated a Monte-Carlo simulated demand time series for optimized inflow rate of tanked water
supply system.
In this paper, we take up and evaluated the MSWC tool. The former researches discussed the
using case of MSWC on apartment houses by S. Murakawa (2002, 2003) [11,12] on restaurants by
D. Takahashi (2004) [13], and on hotels by H. Takata (2005) [14], the result shows that the MSWC
method was effective on these cases. In the case of office building, previous studies by G.Z. Wu (2014,
2015) [15,16], K. Sakamoto (2016) [17] and S. Kurisu (2016) [18] indicated that the conventional methods
were found to produce overestimated values, while highly accurate calculation of water supply load is
made possible by using MSWC. In this study, we measured water consumption and the number of
occupants in another office building (flush valve was installed as the discharge system), and compared
and analyzed daily water consumption (referred to as Qday below) and instant peak flow rate (referred
to as Qmax below) in order to further examine the validity of MSWC. Lastly, we correct the basic fixture
unit of conventional methods based on the measurement results, compared the calculation results with
the conventional methods using conventional basic fixture unit, and the results based on MSWC.

2. The Calculation Methods for Water Supply Demands

2.1. Conventional Water Load Calculation Methods

The conventional water load calculation methods described in the Design Standard and SHASE-S
206 are listed in Table 1. Calculations were made based on two methods in the Design Standard and
four methods in SHASE-S 206. Calculations based on the Design Standards included those utilizing
units derived from the number of occupants in the rooms (referred to as NOR below) and water used
in each sanitary fixture (referred to as Actual Basic Unit (ABU) below) in addition to the number of
people obtained by multiplying effective area by personnel density (0.2 person/m2 ) (referred to as
Personnel/Area (P/A) below), which is used in the personnel method; and those based on flow rates
of sanitary fixtures and faucets (referred to as Conventional Basic Unit (CBU) below), which is used in
the fixture method.

Table 1. Conventional water load calculation method.

Possible Calculated
Calculation Method Abbr.
Water Supply Demand
Facilities design Calculation method based on personnel PM Qday
criteria of MLIT [1] Calculation method based on sanitary fixture FM Qmax
Calculation method based on Water use time
WFM
rate and Fixture unit for water supply
SHASE-S 206 [2] Method based on newer water supply Qmax
NWM
demand unit
prediction of fixture usage PFM
Method based on water supply load unit of
SLM
fixture

2.1.1. Facilities Design Criteria of Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)
The Facilities Design Criteria stipulates as a rule that water consumption shall be calculated based
on the personnel to use the subject building. On the other hand, the proviso of the criteria stipulates
that if calculation based on the personnel is not appropriate, the water consumption may be calculated
based on a number of water supply fixtures. Figure 1 shows the calculation flow by the personnel
Water 2017, 9, 376 3 of 21

method, and Figure 2 shows the calculation flow by the fixture-method. Tables 2 and 3 show each
parameter
Water 2017,of
9, the
376 personnel method and the fixture-method. 3 of 21
Water 2017, 9, 376 3 of 21

Calculation of daily water consumption by type of personnel: qd (L/d)

qd = N·q
Calculation of daily water consumption by type of personnel: qd (L/d)
where N: No. of users by personnel type (persons); q: average daily water
qd = N·q
consumption
where N: No.per user responding
of users totype
by personnel personnel typeq:(L/(d·persons)).
(persons); average daily water
consumption per user responding to personnel type (L/(d·persons)).

Calculation of average probable hourly demand of water supply by type of personnel: qh (L/h)
qh = qofd/twater supply by type of personnel: qh (L/h)
Calculation of average probable hourly demand
where qd: daily water consumption by personnel
qh = type
qd/t (L/d); t: Daily operating time
corresponding
where qd: dailyto personnel
water type. by personnel type (L/d); t: Daily operating time
consumption
corresponding to personnel type.

Aggregation of average probable hourly demand of water supply: Qh (L/h)

Aggregation of average probableQh = hourly
qh1 + qh2demand
+ qh3 + …of water supply: Qh (L/h)
where qh1, qh2, qh3…: average probable
Qh = qh1 +hourly demand
qh2 + qh3 + … of water supply by type
of personnel
where qh1, qh2(L/d).
, qh3…: average probable hourly demand of water supply by type
of personnel (L/d).

Calculation of probable maximum hourly demand of water supply: Qhm (L/h)

Calculation of probable maximum hourly demand Qhm =Kof1·Q
water
h supply: Qhm (L/h)
where K1: coefficient for maximum hourly waterQhmconsumption
=K1·Qh (= 1.5–2, usually 2 is used.); Qh: probale
maximum hourly demand
where K1: coefficient of water hourly
for maximum supply water
(L/h). consumption (= 1.5–2, usually 2 is used.); Qh: probale
maximum hourly demand of water supply (L/h).

Calculation of probable peak flow rate of water supply: Qm (L/min)

Calculation of probable peak flow rate of water supply: Qm (L/min)
Qm = ·K2·Qhm
Qm = ·K2·Qhm
where K2: coefficient for peak water consumption (= 1.5–2, usually 2 is used.); Qhm:
probable
where K2:maximum
coefficienthourly demand
for peak water of water supply
consumption (L/h). usually 2 is used.); Qhm:
(= 1.5–2,
probable maximum hourly demand of water supply (L/h).
Figure1.1.Calculation
Figure Calculation flow
flow by
by the
the personnel
personnelmethod.
method.
Figure 1. Calculation flow by the personnel method.
Calculation of Probable maximum hourly demand of water supply by type of fixture: qhm (L/h)
Calculation of Probable maximum hourly demand qhm =of
q·n·N
water supply by type of fixture: qhm (L/h)
where q: water consumption per use by fixture type
qhm = (L/(frequency/unit));
q·n·N n: Maximum value of usage
frequency per hour
where q: water corresponding
consumption to by
per use fixture type
fixture (frequency/h);
type N: Number
(L/(frequency/unit)); of fixtures value
n: Maximum by fixture type
of usage
(Unit).
frequency per hour corresponding to fixture type (frequency/h); N: Number of fixtures by fixture type
(Unit).

Aggregation of probale maximum hourly demand of water supply: Qhm (L/h)

Qhm = qhm1
Aggregation of probale maximum hourly demand of +water
qhm2 +supply:
qhm3 + …Qhm (L/h)
where qhm1, qhm2, qhm3…: probale maximum hourly
Qhm = demand
qhm1 + qhm2of+water
qhm3 + supply
… by fixture type (L/h).
where qhm1, qhm2, qhm3…: probale maximum hourly demand of water supply by fixture type (L/h).

Calculation of average probable hourly demand of water supply: Qh (L/h)

Calculation of average probable hourly demand Qhof=Q hm/K1supply: Qh (L/h)
water
where Qhm (L/h): Probable maximum hourly demand Qh = Qof water
hm/K 1 supply (L/h); K1: Coefficient for maximum
hourly
where Qwater consumption
hm (L/h): (= 1.5–2, usually
Probable maximum hourly2demand
is used.)of water supply (L/h); K1: Coefficient for maximum
hourly water consumption (= 1.5–2, usually 2 is used.)

Calculation of probable peak flow rate of water supply: Qm (L/min)

Calculation of probable peak flow rate of water supply: Qm (L/min)
Qm = ·K2·Qhm
Qm = ·K2·Qhm
where K2: coefficient for peak water consumption (= 2–3, usually 2.5 is used.); Qhm: probable
where K2: coefficient
maximum for peak
hourly demand watersupply
of water consumption
(L/h). (= 2–3, usually 2.5 is used.); Qhm: probable
maximum hourly demand of water supply (L/h).

Figure 2. Calculation flow by the fixture-method.

Figure2.2.Calculation
Figure Calculationflow
flow by
by the
the fixture-method.
fixture-method.
Water 2017, 9, 376 4 of 21

Table 2. Volume and time of water consumption per person based on intended use of building.

