Properties of Perfect Gases

6. Gerural Gas Equation. 7. Joule's lnw. & Clnracteristic Equatbn of Gas. 9" Avogadro's Law. 10.
IJniversal Gas Consbnt or Molar Consnn't. II. Sp1ctfic Heat ofa Gas" !!' flr:rfi"_Heat at,Constant
Vot*ng.. tS, SpeciSic Heat at Cons,tant Przss*re, Ia. Erxlnlpy of a Cai, 15. Molar Specific Heats of a
CIas. 16. nesfia1uiit:',tr"a.w,,,I7,.ftelstian be,frteeln Specfic Heats. 18. R1tio of,''SW€W H**'

2-1.' Introduction
A perfect gas (oran ideal gas) may be defined as a state of a substance, whose evaporation
from its liquid state is complete*, and strictly obeys all the gas laws under all conditions of temperature
and pressure. In actual practice, there is no real or dctual gas which strictly obeys the gas laws over
the entire range of temperature and pressure. But, the real gases which are ordinarily difficult to
liquify, such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and air, within certain temperature and pressure limits,
may be regarded as perfect gases.
2.2. {,aws
of Perfect Gases
The physical properties of a gas are controlled by the following three variables
1. Pressure exerted by the gas, 2. Volume occupied by the gas, and 3. Temperature of the gas.
The behaviour of a perfect gas, undergoing any change in the above mentioned variables, is
governed by the following laws which have been established from experimental results.
' 1. Boyle's 2..Charles' law, and 3. Gay-Lussac law.
law,
These laws are discussed, in detail, in the following pages'
2.3. Boyle's Law
g,iven
This law waS formulated by Robert Boyle in 1662. It states ,"The absolute pressure of tt
temperature retnains con'rtant'"
mass of a perJect gas varies iniersely as iis volume, when the
Mathematically,

p*; I or pz=Constant
The more useful form cf the above equation is :

Ptat = Pzaz = Plaz =..... = Constant

where suffixes ,, , and , .... refer to different sets of conditions.

contains somc particles ol'

If its cvaporation is partial, the substance is called vapour. A virpour, therelbre,
dioxide. sulphur dioxide and amrnonia arc
iiquia in'rrrp"nsion, lt is thus obvious, that steam, carbon
evaporated' If thc
regardcd as vapours. lt may bc noted that a vapour bccomes dry' when it is conrpletcly
super and the vapour is called su perhctttcd vapour '
dri vnpour is lurthcr heated, the process is c alled lrcetlln,q
The behaviour of superhcated vapour is similar to that of a perfbct gas'
30
32 Text Book oJ'Therntal Engineering

According to Boyle's law

D oc
1l or a oc (Keeping 7 constant)
'up
and according to Charles' law
a oc T (Keeping p constant)

It is thus obvious that

I T'
Ao< and T both Of A qc
p
p
panT or Po=CT
where C is constant, whose value depends upon the mass and properties of the gas concerned.
a
The more useful form of the general gas equation is :

Prar Pzuz Ptat

Tt - T? - T3
-... = Con.stant
where suffixes ,, , and , refer to different sets of conditions'
Example 2.1. A gas occupies a volume of 0. I rn3 at a tempernture of 2f C and a pressure
of 1.5 bar. Find the.fiw{pr^p"ritort of'the gas, if it k compressed tA: a'pressure of 7'5 bar and
t"irpiri oiotame oio.ai '' '
^t.' Tr=2f C=20+273=293K:'Pt =
Solution. Given : ?r =0.1m3 i
['5bar

=*0.15x 106N/m2 i pz=7.5bar = 0.75x 106N/m2; a2= 0.04m3'

Let Tz = Final temperature of the gas'

Ptat Pzaz
We know that
Tt = Tz

m Pza2Tl 0.75 x x 0.04 x293

106
t^
/' - J86K
Plat 0.15 x 106 x 0.1

= 586 - 273 = 313"C Ans.

2.7. .Ioule's Law
It states, "The change of internal energ,y of a perJect g,cts is directly proprtrtional to the chang'e
of temperature. " Mathematically
dE o< dT or dE = mcdT - mc (Tz-T)
where m = Mass of the gas, and
c = A constant of proportionality, known as specific heat'
An important consequence of this law is that if the temperature of a given mass ,7r of a gas
in internal
changes fromT, to 7r, then ihe internal energy will change from E, to E, and the change
(u) of the
energy 1nr- Er) will be same irrespective of the manner how the pressure ( p) and volume
gas have changed.

I bar =b:l x 106 N/rn?

Prctperties of Perfect Gases JI
2.4. Charles'Law
This law was formulated by a Frenchman Jacques A.C. Charles in about 1787.It may be.stated
in the following two different forms :

(i) 'fne
voiume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its atbsolute temperature,
when the absolute pressure remains constant." Mathematically,

a oc T or +=Constant
ut u2 d3
or
Tt T2 T3
= Constant

where suffixes ,, , and , ..... refer to different sets of conditions.