Daily Water Average Daily

Intended User Calculation Base
Consumption Per Consumption Remarks
Use Type for A User *1
Person (L/d·Person) Time (h)
Water consumption in
0.1–0.2 person/m2
workers‘ cafeteria is
Office Worker (Depending of 80–100 8
calculated separately.
office space) *2
20–30 L/(person·meal)
Notes: *1 When the actual number is given, that number is used. However, a future increase is to be projected;
*2 The office includes a president’s office, secretarial office, directors’ office, conference room and reception room.
Remarks: (1) except as otherwise noted in the remarks section, make-up water in the cooling tower and water
consumption in workers’ cafeteria are added separately; (2) if caretaker or other maintenance staff is permanently
stationed, water consumption by him or her is added separately. For calculation of the water consumption by him
or her, values for apartment houses are applied.

Table 3. Volume and time of water consumption per person based on intended use of building.

Water Supply Load

Flow Rate of Each Plumbing Fixture and Faucet
Fixture Faucet Remarks Unit of Fixture *
Water Usage Frequency Peak Flow
Public Private
Consumption Per Hour Rate qp
Use Use
Per Use q (L) (Frequency) (L/min)
Western Flush valve 10–10.5 6–12 80–150 70 10 6
style toilet Flushing
8–10.5 6–12 10 - 5 3
water tank
Urinal - 2–4 12–20 20–25 70 5 -
Basin - 10 6–12 10 - 2 1
Note: * when any hot water faucet is combined, the water supply load unit of fixture for one faucet is calculated as
three quarters of the value indicated in this table.

2.1.2. SHASE-S206
Table 4 shows characteristics of each calculation method of SHASE-S206.

1. Calculation Method Based on Water Use Time Rate and Fixture Unit for Water Supply

Based on the number of the installed fixtures, the Formula (1) and (2) by the type of the fixture are
used, or Table 4 is used to calculate Qmax . The standard value of water use time η and the fixture unit
for water supply are shown in Table 5.
In addition, in the case where different types of fixtures coexist, Qmax is calculated by adding the
highest value among Qmax values of each fixture to the half value of Qmax of other fixtures. However,
continuous flow is to be added without halving its Qmax value.

√
Ymax = cρη + b cρη + ∆, (1)

where Ymax : maximum number of fixtures used simultaneously with reject rate k (unit); c: number of
installed fixtures (unit); ρ: usage rate; η: Water use time rate; b, ∆: constant determined by k.

Qmax = Ymax q × 14 (2)

where Qmax : peak flow rate of water supply (simultaneously used water consumption) (L/min); Ymax :
maximum number of fixtures used simultaneously (unit); q: fixture unit for water supply.
Water 2017, 9, 376 5 of 21

Table 4. Classification of calculation method of peak flow rate of water supply.

Method Application Characteristics in Use Concept and Flow of Calculation Source

(1) Reduction in number of installed fixtures →
[Advantages]
Maximum number of fixtures used
- Data has been accumulated over many years in
simultaneously
this calculation method, which has been, as the √
Theoretical formula: Ymax = cρη + b cρη + ∆
result, used for a long time.
(2) Maximum number of fixtures used
- Architects can have many options for their
simultaneously and water supply unit of each
judgement and can calculate pipe diameters based
fixture → peak flow rate of water supply (water
on actual situation.
consumption in simultaneous fixture use) Approximation by Mitsumasa Okada
- Fixed options are established for the case where
Theoretical formula: Water use time = 0.5 (provisional) [19].
a number of users is not sufficient for a number of
Qmax = Ymax q × 14 (L/min) Table of water supply unit of fixture
Method 1: Calculation method fixtures.
Applicable for various * Standard water pressure:100 kPa, aperture: (Table 5).
based on water use time rate and [Disadvantages]
purposes 90◦ –120◦ Saburo Murakawa: 10-h average
fixture unit for water supply - The calculation method requires complex
(3) Adjustment in number of fixtures (in case of Poisson distribution on assumption of
calculation.
random use) use in an office with reject rate:
- Many provision values are used for calculation of
In case where fixtures are installed horizontally 0.001 [20]
water use time rate η.
in 2 or more places or vertically on 2 or
- When combining a different type of fixtures, it is
more floors
required to consider to halve the addition
(4) Combination of different types of fixtures
coefficient.
Peak flow rate of fixtures + 1/2 of total flow rate
- Adjustment data can be used only for closet
of others
bowls, urinals and basins, and adjustment
* Simple projection (Random use and
methods for other fixtures are unclear.
concentrated use)
[Advantages]
- Data has been accumulated over many years in
(1) Distribution of frequency of simultaneous
this calculation method, which has been, as the
water consumption: closely related to Poisson
result, used for a long time.
distribution or binomial distribution
- Calculation is simple and easy.
Applicable only for houses, (2) Calculation of newer water supply demand
Method 2: Method based on newer [Disadvantages] Table of newer water supply demand
multi-family housings and unit by using a basin (house) as a base
water supply demand unit - Applicable only for houses, multi-family unit (Table 8) [21,22]
offices (3) Newer water supply demand unit → Peak
housings and offices
flow rate of water supply (by using diagram)
- If a house or office is also used for other
(Whether or not there is a flush valve in a house
application, calculation cannot be made.
or office is selected.)
- If a flush valve and flushing water tank coexist,
calculation cannot be made.
Water 2017, 9, 376 6 of 21

Table 4. Cont.

Method Application Characteristics in Use Concept and Flow of Calculation Source

[Advantages]
- Calculation is simple and easy.
- For example, this method is applicable for and
effective in the following cases:
(1) Number of fixtures (closet bowls) (flush
Applicable at architect’s own (1) There are some parts that are used in different
valve) (general fixtures) → Rate of simultaneous
discretion, when a small time zones in a building, such as a laboratory, Quantity consumption and peak flow
Method 3: Calculation method use of fixture
number of fixtures are used or room for a cooking class, and students’ toilets in rate of water supply of each plumbing
based on fixture usage (2) Rate of simultaneous use of the fixture x Peak
when regularity exists in use of a school. fixture and faucet (Table 10)
flow rate of water supply of each fixture → Peak
fixtures or water consumption (2) There is a place where time of use is
flow rate of water supply
concentrated, such as a shower room in a school.
[Disadvantages]
- Applicable only when only a small number of
fixtures is used.
[Advantages]
- Calculation is simple and easy. Therefore, this
method is effective for calculation of the place
where time of use is concentrated.
[Disadvantages]
- If water supply load unit of fixture is 10 or fewer Hunter (US)
(1) Sum of water supply load unit of fixture of
(too few fixtures) or 3000 or more (too many Table of water supply unit of fixture
Method 4: method based on water each fixture (public use/private use)
Applicable for various purposes fixtures), calculation cannot be made (any diagram Diagram of the water supply load unit
supply load unit of fixture (2) Sum of water supply load unit of fixture →
cannot be prepared). of fixture and peak flow rate of water
Peak flow rate of water supply
- If a flush valve and flushing water tank coexist, supply (Hunter Curve) [23]
the method calculation is unclear.
- Any consideration is not made to a decrease in
the calculation result in the case where the ratio of
users to the number of fixtures is low.
- Its safety factor is too high.
Water 2017, 9, 376 7 of 21

Table 5. Fixture unit for water supply and standard value of water use time η.

Drain Cock
Connection Fixture Unit for
Fixture Water Supply System Unit for Water Use Time η
Diameter (A) Water Supply
Water Supply
Siphon-type flush valve/male 25 9 - 0.03 (10/300)
0.15 (15/100) with
Siphon-type with flush
25 9 - sound imitating device:
valve/female
0.1 (10/100)
Closet bowl Washing-type flush valve/male 25 6 - 0.03 (10/300)
0.15 (15/100) with
Washing-type flush valve/female 25 6 - sound imitating device:
0.1 (10/100)
Flushing water tank/male 13 1 - 0.15 (15/100)
Flushing water tank/female 13 1 - 0.5 (50/100)
Tank-less type/male/6 L 13 1.4 - 0.08 (22/300)
0.33 (33/100) with
Tank-less type/female/6 L 13 1.4 - sound imitating device:
0.22 (22/100)
Tank-less type/male/8 L 13 1.4 - 0.09 (27/300)
0.41 (41/100) with
Tank-less type/female/8 L 13 1.4 - sound imitating device:
0.27 (27/100)
Flush valve 13 2 - 0.3 (13/40)
Urinal
Flushing water tank 13 0.5 - 1.0 (continuous flow)
Lavatory faucet for water saving
13 1 0.5 0.5
washing
Basin Mixed use for water pouring
13 1 0.5 0.5
washing
Automatic faucet with continuous
13 0.2 - 0.5
flow valve
Automatic faucet without
13 0.5 - 0.5
continuous flow valve
Note: The flow rate for water saving washing consuming 14 L per hour in a basin with standard water pressure
100 kPa was used as the standard flow rate, and this standard flow rate was specified as one fixture unit for
water supply.

In addition, if randomly-used fixtures are installed horizontally in 2 or more places or vertically

on 2 or higher floors, the number of the fixtures is adjusted to correspond to the number of users by
using Table 6.

Table 6. Number of fixtures and usage rate.

No. of Fixtures c 1 2 3 4 5 7 10 15 20 50 100

Usage rate ρ 0.01 0.07 0.13 0.20 0.26 0.33 0.42 0.50 0.55 0.65 0.70
Approximation of usage
rate (reference) 0 (a) 0.108 0.176 0.225 0.262 0.319 0.379 0.447 0.496 0.65 0.767
ρ = 0.1684Ln(c) − 0.0087
Note: (a) where c = 1 in the usage rate approximation ρ = 0.1684ln(c) − 0.0087, the actual calculated figure is −0.01,
but is replaced with 0 in this research.

Considering that even if the fixtures are occupied simultaneously, there is still unoccupied time
for switch of users, the usage rate was specified as 0.9. Under the assumption that a slight decrease
in water pressure due to the simultaneous use is acceptable, the reject rate was specified as k = 0.05,
and b = 1.6 and ∆ = 0.8 were employed. Figures 3 and 4 and Table 7 shows relationship between the
rejection rate k, and b, and ∆.
Water 2017, 9, 376 8 of 21
Water 2017, 9, 376 8 of 21
Water 2017, 9, 376 8 of 21

Water use time rate

Water use time rate
Concentrated use

consuming water simultaneously

Concentrated
Random useuse

simultaneously
of fixtures
Random use

Maximum number of fixtures

Maximum
consuming number
water
Peak flow rate of water supply (L/min) Number of installed fixtures
Peak flow rate of water supply (L/min) Number of installed fixtures

Figure 3. Calculation of Qmaxofofthe

theCalculation
CalculationMethod
MethodBased
Basedon
onWater
WaterUse
UseTime
Time Rate and Fixture
Figure 3. Calculation
Figure 3. of Q
Calculation of Rate and Fixture
max of the Calculation Method Based on Water Use Time Rate and Fixture
Qmax
Unit for
Unit Water Supply.
Unit for
for Water
WaterSupply.
Supply.
Number of fixtures (unit)
Number of fixtures (unit)

Lavatory pan for female

Lavatory pan
Closet for female
bowl for male
Closet bowl for male

Basin for female

Basin forfor
Urinal female
male
Urinal
Basinfor
formale
male
Basin for male

Number of occupants
Number of occupants
Figure Adjustment
4. 4.
Figure ofof
Adjustment number ofof
number fixtures (random
fixtures use).
(random use).
Figure 4. Adjustment of number of fixtures (random use).
Table
Table Number
7. 7. ofof
Number fixtures and
fixtures usage
and rate.
usage rate.
Table 7. Number of fixtures and usage rate.
k 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.001 0.0001
k 0.1 k0.050.1 0.02 0.02 0.01
0.05 0.0050.002 0.002
0.01 0.005 0.001
0.001 0.0001 0.0001
b 1.28 1.64 2.05 2.33 2.58 2.88 3.09 4.26
b Δ 1.28 1.64 2.05 2.33 2.58 2.88 3.09 4.26
b 1.28 1.64 0.6 2.05
0.8 0.9 2.331.0 2.58 1.3 2.881.4
1.11 3.09
1.7 4.26
Δ 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.11 1.3 1.4 1.7
2. Method ∆ Based
0.6 on Newer
0.8 Water0.9 Supply1.0Demand 1.11
Unit [18]1.3 1.4 1.7
2. Method Based on Newer Water Supply Demand Unit [18]
The newer water supply demand unit of each fixture is chosen in Table 8 below, and the water
2. The newer
Method water
Based onsupply
Newer demand unit ofDemand
Water Supply each fixture
Unit is chosen in Table 8 below, and the water
[18]
load is calculated by using the sum of the newer water supply demand unit of each fixture and the
load is calculated by using the sum of the newer water supply demand unit of each fixture and the
load curve shown in supply
Figure 5.
load The
curvenewer
shownwater
in Figure 5. demand unit of each fixture is chosen in Table 8 below, and the water
load is calculated by using the sum of the newer water supply demand unit of each fixture and the
load curve shown in Figure 5.
 Water 2017, 9, 376 9 of 21
Water 2017, 9, 376 9 of 21

Table 8. Newer Water Supply Demand Unit of an Office Building.

Table 8. NewerNewer
Water Water
SupplySupply
Demand Unit of an Office Building.
Sex Fixture Remarks
Demand Unit
Closet bowl Newer5 Water Supply Flush valve Remarks
type
Sex Fixture
Demand Unit
Closet bowl 3.5 Tank type
Closet bowl 5 Flush valve type
Male Flush valve type (including automatic
UrinalCloset bowl 3 3.5 Tank type
Male flushvalve
Flush valve with
type sensor)automatic
(including
Basin Urinal 1.5 3 - valve with sensor)
flush
Lavatory pan Basin 8 1.5 - Flush valve type
Female LavatoryLavatory
pan pan 5 8 Tankvalve
Flush typetype
Female BasinLavatory pan 1.5 5 Tank
- type
Basin 1.5 -

A: Closet bowls and urinals without flush

valves in houses and offices
B: Closet bowls with flushing water tanks and
Peak flow rate of water supply (L/min)

urinals with flush valves in offices

C: Closet bowls and urinals with flush valves
in houses and offices

Newer water supply demand unit

Figure Calculation
5. 5.
Figure Calculation Qmax
ofof Qmaxofofthe
theMethod
MethodBased
Basedon
onNewer
NewerWater
WaterSupply
SupplyDemand
DemandUnit
Unit[2,21,22].
[2,21,22].

3.3. Method
MethodBased
Basedon
onFixture
FixtureUsage
Usage
Thewater
The waterload
loadis
is calculated
calculated bybychoosing
choosingthe thenumber
number of of
thethe
fixtures used
fixtures simultaneously
used simultaneouslyin Table
in
9 and the peak flow rate of water supply of each fixture in Table 10, then by multiplying
Table 9 and the peak flow rate of water supply of each fixture in Table 10, then by multiplying the the number
of the fixtures
number with the
of the fixtures withpeak
the flow
peak rate. If theIfnumber
flow rate. of the
the number of fixtures is not
the fixtures indicated
is not in Table
indicated 9, the
in Table 9,
the intermediate value is obtained by proportional distribution. However, if usage of the fixture is is
intermediate value is obtained by proportional distribution. However, if usage of the fixture
estimated
estimated with
with highhigh accuracy,
accuracy, the usage
the usage ratefixtures
rate of the of theused
fixtures used simultaneously
simultaneously should be
should be specifically
specifically estimated without referring
estimated without referring to this table. to this table.

Table
Table 9. 9. Number
Number ofof fixtures
fixtures andand usage
usage rate.
rate.
No. of Fixtures c 1 2 4 8 12 16 24 32 40 50 70
No. of Fixtures c 1 2 4 8 12 16 24 32 40 50 70
Closet Bowl (Flush Valve) 100 50 50 40 30 27 23 19 17 15 12
100 50
Closet Bowl (Flush Valve)
General Fixture 10050 10040 70 3055 27
48 4523 42 19
40 17
39 38 15 35 12
General Fixture 100 100 70 55 48 45 42 40 39 38 35
Water 2017, 9, 376 10 of 21

Water 2017, 9, 376 10 of 21

Table 10. Usage rate and Qmax of each plumbing fixture and faucet.