(ii) "lU perfect gases cliange in volume by I2,73th of its original volume at 0n C.for every
l" C t'han44e in tempercture, when the pressure rentains constant."
Let vo = Volume of a given mass of gas at 0o C, and
u, = Volume of the same mass of gas at f C.
Then, according to the above statement,

u,= ao*haot=,,[#) = aox

T
-,0
at 9o
or =
TTo
where T - Absolute temperature corresponding to to L.
To = Absolute temperature colresponding to 0o C.
A little consideration will show, that the volume of a gas goes on decreasing by l/273th of its
original volume for every lo C decrease in temperature. It is thus obvious, that at a lemperatule of
-27t C, the volume of the gas would become *zero. The temperature at which the voJume of a gas
becomes zero is called absolute zero temperature.
Note. In all calculations of a perfect gas, the pressure and t€mperature values are expressed in absolute units.
2.5. Gay-Lussac Law
This law states, "The absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as its
absolute temperaiure, when the volume remains seTlslqnf.'t Mathematically
D
P,n T ot T- Constant

or 'i ='i= ?=.... = consrant

where suffixes ,, , and 3 .;. refer to different sets of conditions.

2.6. General Gas Equation

In the previous section we have discussed the gas laws which give us the relation between the
two variables when the third variable is constant. But in actual practice, all tlie three variables i.e.,
pressure, volume.and temperature, change simultaneously. In order to deal with all practical cases,
the Boyle's law and Charles' law are combined together, which give us a general gas equntion.

It is only theoretical. Its exact value is -273.16 "C. But fbr all practical'purposes, this value is taken as
-2'73"C..
Properties of Perfect Gases 33
2.8. Characteristic Equation of a Gas
It is a modified form of general gas equation. If the volume (o) in the general gas equation is
taken as that of I kg of gas ftnown as its specific volume, and denoted by zr.,), then the constant C (in
the general gas equation) is repiesented by another constant R (in the characteristii'equation ofgas).
Thus the general gas equation may be rewritten as :

Wr=RT
where R is known as charqcteristic gas constant or simply gas constant.
For any mass n, kg of a gas, the characteristic gas equation becomes :

mpa, = mRT
or pu = mRT ..('. mo"= v)
Notes : l. The units of gas con5tant (R) may !e obtained as discussed below:

o: P' N/m2xm3
mT- kgxK =-kg"K-"-""^r
dfr = N-m/kcK = J/kgK
...(. lN-m= lJ)
2.
The value of gas constant (R) is different for different gases. In S.I. units, its value for atmospheric
air is taken 287 lkg K or 0.287 kJlkg K.
J. The equationpo = m RT may also be expressed in another form i.e.,

e=tp7=pRr "'['u t=o]

...[. ')
where p (rho) is the density ofthe given gas.
Example 2.2. A vessel of eapacity 3 m3 contains air qt a pressure of 1.5 bar and a
temperatute of 2f C. Addltional ailis naw pumped into the system until thepressure rises ta 30 bar
and temperature i"ises to 6f C. Determine-the mass of air pimped in and express the quantity as a
volume at a pressure of 1.02 bar and a lemperature of 2f C.
If the vessel is allowed to eool until the temperature is again 25o C, calculate the pressure in
the vessel.
Solution. Given i zr,=Jrn3. pt=l.sbar=0. l5x l06N/m2; Tt=25oC=25+273
=298Ki pz = 30bar = 3x lffN/m2; Tz= 6ffC = 60 +273 = 333K; pz.= l.}2bar
=0.102 x 106N/m2 iTz = 20o C.= 20 +273 = 293K
.1ltt.;: tt/ rtit' 1trt21t11l 11

Let u r= Mass of air initially filled in the vessel, and

ra2 ; Mass of air in the vessel after pumping.

Weknowthat ptat = mrRT,

n,=o#=t##Sf =s.26ks
. . . ( Taking R for air: 287 JkgK)
Similarly, p2u2 = mrRT,

Pzoz 3xlO6y1
mr=fi=fr;t, =94.17k8 ...(:or--o)
 AText Book of Thermal Engineering
34
.'. Mass of air PumPed in'
rn = tnz-ffi: = 94'17 -5'26 = 88'91 kg Ans'
a pressure of l bar and temperature of 20o C
Volume of air pumped in at
'02

I;et t''r = Volume of air PumPed in'

We know that
Pzat = mRTt
mn r, gl.9lx287 x?93
r)i = pi = = 73.3 m3 Ans.
oJo'zx 106

Pressure in the vessel after cooling

Letp+=Pressureinthevesselaftercooling.
cooling'
We klrow that the temperatlre after
Tt=Tr=25oC=298K
volume' therefore
since the cooling is at ;onstant
.PnTn
Pz' T2'

>1?f 106
^ - lr!T2 = = 2.68x ld N/m2 = 26.8bar
298 Ans'
Pr'- 333'
ttilt
d air p'wrqed o*' If the
ExampleZ.3.Asphericalvesset^gftsmdiamcter,conteutngair''at4ffCisevaalatec.
nmtiT.Tiiilia':tii'.futi
ilre vacuwn inside the ii{ul u""o,^",
T3i
tank ts ttwn aotpd ta,,F"f i{iit,,.; ;i:ii'ite fi i'Ttii i" *":a* f r"*' altnwtwrrc rresfy'11

as 760 rnm of HS'

273=313K i P'=735 nrmof Hg;
Solution. Given : d=1.5 m ; Tr= 40oC=40+
mm of Hg
T- = C = 3 +213 -= 276K; Pr = 1ffi
J
3o