Table 10. Usage rate and Qmax of each plumbing fixture and faucet.
Quantity Peak Flow Rate
Fixture Consumption Per ofPeak
Water Supply
Flow Remarks
Quantity
Use (L) Rate(L/min)
of Water
Fixture Consumption Remarks
Closet bowl with flush valve 6–13 105
Supply
Closet bowl coupled with low tank Per Use (L)
6–10 10
(L/min) It is assumed that users wash the fixture
ClosetCloset
bowl with
bowllow
withtank onvalve
flush the flat wall 8–116–13 10510 once per use. In public toilets, males
Closet bowl with low tank on corner 8–11 10 wash the fixture about 1.5 times per use,
Closet bowl coupled with low tank 6–10 10
Closet bowl integrated with low tank It is
andassumed that users
fames wash wash
it about 2.0the
times per
Closet bowl with low tank on the flat wall 168–11 1010
(single unit type) use. once per use.
fixture
ClosetCloset bowl with
bowl without tanklow tank on corner 6–88–11 10
20 In public toilets, males wash the
ClosetCloset bowl integrated
bowl without tank (smallwith low tank
tank fixture about 1.5 times per use, and
5–5.516 10
10–13
included)
(single unit type)
fames wash it about 2.0 times per
UrinalCloset bowlvalve
with flush without tank 4–66–8 2030 The required flow rate for a plunge bath
use.
UrinalCloset bowl without
with automatic tank (small
Flushing tank
water tank 4–65–5.5 8–13
10–13 is calculated based on the time spent to
Basin included) 10 10 fill the bath tab with water.
Urinal with flush valve 4–6 30 The required flow rate for a plunge
Urinal with automatic Flushing water tank 4–6 8–13 bath is calculated based on the time
4. Method
Basin Based on Water Supply Load Unit 10 of Fixture [19]
10 spent to fill the bath tab with water.

4. Method Based on Water Supply Load Unit of Fixture [19]

The water load is calculated by obtaining the water supply load unit of each fixture in Table 11
The the
and by using water load
sum of isthe
calculated
obtainedbywater
obtaining the load
supply waterunit
supply load fixture
of each unit of each fixture
and the loadincurve
Table 11
shown
and by
in Figure 6. using the sum of the obtained water supply load unit of each fixture and the load curve shown
in Figure 6.
Table 11. Water supply load unit of fixture [23].
Table 11. Water supply load unit of fixture [23].

Water Supply
Water Load
Supply UnitUnit
Load of Fixture
of Fixture
Fixture
Fixture Faucet
Faucet Public Use Private Use
Public Use Private Use
Closet bowls Flush valve 10 6
Closet bowls
Closet bowls Flush
Flushing valve
water tank 5 10 3 6
ClosetUrinal
bowls Flushing water tank
Flush valve 5 5 - 3
Urinal
Urinal Flush
Flushing valve
water tank 3 5 - -
Urinal
Basin Flushing water tank
Faucet 2 3 1 -
Basin Faucet 2 1
Peak flow rate of water supply (L/min)

Peak flow rate of water supply (L/min)

Water supply load unit of fixture Water supply load unit of fixture
(a) (b)

FigureFigure 6. Calculation
6. Calculation of Qofmax
Qmax
ofofthe
theMethod
MethodBased
Based on
on Water
WaterSupply
SupplyLoad Unit
Load of of
Unit Fixture [2,23].
Fixture (a) Peak
[2,23]. (a) Peak
flow rate
flow rate of water
of water supply[L/min];
supply [L/min]; (b)(b)
Peak flowflow
Peak rate of water
rate of supply
water [L/min]
supply(Partial
[L/min]expansion
(Partialof (a)).
expansion
of (a)).
2.2. Water Load Calculation Method Using Murakawa’s Simulation for Water Consumption (MSWC)

2.2. Water
2.2.1. Load Calculation
Outline of MSWCMethod Using Murakawa’s Simulation for Water Consumption (MSWC)
MSWC
2.2.1. Outline is a simulation tool that makes it possible to forecast water supply demand in
of MSWC
chronological order by using the Monte Carlo technique. As shown in Figure 7, this method is used
MSWC is a simulation
for plumbing toolthe
fixtures, but that makes itratio
frequency possible
of thetomean
forecast
valueswater supply
of the demand
simulation in chronological
conditions such
orderasbyuse
using the Monte Carlo technique. As shown in Figure 7, this method is used
frequency [24], discharge flow rate [25], discharge time of the fixture [26,27], temperature for plumbing
of
fixtures,
waterbut
to the frequency
be used ratio
[8,28–30], andofusers’
the mean values
occupation timeof ofthe
thesimulation conditions
fixture [1,31] suchinas
is cumulated a use
frequency [24], discharge flow rate [25], discharge time of the fixture [26,27], temperature of water
to be used [8,28–30], and users’ occupation time of the fixture [1,31] is cumulated in a probability
Water 2017, 9, 376 11 of 21

Water 2017, 9, 376 11 of 21

Water 2017, 9, 376 11 of 21
distribution with a mean value at 1, and can be shown by Erlang distribution, exponential distribution
probability distribution with a mean value at 1, and can be shown by Erlang distribution, exponential
and hyperexponential distribution. In this method, water load can be calculated on a peak-time, hourly
probabilityand
distribution distribution with a mean
hyperexponential value at 1, In
distribution. andthis
canmethod,
be shown by Erlang
water distribution,
load can exponential
be calculated on a
and daily basis by
distribution andgenerating random
hyperexponential numbers In
distribution. and determining
this method,and theload
water valuecanofbeeach condition
calculated on a with
peak-time, hourly and daily basis by generating random numbers determining the value of each
Monte Carlo
peak-time,
condition technique,
hourly
with then
andCarlo
Monte by inputting
daily basis a number
by generating
technique, then byrandom of fixtures,
inputtingnumbersaverage water
and determining
a number discharge
of fixtures, the time,
valuewater
average average
of each
water discharge
conditiontime,
discharge quantity
withaverage and
Montewater subject
Carlodischargenumber
technique, in the
then by
quantity subject
inputting
and building
a number
subject number used for the
of fixtures,
in the calculation.
averageused
subject building Figure
water 8
shows thecalculation.
the procedure
fordischarge for water
time, average
Figure 8waterload
shows thecalculation
discharge
procedure proposed
quantity by Murakawa.
and subject
for water load number inproposed
calculation the subjectbybuilding
Murakawa.used
for the calculation. Figure 8 shows the procedure for water load calculation proposed by Murakawa.

Erlang distribution K = 10
Erlang distribution
Exponential K = 10
distribution
Probability

Hyperexponential distribution
Exponential distribution
Probability

Hyperexponential distribution

K: Phase in probability distribution

K: Phase in probability distribution

Use frequency (frequency/h), discharge quantity (L/min), discharge time (s/floor)

Use frequency (frequency/h), discharge quantity (L/min), discharge time (s/floor)
Figure 7. Probability and frequency distribution of each item.
Figure 7. Probability and frequency distribution of each item.
Figure 7. Probability and frequency distribution of each item.

Figure 8. Procedure for simulation calculation.

Figure8.8.Procedure
Figure Procedure for
for simulation
simulationcalculation.
calculation.
Water 2017, 9, 376 12 of 21

2.2.2. Calculation Conditions of MSWC

Table 12 shows the simulation conditions of MSWC [4,32]. The subject number means a number
Water 2017,
respectively of9,male
376 or female users. When calculating the water load of all the floors of the subject 12 of 21

building, the number of users in the whole building is to be entered, and when calculating the water
load 2.2.2.
of oneCalculation
floor of theConditions
subject building,
of MSWC the number of users on the floor is to be entered. Figure 9
shows the operation screen of MSWC.
Table 12 shows the simulation conditions of MSWC [4,32]. The subject number means a number
respectively of male or female Table
users.12.
When calculating
Simulation the water load of all the floors of the subject
conditions.
building, the number of users in the whole building is to be entered, and when calculating the water
Male Female
load of one floor of the subject building, the number of users on the floor is to be entered. Figure 9
Simulation Model Closet Lavatory
shows the operation screen of MSWC. Urinal Basin Basin
Bowl Pan
Arrival rate by time
Arrival-to-fixture To be set by fixture and time zone
Table 12. Simulation conditions.
(person/min)
model
Arrival rate distribution Poisson distribution
Fixture occupation Male Female
Simulation
No. Model
of fixtures to be set (unit) To be set based on the subject building
time model Lavatory
Average occupation timeCloset (s) Bowl 260 Urinal 37 Basin
12 110
Pan
Basin
17
Type of occupation
Arrival rate by time time
Discharge quantity
Arrival-to-fixture Erl.3 To beErl.7 Hyp.2
set by fixture Erl.3
and time zone Hyp2
distribution
(person/min)
model
modelFixture Arrival rate distribution Poisson distribution
occupation time Average discharge time (s) 17.2 5 6 17.2 11
No. of fixtures to be set (unit) To be set based on the subject building
model Type of discharge
Average occupation time (s) time 260 37 12 110 17
Exp. Exp.10 Erl.3 Exp. Erl.3
distribution
Type of occupation time
Discharge Erl.3 Erl.7 Hyp.2 Erl.3 Hyp2
distribution
Average discharge quantity
quantity model 49.8 30 5 49.8 5
Average discharge time (s) 17.2 5 6 17.2 11
Fixture operation (L/min)
Type of discharge time
model Type of discharge quantity Exp. Exp.10 Erl.3 Exp. Erl.3
Fixture
distribution Erl.6 Erl.10 Erl.10 Erl.6 Erl.10
distribution
Average discharge quantity
operation model 49.8 30 5 49.8 5
Average (L/min)
number of times for
Type of discharge quantity 1.37 1 1 1.17 1
washing (time)
distribution
Erl.6 Erl.10 Erl.10 Erl.6 Erl.10
Subject number
Water 2017, x, x(No.Average
of users, tenants
number andfor
of times rooms) To be entered based on the subject building 7 of 22
1.37 1 1 1.17 1
washing (time)
Subject number (No. of users, tenants and rooms) To be entered based on the subject building

Note: As there is no English version of MSWC at present, the right figure was translated depends on the left one.

Figure 9.The
Theoperation
operationscreen
screenof
of Murakawa’s
Murakawa’s Simulation
Simulation for
forWater
Water Consumption
Consumption(MSWC).
(MSWC).
FigureFigure
9. The9.operation screen of Murakawa’s Simulation for Water Consumption (MSWC).

The indication
The indication of each of each numbered
numbered zonezone on Figure
on Figure 10 is10
as is as follows.
follows.
In theIn facility
the facility selection
selection section
section in in area“①”,
area “ ”,
1 thethe subject
subject building
buildingisisselected.
selected.InInthis research,
this “Office”
research,
waswas
“Office” selected for research
selected of an
for research ofoffice building
an office (the(the
building subject building
subject cancan
building also be be
also selected from
selected thethe
from file list
file list on the bottom of the screen by selecting the file and clicking “Read selected file”
on the bottom of the screen by selecting the file and clicking “Read selected file” in area “ ”). in area “⑪”).
Next, the condition file to be edited is selected to rewrite and store the file.
The overall conditions are described as follows.
 distribution
Average number of times for
1.37 1 1 1.17 1
washing (time)
o. of users, tenants and rooms) To be entered based on the subject building

Water 2017,
2017,9,9,
Water2017, 376
9,376
376 13 of 21
Water 1313
ofof
2121

Next, the condition file to be edited is selected to rewrite and store the file.
Next, the condition file to be edited is selected to rewrite and store the file.
The
In the overall
“Analysis conditions are described
unit” section in area “as ”,
2 follows.
it is recommended to choose the 0.1-s analysis, because
The overall conditions are described as follows.
the 1-sIn analysis
the “Analysis may cause unit”errorsection
(taking in area
too long“②”, timeit isforrecommended
the analysis). to choose the 0.1-s analysis,
In the “Analysis unit” section in area “②”, it is recommended to choose the 0.1-s analysis,
because the 1-s
In area “ ”,3 analysis may cause
the result name error can be (taking
giventoo longfile
to the time of for
thethe analysis).result. If the number
calculation
because the 1-s analysis may cause error (taking too long time for the analysis).
In areathe
exceeding “③”,number the result
of thename fixtures canchosen
be given to the
in the areafile
“ ” 6of the
on thecalculation result. If error
right is entered, the number
will be
In area “③”, the result name can be given to the file of the calculation result. If the number
exceeding
caused during the number of the fixtures
the calculation. Hence, the chosen in the
“Fixture areasection
type” “⑥” on the right
should not be is changed.
entered, error will be
The “Subject
exceeding the number of the fixtures chosen in the area “⑥” on the right is entered, error will be
caused
number” during
should thebe calculation.
consistentHence, with the thepresent
“Fixture type” section
condition and be should
set bynot be changed.
considering theThe “Subject
situation of
caused during the calculation. Hence, the “Fixture type” section should not be changed. The “Subject
number”
the office.should be consistent with the present condition and be set by considering the situation of
number” should be consistent with the present condition and be set by considering the situation of
the office.
The same operation with the “Set number of fixtures” in area “ ” 4 can also be performed in the
the office.
The name”
“Fixture same operation
section inwith areathe 6 “Set
“ ” numberthe
to change of fixtures”
number of inthe
area “④” can
subject also be
fixtures, asperformed
well as thein the
“Edit
The same operation with the “Set number of fixtures” in area “④” can also be performed in the
“Fixture
setup number” name” section in area “⑥” “ ”.
9 to
Inchange
the “Setthe number
subject of the subject
number” sectionfixtures,
in area “as 4 well
”, theasnumber
the “Edit of
“Fixture name” section in area “⑥” to change the number of the subject fixtures, as well as the “Edit
setup
users andnumber”usagesection of eachinfixture
area “⑨”. in 24Inh the can“Set subject number”
be changed. In the “Set section
water intemperature”
area “④”, thesection,numberthe of
setup number” section in area “⑨”. In the “Set subject number” section in area “④”, the number of
users and usage
temperature of each fixture
of supplied water asinwell 24 hascan thebe changed.
water In the “Set
temperature at eachwater temperature”
fixture can be changed.section, the
users and usage of each fixture in 24 h can be changed. In the “Set water temperature” section, the
temperature
In the “Start of supplied watersection
calculation” as wellinasarea the “water
”, thetemperature
water loadat each fixture can be changed.
atcalculation
each fixturesimulation based on any
5
temperature of supplied water as well as the water temperature can be changed.
In the “Start
calculation condition calculation” section inby
can be performed area “⑤”, the water load
choosing calculation simulation based on
In the “Start calculation” section in area “⑤”, the“Rewrite”,
water load“Store new file”
calculation and the based
simulation file foronthe
any calculation
calculation before condition
clicking canthe be performed
“Start”. By by choosing
clicking “Finish” “Rewrite”,
in area “Store
“ ”,
5 newentry
data file” can
andbe thefinished
file for
any calculation condition can be performed by choosing “Rewrite”, “Store new file” and the file for
the calculation
without performing beforethe clicking
waterthe the
load “Start”. By clicking
calculation simulation.“Finish” in area “⑤”, data entry can be finished
the calculation before clicking “Start”. By clicking “Finish” in area “⑤”, data entry can be finished
operation screen of withoutIn
Murakawa’s performing
the “Remark”
Simulation the water
section inload
area calculation
“ ”,
7 DEMO simulation.
on the data can be entered.
without performing the for
waterWater loadConsumption
calculation(MSWC). simulation.
In the “Remark”
“Set value” section
section ininarea
area “⑦”,
“ 8 DEMO
”, 11 on the data
calculation can be entered.
conditions for each fixture can be shown.
In the “Remark” section in area “⑦”, DEMO on the data can be entered.
In the
the “Set
“Edit value” section
setassection
value” in area “⑧”,
section in area 11 “calculation
”, conditionsconditions
11 calculation for each fixturefor eachcan be shown.
f each numbered zone Inon Figure 10 is follows. can befixture
shown.can
9
the “Set value” in area “⑧”, 11 calculation conditions for each fixture
be
election section in area In the
changed.
“①”, “Edit
theset set value”
subject section in area “⑨”, 11 calculation conditions for each fixture can be changed.
In the “Edit value”building
section inisarea selected.
“⑨”, 11 Incalculation
this research, conditions for each fixture can be changed.
for research of an office In the “Progress bar” in area “⑩”, progress of the calculation can be viewed.
InIn the“Progress
building
the “Progress
(the subjectbar”in
bar” inarea
area“⑩”,
building “can”,progress
progress
also ofofthe
be selected thefrom
calculation
the can
calculation canbe beviewed.
viewed.
of the screen by selecting Bytheusing
file the “Read
and clicking chosen
“Read file”
selected section
file” inin area
area “⑪”,
“⑪”). the name of the set value can be shown in
ByByusing
usingthe the“Read
“Readchosenchosenfile” file”section
sectionininarea area“⑪”,“ ”,the thenamenameofofthe thesetsetvalue
valuecan canbebeshown
showninin
the “Set value name” section by choosing and clicking a file in the file list. By using the “Store chosen
the
the“Set
“Setvalue
valuename” name”sectionsectionby bychoosing
choosingand andclicking
clickinga afile fileininthethefile
filelist.
list.ByByusing
usingthe the“Store
“Storechosen
chosen
file” section, the chosen file can be stored. In the “Store new file” section, a new file can be stored in
file”
file”section,
section,the thechosen
chosenfile filecan
canbebestored.
stored.InInthe the“Store
“Storenew newfile” file”section,
section,a anew newfilefilecan
canbebestored
storedinin
the name used in the “Set value name” section, and the file name can also be changed in this section.
the
thename
nameused usedininthe the“Set
“Setvalue
valuename”name”section, section,and andthe thefile
filename
namecan canalso alsobebechanged
changedininthis thissection.
section.
In the “File list” section in area “⑫”, the calculation can be performed by checking the box on
InInthe
the“File“Filelist”list”section
section in in area
area “⑫”,
“ ”, the the calculation
calculationcan canbe beperformed
performedbybychecking checking the
the box
box ononthe
the left of each file listed as the files that can be used for the calculation.
the left of each file listed as the files that can be
left of each file listed as the files that can be used for the calculation. used for the calculation.
The water load calculation simulation is conducted for 24 h for each fixture type and is
The
Thewater
water load load calculation
calculationsimulation
simulation is conducted
is conducted for 24 forh for
24 each
h forfixtureeach type
fixtureandtype and is
is aggregated
aggregated every second to produce basic files for water, hot water and heat quantity. The simulation
aggregated
every second every second to
to produce produce
basic files for basic fileshot
water, forwater
water,and hotheat
water and heat
quantity. Thequantity.
simulation Theissimulation
completed,
is completed, when some of such basic files are displayed.
iswhen
completed, when some of such
some of such basic files are displayed. basic files are displayed.