'
Mass of air PumPed out
Led 'm = Mass of air PumPed out'
mass of air (rn) in a vessel. We know that volume of a
First of all, let us find out the initial
spherical vessel,
7r(1't3
nr= n&
6 = t =l'767m3

We know that Prat - mrR Tt

Prar Q60x133.3t !.767

287x313 =
1.993kg
aa
a mr= *rt:
. ( ... 1 mm of Hg = 133.3 N/m2 ; a'd R for air = 287 J/kg K)
*o^forair
evacuation'
Let mz = Mass of air left in the vessel after

we know that pressure after evacuation,

Pz=,Atmosphericpressure-Vacuumpressure
3332.5 N/m2
760
=. = 25 mm of Hg = 25 x 133'3 =
-735
Properties of Perfect Gases 35

mz=Pzaz 3332.5 x 1.767 n

-rr=ffi =0.066kg

...( u2 - al and Tz = Tr)

.'. Mass of air pumped out,

m- mt-*z = 1.993 -0.066 = 1.927 kg Ans.
Final pressure in the tank
Let Pz = Final Pressure in the tank.
Since the cooling is at constant volume, therefore
h Pz
T3= T2
PzTt 3332'5x276
or fu =
T2 = 3t3 = 2g3g N/m2 = 2zmmof Hg Ans.

2.g. Avogadro's Law

It states, " Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal
numbcr of moLecules."
Thus, according to Avogadro's law, I m3 of oxygen (Or) will contain the same number of
molecules as 1 m3 of hydrogen (Hr) when the temperature and pressure is the same. Since the
molecular mass of hydrogen is 2 and that of oxygen is 16, therefore a molecule of oxygen has a mass
which is 32t2 = 16 times the mass of hydrogen molecules. Moreover, as I m3 of these two gases
contain the same number of molecules, and a molecule of oxygen has a mass 16 times than that of
hydrogen molecule, therefore it is evident that density of oxygen is 16 times the density of hydrogen.
Hence, the Avogadro's law indicates that the density of any two gases is diiectly proportional to their
molecular masses, if the gases are at the same temperature and pressure.
The density of oxygen at Normal Temperature and Pressure (briefly written as N.T.P.) i.e. at
0oC and 1.013 bar isl.429 kg/m3.
.'. Specific volume (of 1 kg) of oxygen at N.T.P.,
_

,,.=firrf*, ...[. t*.tocvolume=#*]

and volume of 32 kg (or I kg molecule briefly written as 1 kg-mol)
1

= Thx32 = 22.4m3

Similarly, it can be proved that the volume of 1 kg mol of any gas at N.T.P. is 22.4 rfi .
Note : I g-mole (molecular mass expressed in gram) of all gases occupies a volume of 22Alires at N.T.P.
The values of molecular mass for some common gases are given in the following table :
Table 2.1. Molecular rnass for some common gases.

S.No. Gas Molecular S.No. Gas Molecular

MASS MASS

I Hydrogen (H2) ) 5 Carbon dioxibe (COz) 44

2 Oxygen (Or) 32 6 Mettrane (CH4) t6
3 Nitrogen (Nz) 28 7 Acetylene (C2H2) 26
4 Carbon monoxide (CO) 28 8 Sulphur dioxide (SOr) 64
36 A Text Book of Thermal Engineering

2.10. Universal Gas Constant or Molar Constant

'1p1te universal gas constant or molar constant (generally denoted by Rr) of a gas is the product
of the gas constant and the molecular mass of the gas. Mathematically,
Ru= MR
where M= Molecular mass of the gas expressed in kg-mole, and
R= Gas constant.

In general, if M t, Mz, M, etc. are the molecular masses of different gases and Rl, R2, Rl etc'

are their gas constants respectively, then

MtRt=MzRz=MtRt=""=Ru
Notes : 1. The value of R, is same for all gases,
2. h S.I. unis, the value of fi, is taken as 8314 J/kg-mol K or 8.314 kJ/kg-mol K'
3. Ttre characteristic gas equation (i.e. p o = R ?) may be written in t€rms of molecular mass zts :

pa = MRT
Example 2.4 .
A mws of 2.25 f.g af nitrogen occupving !.! nr n \l1edfymz! C n 2W C
at a constcu$volurne. Colculate the initialmidfinal pressurcs of thc'yat:Take'univertQl sas:cotustant :
ns,siX|iht n moleiewlar i'af:nittpsinig2S'' ' . '' +
Solution. Given: m = 2.25kg: ?,r = 1.5m3; Tt = 25oC = 25+273 = 298K;
Tz= 20UC = 200+273 = 473K: Ru= 8314J/kgmolK; M = 28
We know that gas constant,

n=&=8314=2g7
=fr= 2g = zvt JlkgK
Initial pressure ofthe gas

Let pr = Initial pressure of the gas'

We know that
Ptar = mRTl
2.25 x297 x298
Pt ='Yf'ri = = 0. 133 x 106 N/rn2 = 1.33 bar Ans.
"' AL 1.5