Note: As there is no English version of MSWC at present, the right figure was translated depends on the left one.

Figure10.
Figure 10.The
The operation
operation screen
screen of
of MSWC.
MSWC.

Figure 10. The operation screen of MSWC.

Figure 10. The operation screen of MSWC.
 Water 2017, 9, 376 14 of 21

3. Measurement

Water 2017, 9, 376 14 of 21

3.1. Measurement of the Water Consumption
Water consumption was measured in an office building to collect basic data, and examine the
3.validity
Measurement
of MSWC and the conventional water load calculation methods.
Data were collected in a 7-story (6 floors above ground and 1 below) office building (referred to
3.1. Measurement of the Water Consumption
as T-building) with the total floor area of 2384.4 m2 in Tokyo. Figure 11 shows the water supply lines,
the Water consumption
locations was
of ultrasonic measured
flow in an
meters, and office
the typebuilding to collect
of the tenants basic
on each data,Water
floor. and examine the
was supplied
validity of MSWC and the water
by the increase-pressure conventional water load calculation methods.
supply system.
Data were collected
Ultrasonic in a 7-story
flow meters (6 floors
were placed above
in the ground
water supplyandmain
1 below)
near office building
the outlet (referred
of the to
pump (A);
asinT-building) with the total floor area 2
the water supply main between theof 2384.4
floors m 4
3 and in(B);
Tokyo.
4 andFigure
5 (C); 11
andshows
5 andthe water
6 (D) fromsupply lines,
Wednesday,
the locationstoofThursday,
5 August ultrasonic6flow meters,
August, andand
onthe type of the
Thursday, 12 tenants
November on each
2015,floor.
and Water
water was
flowsupplied
rate was
by the increase-pressure
measured every second.water supply system.

M WC 6F
W WC
Hot water supply room office
M WC 5F
D W WC
Hot water supply room office
Ultrasonic flow meter C M WC 4F
W WC
Hot water supply room office
M WC 3F
B W WC
Hot water supply room office
M WC 2F
W WC
Hot water supply room Law office
M WC 1F
W WC Medical office
GL Hot water supply room
A WC
B1F
Parking place
Water meter

Figure 11. Water supply system diagram.

Figure 11. Water supply system diagram.

Ultrasonic flow meters were placed in the water supply main near the outlet of the pump (A); in
Qday and Qmax on each floor obtained from calculation based on the measured data by ultrasonic
the water supply main between the floors 3 and 4 (B); 4 and 5 (C); and 5 and 6 (D) from Wednesday,
flow meters during the measuring period: 5–6 August, and 12 November 2015 are shown in Table 13.
5 August to Thursday, 6 August, and on Thursday, 12 November 2015, and water flow rate was
In Chapter 5, data obtained on 6 August, when Qday calculated from the ultrasonic flow meter data
measured
were the every
largestsecond.
were used.
Qd ay and Qmax on each floor obtained from calculation based on the measured data by ultrasonic
flow meters during the measuring Table
period:
13.5–6
QdayAugust,
and Qmaxand 12 November
on each floor. 2015 are shown in Table 13.
In Chapter 5, data obtained on 6 August, when Qday calculated from the ultrasonic flow meter data
were the largestPeriod Classification Whole Building 6F
were used. 5F 4F B1F~3F
8/5 Qday (L/day) 9361 1434 2357 2017 3552
(Wed.) Qmax (L/min) 86.7 28.6 66.2 85.3 69.5
Table 13. Qday and Qmax on each floor.
8/6 Qday (L/day) 9701 1558 2649 1827 3667
Period
(Thu.) Classification
Qmax (L/min) Whole Building
79.0 6F
45.4 5F 73.3 52.94F 70.7B1F~3F
11/12 Qday (L/day) 9493 1574 2438 2182 3298
Q (L/day) 9361 1434 2357 2017 3552
(Thu.) Q dayQ(L/min)
8/5 (Wed.) max (L/min)
86.7
67.1 28.6
38.1 66.2
58.4 53.785.3 67.1 69.5
max
Qday (L/day) 9518 1522 2481 2009 3506
Ave. Qday (L/day) 9701 1558 2649 1827 3667
8/6 (Thu.) Qmax (L/min) 77.6 37.4 66.0 64.0 69.1
Qmax (L/min) 79.0 45.4 73.3 52.9 70.7
Qday (L/day) 9493 1574 2438 2182 3298
3.2. The11/12 (Thu.)
Number of Occupants
Qmax (L/min) 67.1 38.1 58.4 53.7 67.1
To determine Qdaynumber
the (L/day) of occupants
9518 1522in the 2481
present rooms in2009 3506 during the
T-building
Ave.
measurement period,Qthe
max (L/min) 77.6
occupants of T-building 37.4
were 66.0
asked to fill out 64.0 69.1
questionnaires and their
Water 2017, 9, 376 15 of 21

3.2. The Number of Occupants

To determine the number of occupants present in the rooms in T-building during the measurement
period, the occupants of T-building were asked to fill out questionnaires and their presence in the
rooms every 30 min on the days’ measurements were made were investigated. To further validate the
Water 2017,
accuracy of the9, 376
questionnaires, security cameras were used [15,16]. 15 of 21