Final pressure of the gas

Let pz = Final Pressure of the gas.
Since the volume is constant, therefore

- Pz s1 Pz=
Pr ^ - PrTz - 1'33x473
2g8
= 2.ll bar Ans.
'r= " 't
Exqptc 2.5 . Nitrogen is to be snred at presswe I,{0 bar, tewpe.ratule 2T C in a steel llask
of 0 05 nf vofume. Theftatkii to iu proteued asaiwtW+ui*,f1ey*rbyufusible. plug whdhwiLl

. r. How o*ry t iot-*;"r;,niulri"lt^*n w ot*'itisnedtondtitbns ?Take molecular

Z. Atwhat tempereture ffiustth"f*iOt" pWnekinordternttnl,t thenfgsswreal*eYuttltas*

to,d lryimum. ot' I,ffi: ba,tr.';,,?
tr:l:l,.i1:.: :1.:: :.:rrt:_:: t:.lr :
I I I :: ::it::rr:li::rr :.::::.:: :i: ::r:::
 Properties qf Pefect Gases
3'7

Solution. Given :p, = MA bar = 14x 106 N/mz; 7't = 27oC = 27+273 = 300K;
ut = 0.05m3;M=28
I. Mass of'nitrr)gen
Let m = Mass of nitrogen in kg which the flask will holct"
We know that gas constant,

t\ = Universalgasconstant _ & : 8q&

nrasr = M :- 28
R 29'7 J/kg K
Molecular
. . . (R, for all grues = 8314 J/kg K)
We also know that
Pt al

Ptat 14x106x0.05
lll =
RTt =
297 x 300
= 7.t16 kg Ans.
2. Melting temperature oJ fusibte plug
Irt Tz = Meltingtemperatureoffusibleplug, and

p2 = Maximumpressure = 168 bar = 16.8 x ldN/m2 . . . (Given)

Since the gas is heated at constant volume, therefore

Pl- Pz
Tt 7"2

m
,- PzT, 16.8x106x300
T,
L
Pt 14 x 106
= 360 K = FiTo (-' Ans,

2.17. Specific Heats of a Gas

The specific heat ofa substance may be broadly defined as the amount ofheat required to raise
the temperature of its unit mass through one clegree. All the liquids and solids h4ue one specific
heat
only. But a gas can have any number of specific heats (lying between zero and infinityj depending
upon the conditions, under which it is heated. The following two types of specific heats-of a gas
are
important fiom the subject point cif view :
I . Specific heat at constant volume, and 2. Specific heat at constant pressure.
These specific heats are discussed, in detail, as follows :
2.1.2, Specific Heat at Constant Volume
It is the arnount of heat required to raise the ternperature of a unit mass of gas through one
degree when it is heated at a constant volume. trt is generally
denoted b,v c, . Fixed

Consicler a gas contained in a container with a fixed lid as

shown in Fig. 2 I Now, if this gas is heated, ir will increase the
te,mperature and pre$isure ot'the gils in the container. Since the lid
'W,fd,
of the container is f ixed. thereftxe the volr:me of gas remains
unchanged.
[,et t?t :': Mass of tlre gits"
'f't :: Initial ternperaturc of the gas,
and
T-; = F'inal ternperature of the gas.
Fig. 2.1 l-leat being supplied ar
constanf volumlc.
38 AText BookofThermal Engineering

.'. Total heat supplied to the gas at constant volume,

Qvz = Mass x Sp. heatat constant volume x Risd in rcmperature

= mca(Tz-T)
It may be noted that whenever constant volume, no work is done by the gas.*
a gas is heated at
ihe whole hLat energy is utilised in increasing the temperature and pressure of the gas. In other words,
all the amount of heat supplied remains within the body of the gas, and represents the increase in
intemal energy of the gas.
2.13. Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a gas through one
degree, when it is heated at constant pressure. It is generally denoted

ffi
bvc
up
Consider a giu contained in a container with a movable lid
as shown in Fig. 2.2. Now if this gas is heated, it will increase the
temperature and pressure of the gas in the container. Since the lid of
the container is mcvable, therefore it will move upwards, in order
to Counterbalance the tendency for pressure to rise.
I-,et m = Mass of the gs,
Tr = Initialternperature of the gas,
v | = Initial volume of the gffi, and Fig. 2.2.Yleat being suPPlied at
constant Pressure.
T, zt, = CorresPonding values for the
final condition, of the gas.
.'. Total heat supplied to the gas, at constant pressure,
o* -T,?rtrir:rr:""
at consrang pressure x Rise in temperature

Whenever a gas is heated at a constant pressure, the heat supplied to tle gas is utilised for the
following two purposes :
l. To raise the temperature of the gas. This heat remains within the body of the gas, and
represents the increase in interngl energy Mathematically, increase in internal energy'
dU = mca 1fr-r)'
2. To do some external work during expansion. Mathematically, workdone by the gas,
Wr-z= p(az-u) = mRlfr-Tt)
It is thus obvious, that'the specific heat at constant pressure is higher than the specific heat at
constant volume.
From above, we may write as

Qr-, - dU * Wp2 or **Qr-z- Wr-, = dU . . . (First Law of Thermodynamics)

We know-that workdone bY the gas,

W - pda = p (ur-a)
where p = Pressure of' the gas, and
rlu - Change in volume = az-ut
When there is no change in volume, then dz; = 0. Therefore W =O-

R.ef er Art. 1.49, note 2 equation (iv)

 Propertie,s rlf' Perfbct Gases
39
2.14. Enthalpy of a Gas
In thermodynamics, one of the basic quantities most fiequently recurring is the s,on of the
internal energy ({4 and the pniduct of pressure and volume p J). rrris sum
t tr'uip u; is termJ as
enthalpy and is written as H. Mathematically,
Enthalpy, H = U+pa
Since (u + p a) is made up entirely ofproperties, therefore enthalpy (ri) is also a property.
For a unit mass, specific enthalpy,
h = u*pu,
where u= Specific internal energy, and
ar = Specific volume.
Note. We know that Qtz = dU + Wvz = dU + p du
. When gas is healed at constant pressure from an initial condition
intemal energy,
I to a final condition 2, then change in

dU = Uz-Ut
and workdone by the gas,

Wrz=pfu-p(ar-v1)
:, Qrz = (Uz- Ur) + p (az- a)

= (Uz+par)-(Ur+por) = Hr-H,
and for a unit mass, Qrz = hr- ht
Thus, for a constant pr€ssure process, the heat supplied to the gas is equal to ttre change
of enthalpy.
2.I5. Molar Specific Heats of a Gas
The molar or volumetric specific heat of a gas may be defined as the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mole of gas through one degree. Mathematically,
molar specific heat,
c^= Mc
where M= Molecular mass of the gas.
- In the similar way as discussed ifi Art. 2.I l, the molar specific heat at constant volume,
cr^ = Mbo
and molar specific heat at constant pressure,
cP^=Mco
Example 2.6. A closed vessel contains 2 kg of carban dioxide, at temperature 2f
C and
pressure 0.7 bar' Heat is supplied n the vessel titt thi gis acqrtr"t
n jiioup
oj t.+ u,or. iotritot, ,
l. Final temperature ; 2. Work done on or by the sai ; 3. Heat adiea ; ana i. e*;;rli'ii'r*"t
energy. Take specific heat'of the gas ot constant roT*r" as 0.657 kykg h.
Solutionr. Given : m = 2kg ; fr =20o C =20 +273 =293K ;pl =0.7 bar ; pz= l.4bar
I. [,'inrtl temper(rtLtra
Let Tz
,= Final temperature.
Since the gas is heated in a close{ vessel, therefore the volume of.gas will remain constent.
!L'= Pz- \ .,
1

We know that
Tt Tz
 ,\'l'a.rl IJrtrtk rfi' Tlrc t'tttul I"tr,qi rtt' t' r'i rt,q
40

PzTt 1.4 x 293

| ,,-'!.1
c.oA*213 3" (l
= .1I 13"(l Ans.
'r..
"r
'2 = 586K - 586 1

pt 0.7

2. Wrtrklonc on or bv the gas

by the gas ( !V,-r) is 4st'6 ' /\tts'
Since there is no change in volume, therefore workdone ort or
.\. Ht'ttt trtltlul
We know that heat added at constant volume,
Q,_z=mc,,(72-I,)=2x0'657(586_293)=3lJ.5k.I.Ans.
4. Cltunge in internrtl ancrg\'
Let dU = Change in internal energY
We know that Qr-, = W r-r+ dU
,du = Q,_, = 3ti5 kJ Ans.
2 httr' 6ff' C to I
Exampte 2.7. A *Y! o{ 9?5 \c of ?ir in a closed svsteyt^gl!(!.,front ,bar
and 4P C while receiviii t .OOi W o7 ieat lrom a reservoir at I W 9.
The surroundin{
,almo:phere
i',, o.gi u"i and 2T Cl Determine- the maximum wark. How much of thk wark woald be dane on
the atmosphere ?
Solution. Given: m = 0.25kgipr = 2bat = 0.2x l06N/m2i7r = 60"C = 60+2'73
= 333K i pz= lbar = 0.lxl06N/m2; Tz= 4ffC = 40+273 =
3l3K; O = l.005kJ;
*Tn t(X)o C';.p = 0.95bar.= 0.095xldN/m2; *T = 2TC
=
M aximum Wttrkrlone
(ur) of air. we know
First of all, let ds find the values of initial volume (u,) and final volume
ttr'at
MRT
Ur
,
I
"'(' Wt = n:';RT)
PI
0. 25 x 281 x 333
ll9m3 . (Taking R = 287 J/kg K)
= 0.
0.2 x 106

mRT2 0.25x287 x3l3-:_ o'224 m3

Similarly L=
7)", =
Pz o' l x 106
.'. Workdone on the atmosPhere,
' Wt = p?tz-u,) = 0.095 x Kf (0.224 -0'l19) = 9975 J= 9'97-5 kJ

We know that change of internal energy,

dU = m cu(72-7,) = O'25x0J12(313-333) = - 3'56kJ

. . . (Taking c,, = 0.712 kJ/kg K)

energy'
The-ve sign shows that there is adecrease of-internal
Networkdone, Wz= Q-dlJ = I.005-(-3'56) = 4'565kJ
.'. Maximum workdone,
= 14'54 kJ Ans'
W = Wr*Wz = 9'975+4'565