The number of occupants in the rooms by gender was counted every 30 min during the
presence in the rooms every 30 min on the days’ measurements were made were investigated. To
measurement period: Wednesday, 5 August to Friday, 7 August; Wednesday, 11 November to Friday,
further validate the accuracy of the questionnaires, security cameras were used [15,16].
13 November 2015.
The number of occupants in the rooms by gender was counted every 30 min during the
People entering and exiting T-building were monitored by security cameras placed at the front
measurement period: Wednesday, 5 August to Friday, 7 August; Wednesday, 11 November to
and back entrances during the measurement period: Wednesday, 11 November to Friday, 13 November
Friday, 13 November 2015.
2015; andPeople
the number of people was counted by gender every 5 min.
entering and exiting T-building were monitored by security cameras placed at the front
The back
and number of occupants
entrances during registered for T-building
the measurement period: isWednesday,
shown in Table 14. The movements
11 November to Friday, 13of
people obtained by questionnaire on Thursday, 12 November and an example
November 2015; and the number of people was counted by gender every 5 min. of the fluctuation of
occupants captured by a security camera on Thursday, 12 November in Figure 12.
The number of occupants registered for T-building is shown in Table 14. The movements of
people obtained by questionnaire on Thursday, 12 November and an example of the fluctuation of
occupants capturedTable 14. The number
by a security cameraof
onoccupants
Thursday,registered for T-building.
12 November in Figure 12.

Table Aug. registered for T-building.

14. The number of occupants Nov.
Floor Tenants
Male Female Male Female
Aug. Nov.
Floor Tenants
6F 20 Male Female6 Male 22Female 4
5F 6F Office 53 20 19
6 22 55 4 19
4F 5F 38 53 14
19 55 36 19 14
3F Office 53 10 51 12
4F 38 14 36 14
3F
Law office 53 10 51 12
1–2F 17 7 17 7
Law office
Medical office
1–2F 17 7 17 7
Medical office
Entirety - 181 56 181 56
Entirety - 181 56 181 56
Fluctuation of occupants

200
Questionnaire
150

100

50

0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
Time
Fluctuation of occupants

200
Security cameras
150

100

50

0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 0:00
Time

Entirety Male Female

Figure 12. Results of the number of occupants.

Figure 12. Results of the number of occupants.
The maximum numbers of occupants by gender calculated from the data obtained from
questionnaires
The maximum andnumbers
security cameras are shown
of occupants by in Table 15.
gender Though the
calculated fluctuation
from the dataof obtained
occupantsfrom
was
seen both in questionnaire and on security cameras, the female maximum
questionnaires and security cameras are shown in Table 15. Though the fluctuation number of occupants
occupants
was monitored onquestionnaire
seen both in security camerasandwas
on about 1.3 cameras,
security times greater than that
the female counted by
maximum questionnaire.
number This
of occupants
may beon
monitored due to the fact
security that there
cameras waswere
aboutvisitors whogreater
1.3 times had notthan
beenthat
reflected in the
counted by questionnaire.
questionnaire. This
may be due to the fact that there were visitors who had not been reflected in the questionnaire.
Table 15. The maximum numbers of occupants.

Questionnaire Security Camera

Period
Male Female Male Female
8/5 (Wed.) 136 52 - -
8/6 (Thu.) 142 52 - -
Water 2017, 9, 376 16 of 21

Table 15. The maximum numbers of occupants.

Questionnaire Security Camera

Period
Male Female Male Female
8/5 (Wed.) 136 52 - -
8/6 (Thu.) 142 52 - -
8/7 (Fri.) 134 53 - -
Aug. (Ave.) 137 52 - -
11/11 (Wed.) 112 52 111 61
11/12 (Thu.) 97 51 105 68
11/13 (Fri.) 103 50 96 66
Nov. (Ave.) 104 51 104 65

3.3. Water Consumption Measurement

Average flush time and average flush volume are two of the simulation conditions set forth in
MSWC. Therefore, WC flush time and flush volume were measured to calculate average flush time
and average volume in WC in T-building.
Single WC was flushed several times and the fluctuation of flow rate was measured with an
ultrasonic flow meter.
Average flush time and average flush volume calculated from five measurements are shown in
Table 16. Averages were used for MSWC calculations. Thus, average flush time was 17.2 s and average
flush volume 49.8 L/min. (Table 16).

Table 16. Average flush time and average flush volume.

Water Supply Water Supply Average Water Supply

Count
Discharge Time (s) Discharge (L) Discharge Volume (L/min)
1st 17 13.8 48.5
2nd 20 14.1 42.4
3rd 16 14.4 54.0
4th 15 14.4 57.5
5th 18 14.0 46.7
Ave. 17.2 14.1 49.8

4. The Calculation of Water Load

4.1. Conventional Water Load Calculation Method

Qday and Qmax obtained from calculations for all floors, B1 to 3rd floor, 4th floor, 5th floor and
6th floor are shown in Table 17. Actual basic unit was smaller than conventional basic unit in both the
personnel method and fixture method. There was a difference of 21,280 L/day in Qday for all floors in
the personnel method.

Table 17. Qday and Qmax obtained from calculations.

MLIT SHASE-S206
Water Consumption
PM FM
WFM NWM PFM SLM
P/A NOR CBU ABU
Whole Qday (L/day) 38,080 16,800 21,120 16,554 - - - -
building Qmax (L/min) 238 105 220 172 474 390 1094 370
Qday (L/day) 18,880 6960 11,040 8650 - - - -
B1F~3F
Qmax (L/min) 118 43.6 103 90.0 280 290 702 380
Qday (L/day) 6480 3331 3360 2635 - - - -
4F
Qmax (L/min) 41 20.8 35 27.4 175 210 355 257
Qday (L/day) 6480 5330 3360 2635 - - - -
5F
Qmax (L/min) 41 33.3 35 27.4 175 210 355 257
Qday (L/day) 6240 1396 3360 2635 - - - -
6F
Qmax (L/min) 39 8.7 35 27.4 175 210 355 267
Water 2017, 9, 376 17 of 21

4.2. Water Load Calculation Based on MSWC

The simulation conditions in T-building are shown in Table 18 [18]. The number of sanitary
fixtures in the building, average flush time, average flush volume, and simulation conditions such as
the target number were entered to calculate water load. Also, presence rate was calculated from the
number of occupants and registrants in the questionnaire, and used as a simulation condition.
The number of registrants on each floor of T-building in August was entered as the target number,
and simulations were performed for all floors, B1 to 3rd floor, 4th floor, 5th floor, and 6th floor. The
actual number of female occupants multiplied by 1.3 was used as the number of female occupants in
this simulation.
The results of simulations in MSWC are shown in Table 19. Except some cases, the simulation
results based on personnel/area were larger than those based on the number of occupants, which
confirmed that there was a difference of 8713 L/day for all floors.
Average flush time and average flush volume calculated from five measurements are shown in
Table 16. Averages were used for MSWC calculations. Thus, average flush time was 17.2 s and average
flush volume 49.8 L/min (Table 16).

Table 18. Simulation conditions in T-building.

Men’s Men’s Women’s Women’s

Fixture Men’s WC
Urinal Wash Basin WC Wash Basin
No. of Fixture To be Set Based on the Subject Building
Distribution diagram phase of average water
1 10 3 1 3
supply discharge time
Average water supply discharge time (s/use) 17.2 5 6 17.2 11
Distribution form phase of average water supply
6 10 10 6 10
discharge volume
Average water supply discharge volume (L/min) 49.8 30 5 49.8 5
Distribution form phase of occupancy time 3 7 2 3 2
Average occupancy time (s/person) 260 37 12 110 17
Increase of usage with multiple use taken into
1.37 1 1 1.17 1
account
No. of People, House, Room To be Set Based on the Subject Building
Fixture usage rate (Ratio of water to hot water) 1 1 1 1 1

Table 19. Results of simulations in MSWC.