Superfluous data
Properties of Perfect Gases 4l
Workdone on the atmosphere
We have calculated above that the workdone on the atmosphere,
W, =9.975 kJ Ans.
Example 2.E. 3 kg af m ideat sas is expanded lram a prestyrc 7 bar and wlom" 1.s n
is specific ^3 at
heat
a pressure L4 bar and volume 4.5 nf . The cha;nge in intemal:eneifgy 525 kJ. The'
constailt volumc for th,e gas ip 1,04V,kJ/kg'K.'Calxulste : I. Gas constqnt ; 2. ClwnSe in enthaW ;
and 3. Initial and.final temperatares
Solution. Given : m = 3.kg i pr = 7 bar = A.7 x 106 N/mz i ar = 1.5 m3 i Pz.= 1.4 bar
0. l4 x 106 N/nrz ; r,z= 4.5 m3 ; dU = 525 kJ ; co= r.U7 kJ/kg K
Gas constant

Let R = Gas constant,

T, and T, = Initial and final temperatures.
Weknowthat ptat = mRTl

.'. tl rt yt't 0'7 x 106 x 1'l x 106 (t)

= = 3
= 0.35

Pzuz qJ4 * xJ.I

Similarly R T, = tnt = LOt
3
= g.zlx 106 (ii)

Subtracting equation (tt) from equation (i),

R (Zr -Tr) = (0.35 -0.21) lff = 0. 14 x 106 (iii)
We also know that change in internal energy
dU = ffi c, (Tz- T)
Since during expansion,. there is a decrease in intemal energy, therefore the change in intemal
energy is *negative.

-525 = 3x1.047 (Tr'Tr) = -3.141 1fr-Tr)

Tl -72 i 525 I 3.141 = 167 .14 (iv)

Dividing equation (iii) by equation (lv), we get

R = A.ru x 106/1 67.14 - 838 J/kg K - 0.838 kJ/ kg K Ans.
2. Change in enthalpy
First of all, let us find the value of specific heat at consiant pressure (c/. We know that
cp-co = R or cp = R+c, = 0.838 +I.047 = 1'885kJ/kgK
change in enthalpy'
"' 161 1L\= -945 kJ Ans.
- 3x
dH = mcr(72-Tr) = 1 Rr< 1*
? w 1.885 erc/J4)
The -ve sign indicates that there is a decease in enthalpy.

We may also say as follows : '

From equation (iii), we see that R (Tr - Tr) is a positive equation. This shdws that ?, is greater than 12,
because R is always positive. Thus there is a decrease is intemal energy or.1he change in intemal enbrgy is
negative (i.e. dU = - 525 kJ).
42 A Text Book o.f'Thermal Engineering
3.I nitial and .f'inal temperatures

From equation (i), we find that initial temperature,

o.35xld _ 0.35x106 4l7K
'r _
,.
R 838
= Ans.

and from equation (iv), final temperature,

Tz = Tt - 167 .14 = 417 - 167 .14 = 249.86 K Ans.
2.16. Regnault's Law
This law states, "The two speciJic heats of a gas (i.e. the specific heat at consffint pressufe, c,
and specffic heat at constant volume, c) do not clwnge with the change in pressure and temperature
of the gas."
2.17. Relation between Specific Heats
Consider a gas enclosed in a container and being heated, at a constant pressure, from the initial
state I to the final state 2.
m = Mass of the gas,
T
I Initial temperature of the gas,
Tz = Final temperature rlf the gas,
u | = Initial volume of the gas,
7)z = Final volume of the gas,
c, = Specificheat at constant pressurc,
c, = Specificheat atconstant volume, and
p= Constantpressure.
We know that the heat supplied to the gas at constant preSsure,
Qvz = m cn(Tr-T)
As already discussed, a part of this heat is utilised in doing the extemal work, and the rest
remains within the gas, and is used in increasing the internal energy of the gas.
.'. Heat utilised for external work,
Wr-, = p(uz-a) ...(,)
and increase in internal energy, dU = ffi co(Tz- T) ...(i,)
We know that . . . (iii)

.'. *ro(Tz-T) - p(uz-a)+fficr(Tz-T) ...(iv)

Using characteristic gas equation (i.e. p a= m R O, we have
pat = mRTl . (for initial conditions)
I

and paz= mRTz .. (for final conditions)

"' P(ar-a) = mR(72-T)

Now substituting the value of p (uz- ut) in equation (iu),
m c,, (Tz- Tt) ? m R (Tz- rrl * ffi c, (72- T)
... C = R+C, Of (.
1,_(t, (v)
Properties of Perfect Gases 43

The above equation may be rewritten as :

cp-cr=R or co1-1)=R ...(where yl'- =

"'IvYt'vrv
1l
tr)

R
"u
tn = ..,(vi)
(y- l)
Notes. 1. The equation (v) gives an important result, as it proves that characteristic constant of a gas (R) is
equal to the difference of its two specific heats (i.e. co- cr).
2. Thevalue of R is taken as287 JkgK or 0.287 kJ/kg K'
3. In terms of molar specific heats, the equation (v) may be written as
c*- co^ = Ru

where Ru is the universal gas constant and its valud is'taken 8314 J/kg K or 8.314 kJ/kg K.

2.18. Ratio of Specific Heats

The ratig of two specific heats (i.e. c/cr) of a gas is an important constant in the field of
Thermodynamics and is represented by a Greek letter gamma (y). It is also know-n as adiabatieindex.
Since co is always greater than cr, the value.of l is always greater than unity.
We have seen in Art.2.I7 that
cp-co- R or cr= co+R
Dividing both sides by cr,

2= r+{
ca cu
or Y = t+L
The values of co, caandy for some common gases are given below :

Table 2,2. Values af c, and cr"for some common gases.

ir. r'

, .. |-Cp,:,,', i.,,.C0,,,t,,..'',,' ''ar!... , ': vD

nl
$No. Naned$ ';.t,,,

':'-,, ,ffJ
it'-, .',

,,
,,'.i'.
t,t
,
VJFF
fCu

l. "1'0Eq '.O;72O' I. ,

i ,:: , :-rr:tr.r::t:t-: t:.:, l

0.$ '0.,6 tlr];2,

:::]:'il:j':1::

',,0' ,13' ,0.653, 1.39

. : :: l:.:: .r .tr:. l::. : rrr'r :r :

.r.043 o '45 1i
t'l';692
'll l'. .:ll

,'T;til',7, 1.i29
--lrW ?.' I ,

14ffi l,CI'.133 t'.40

xff
::,;,,.11. ' ,

'$;5''23 'o.
't:rr.l: .t . .:.

ffi,
r r.!l

.,5 '$.i'l
l'.:!]l:]':l'::]l'1]

,,,2'169, ,:,.'l'fifi$$, lt . ,'

..
. noupta2,,9. Onekg,ofaryfectgasoccupiesatvolameS6,ssnlalYCildqr6co,rsant
pressqre af I d*. nn Sq X lri;t lre*ed al a consnnt wlum1 and tlen at a conEtan! preswrd Fird
the specifu heat at. constar* volume and con*tunt pressure of thi gas' T(rke.^t = 1.4. 'i' ' i ,.

Solution. Given : m = I kg; u = 0.85 m3 ; ? = 15o C = 15 + 273 = 288 K ; p = I bar

=0.1x 106N/m2;y = c|lco = 1.4
44 A Text Book of Thermal Engineering
Specrfic heat of gas at constant volume
Let c, = Specific heat of gas at constant vohrme, and
R = Characteristic gas constant.
We know that
pa = mRT
p:_ 0. Ix x 0"85
106
,'.R= MT 1x288
= 295 Jlkg K = 0.295 kJlkg K
We also know that

, = -4=
-u 9'?95. = 0.7375kJ/ksK Ans.
y_l = 1,4_l
Specific heat of gas at constant pressure
We know that specific heat of gas at constant pressure,
cp = l.4co = 1.4x0.7375= 1.0325 kJ/kg K Ans. . ,.( , crlco = 1,41

Exarnple ?JA, A gqs ttlixture obeying'perfect go,s,law has,a moleeular mass of 26.7.
Assuming a mean molar spectfic heat il conslant volume of 2l.I kJ/kg K, determine the values of
cbaracteristie gas constan4 molar speciftc heat at canstant pressure and. tke ratio of specific heats.
Solution.Given: M =26.7 ; cr^=21.1kJ/kg K
Characte ristic g,as constant
We know that characteristic gas constant,

R
Universal gaq re!$tant _ ft,, 9.311 0.31 [4 kJikg K Ans.
Molecular mass M 26.7

(. R,, for all gases = 8 .314 kJ / kg K)

Molar specilic heat at constant pressure

Let c.^.^.
pttl = Molar specific
r heat at constant pressure.

We know that
cprr- cu,n I R, ot ,r* = Rr* co^ = 8.314 + 2l.l = 29.414 kJ/kg K Ans.

Ratio of specffic heats

We know that ratio of specific heats,
'y
t = lzt
2?.!14
,o,n= 2l.l = r.j94 Ans.

Example 2.11. One kg of ideal gas is heatedfrom 18.3" C ta 93.4" C. Assuming R = 0.264
kftkg Kqnd.T e l.lSforthe,ges,rtnd ::1, Speciftc heats : 2. Clwnge in inte,wal1enis13y'; ond S.,Cha;nge
in enthalpy.
Solution.Given:m=l kg; Tr= 18.3o Q = 18.3 +273 -291"3 K iT, = 93 4nC=93".[+213
=365.4 K ;R = 0.26a kJftg K ;Y= colcu= l.l8
SpeciJic heats
Let ,, = Specific heat at constant pres:rlrc. itttrl
c, = Specific heat at constant voluntr'
 Properties r$' Pert'ect Gases A<
.tJ

We know that c,
R 0.264
Ans.
Y- I 1"18- I
.'. ,o = T cn
=
1.18 x I.47 = 1.73 kJ/kg K Ans.