Water Consumption P/A NOR

Qday (L/day) 18,382 9669
Whole building
Qmax (L/min) 122.3 100.3
Qday (L/day) 9402 3740
B1F~3F
Qmax (L/min) 104.5 72.9
Qday (L/day) 3436 2298
4F
Qmax (L/min) 68.4 65.0
Qday (L/day) 3450 3299
5F
Qmax (L/min) 68.8 70.8
Qday (L/day) 3001 1336
6F
Qmax (L/min) 68.5 48.1

5. Comparison of Each Water Load Calculation Method

The Comparison of Qday obtained by each method is shown in Figure 13, the ratio of Qday to
actual measurements in Figure 14, the comparison of Qmax obtained by each method in Figure 15,
and the ratio of Qmax to actual measurements in Figure 16 (actual measurements of Qday is referred
Water 2017, 9, 376 18 of 21

to as QAday , the ratio of Qday to QAday as Rd, actual measurements of Qmax as QAmax , and the ratio
of Qmax to QAmax as Rm below). In comparison of Qday , the total figure of each floor and the figures
Water 2017, 9, 376 18 of 21
for allWater
floors were
2017, 9, 376used in MSWC. MSWC calculations for the number of occupants were the 18 ofclosest
21
Water 2017, 9, 376 18 of 21
to actual measurements. Compared to the conventional design standards,
actual measurements in Qday and Qmax for all floors. However, they were smaller than actual the personnel method
actual measurements in Qday and Qmax for all floors. However, they were smaller than actual
basedactual
on themeasurements
number
measurements in of occupants
Qmax for
in each
Q
and the
day floor,
and Q
fixturethat
indicating
max for all
method based on actual
the personnel
floors. However,method
basic
and
they were
unit produced
fixture
smallermethod
figures
in the
than actual
measurements in Qmax for each floor, indicating that the personnel method and fixture method in the
closerconventional
to actual measurements
measurements design in Qfloor,
in Qmaxstandards
for each day not Q
areand max for
reliable allthe
when floors. However,
making they
calculations were
andbased smaller
on onlythan
a few actual
conventional design standards are indicating
not reliable that
when personnel method
making calculations fixture
based method
on only ain few
the
measurements
sanitary in Q
fixtures
conventional
sanitary fixtures
for each
installed.
design
max floor, indicating that the personnel method and fixture
standards are not reliable when making calculations based on only a few
installed.
method in the
conventional
sanitary design
fixtures standards
installed. are not reliable when making calculations based on only a few sanitary
fixtures installed.
40,000
40,000
35,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
35,000
30,000
(L/day)
day(L/day)

25,000
30,000
25,000
(L/day)

20,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
20,000
day

15,000
QQ
Qday

10,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
10,000
5,000
0
5,000
0
0 QAday FM FM PM PM MSWC MSWC
QAday FM FM PM PM MSWC MSWC
QAday (P/A)
FM (NOR)
FM (CBU)
PM (ABU)
PM (P/A)
MSWC (NOR)
MSWC
(P/A) (NOR) (CBU) (ABU) (P/A) (NOR)
(P/A) BF～3F
(NOR) 4F (CBU)
5F 6F (ABU) (P/A) (NOR)
BF～3F 4F 5F 6F
BF～3F 4F 5F 6F
Figure 13. Comparison of Qday obtained by each method.
Figure 13. Comparison of Qday obtained by each method.
Figure 13. Comparison of Qday obtained by each method.
Figure 13. Comparison of Qday obtained by each method.
6.0
6.0
6.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
Rd

3.0
RdRd

3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
FM FM PM PM MSWC MSWC
0.0 FM FM PM PM MSWC MSWC
(P/A) (NOR) (CBU) (ABU) (P/A) (NOR)
(P/A)
FM (NOR)
FM (CBU)
PM (ABU)
PM (P/A)
MSWC (NOR)
MSWC
BF～3F 4F 5F 6F Whole building
(P/A) (NOR)
BF～3F 4F(CBU)
5F 6F (ABU)
Whole building (P/A) (NOR)
BF～3F 4F 5F 6F Whole building
Figure
Figure 14.14. Ratio
Ratio of to actual
ofQQday to actual measurements.
measurements.
Figure 14. Ratio of Q day to actual measurements.
day
Figure 14. Ratio of Qday to actual measurements.
1,200
1,200
1,200
1,000
1,000
(L/min)
(L/min)

1,000
800
(L/min)

800
800
600
Qmax

600
Qmax

600
Qmax

400
400
400
200
200
200
0
0
QAmax PM PM FM FM WFM NWM PFM SLM MSWC MSWC
0 QAmax PM PM FM FM WFM NWM PFM SLM MSWC MSWC
(P/A) (NOR) (CBU) (ABU) (P/A) (NOR)
QAmax (P/A)
PM (NOR)
PM (CBU)
FM (ABU)
FM WFM NWM PFM SLM (P/A)
MSWC (NOR)
MSWC
(P/A) Whole(CBU)
(NOR) building (ABU)BF～3F 4F 5F 6F (P/A) (NOR)
Whole building BF～3F 4F 5F 6F
Whole building BF～3F 4F 5F 6F
Figure Comparison
15. 15.
Figure Comparison ofofQQmax obtained by each method.
max obtained by each method.
Figure 15. Comparison of Qmax obtained by each method.
Figure 15. Comparison of Qmax obtained by each method.
Water 2017, 9, 376 19 of 21
Water 2017, 9, 376 19 of 21

14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
Rm

6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
PM PM FM FM WFM NWM PFM SLM MSWC MSWC
(P/A) (NOR) (CBU) (ABU) (P/A) (NOR)
Whole building BF～3F 4F 5F 6F

Figure Ratio
16.16.
Figure ofofQQ
Ratio max to
max actualmeasurements.
to actual measurements.

6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In this study, the accuracy of water load calculation based on the conventional method and
In this study, the accuracy of water load calculation based on the conventional method and MSWC
MSWC simulation were compared and validated.
simulation were compared and validated.
The conventional water load calculation methods were found to overestimate water load except
The
Qmaxconventional
for each floor water
in the load calculation
personnel methodmethods were
and fixture foundQto
method. overestimate water load except
max for all floors and Qday in the
Qmax for each floor in the personnel method and fixture
personnel and fixture methods using actual basic unit produced method. Q max for all floors
figures closerandto Qactual
day in the
personnel and fixture
measurements methods
than using actual
the conventional basicdid.
methods unit produced figures closer to actual measurements
than the conventional
MSWC calculationsmethods did.
with the number of occupants were the closest to actual measurements. It
was confirmed
MSWC that obtaining
calculations with the accurate
number number of people was
of occupants wereimportant as the
the closest tosimulation based on
actual measurements.
personnel/area produced larger than actual measurements than the simulation
It was confirmed that obtaining accurate number of people was important as the simulation based on the number
based on
of occupants. The comparison between the conventional methods with and
personnel/area produced larger than actual measurements than the simulation based on the number without the correction
of the basic fixture unit based on the measurement results proved that the conventional basic fixture
of occupants. The comparison between the conventional methods with and without the correction of
unit should be modified [23].
the basic fixture unit based on the measurement results proved that the conventional basic fixture unit
To further refine and validate the accuracy of MSWC, our next step will be to compare the results
shouldofbe modified
each water load[23].
calculation method with actual measurements based on detailed measurement of
To further
water refine and
consumption validate
and countingtheofaccuracy
the number of of
MSWC,
peopleour next stepfor
in buildings will be to compare
multiple uses. the results
of each water load calculation method with actual measurements based on detailed measurement of
Author Contributions: Kyosuke Sakaue conceived and planned the research/measurement; Saburo Murakawa
watercontributed
consumption andtheory
the basic counting of the number
and provided of people
the simulation in buildings
tool; Guang-Zheng Wufor multipletheuses.
performed investigation,
analyzed the data and wrote the paper.
Author Contributions: Kyosuke Sakaue conceived and planned the research/measurement; Saburo Murakawa
Conflicts
contributed theofbasic
Interest: the and
theory authors declare the
provided no conflict of interest.
simulation tool; Guang-Zheng Wu performed the investigation,
analyzed the data and wrote the paper.
References
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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