C'lrunge in internal energy

We know that change in internal energy,
dU = Nncaffz-T) = tr x L47 (366"4 * 29L3) = 110.4 kJ Ans.
Change in enthulpy
We know that change in enthalpy,
dH = in c,tTz- T) = Ix 1 .73 (366.4 -- 291.3) = 130 kJ Ans.
Example 1.12. A gas, ha,ving, tnitial pressurc, volume and tempeirature as 275 Wmz,0-09
mJ and 1854 C respectivety, is compressed at constant pres.sure until its temperature is /5o C.
Calculate the amount af, heat transfen ed and work done during' the prpcess. Take R = 290 JlkS K
and c.. = L005 lcJ/kg K.
It
Solutitlil. Give n :p r= 27 5kN/m2 = 27 5 x l0-r N/rn2 ;at= 0.09 m3 ; Ir = l85o C - 185 +
273 = 158 K ;Tz= l5n C = 15 +2'73 = 288 K;ft = 294 J/kg 1q ; cr, = 1"005 kJlkg K

Anusurtt oJ' heat trrtns.ferre:cl

First of all, let us find the lnass of the gas (nr). We know that

Ptar = mRT,
Ptat 275 x 103x0.09
m= = = 0" 186 kg
Rr' 290 x 458

We know that the amount of heat transferred,

Qvz = mco(T2-T) = 0.186x l'005 (288-458)kJ

= - 31.78 kJ Ans.
The -ve sign indicates that the heat has been extracted from the gas during the process. In
other words, the gas is compressed.
Workdone during the process
Firstofall, letusfindthefinalvolumeof the gas(u2).sincetheprocesstakesplaceatconstant
pressure, therefore
at. a2 vrTz 0.09 x 2gg
ot ur=-T= =--a*-=0.056m3
i=4
We know that the workdone during the proceSs,

Wr+ = p (az- ar) = 275x to; 1o.oso - 0.09) = - 9350 J

= - 9.35 kJ Ans.
The -ve sign indicates the work is done on the gas. In other words, the gas is compressed.
Example2.ll, Acenain gas hat cr* I.% kJlkg Kand.co,,= 1.5 H/kg K. Find its mblecular
mass and gas constant. A constant volumc chamber of 0.3 mi capacity contains 2 kg of this gas at
f C. The heat is transferred to the gas rntil tlw temperature is- C. Find tne ioi*aoni, nea lM
transferred and change in internal energy.
46 AText BookofThermal Engineering
Solution.Given: cp=l.96kJikg K icr= I.SkJ/kg K ;tt=0.3m3 in=2kgl 7r =5oC
= 5+273 = ?il8K l7z= l00oC= 100 +273=373K
Molecular mass ctnd gas constant

Let M = Molecular mass, and

R = Gas constant.
We know that gas constant,
R = ,n-c, = 1.96- 1.5 = 0.46 kJ/kgK

andmolecurarmass, r = l4ffffir*u** = * = W = r8kg Ans.

. . ( . R, for all gases = 8.314 kJ/kg K)
Workdone
Since the volume is constant, therefore workdone (%-r) is zero. Ans. 1

H eat transferred
We know fhat heat transferred,
Qt-, = mcr(72 -Tr) = 2x1.5 (373 -278) = 285 kJ Ans.
Change in internal energy

Let dU = Change in internal energy.

We know that Qr-, = Wr-r+ dU = 0 + dU = dU
dU = Qr-, = 285 kJ Ans.
i Example zti; e vessel'af ,2,,5 nf egpqiy Eglttqras o4e kglrryle af nitroggn a I}e C.
Evaluate' the tpei!fu votwne and pregsure. tf *il' ias is'aoiled u 3tr'C, itilcullue frnhl iresswe,

The ratio of specific heats is 1.4 and one kg-mole nitrogen is 28 kg.
Solution.Given: at=2.5nf ;M = I kg-mole= 28kg;7, = lOf C= 100 +273=373K
Tz=30o C = 30 +273 =303 K; T= c,,lco- 1.4
Specific volume and pressure
Let a, ,= Specitic volume of the gas, and
pr = Pressure of the gas.
We know that specific volume of the gas,
a
= Ir4 =
| 2'5 .'
a'-
n -'=j'''c89 m3/kg Ans.
R.. 14 ?,r
-t
= ^^-
83
R= 297JlkgK ...(.
- =
Gas constant, Ru=8314J/kgmolK)
^
We know that Ptat = MRTt
M R T, 28 xZgT x373
'
,t. Pt = ,- = 2s = 1.24x 106 N/m2

= 12.4 bar Ans. .. ( .' I bar = Q.l x 106 N/m2;

f
Properties o.f Per./ect Gases 47

F'inal pre s^ture, change in speciJ'ic internal energy and specrfic enthalpy
Let pz = Final pressure of the gas. :

Pr ar Pzaz Pr Pz
We know that
,t = ,, or \ = \ "'("'T)l = vr)

nz = PYr' = l2'4 x ?03- .,ro.o7 bar Ans.

-
r-
Tt 373

Now, let us find out the values ofspecific heat at constant pressure (c/ and specific heat at
constant volume (cr).

We know that , -
t,
c, = R

I .4 co- cu = 297 ...(. ,,rlrr, = 1.4)

aa ca = 29710.4 = 742.5 J/kg = 0.7425kJlkg K
ancl c,,= 1.4 cr, = 1.4 x 0.7425 = I 04 kJ/kg K
We know that change in specific internal energy,
du = c,qr-Tr) = 0.7425 (303-373) = --52kJ/kg Ans._

The -ve sign indicates that the specific internal energy is reduced after the gas is cooled.
We also know that change in specific enthalpy,
' dh = cn(72- Z,) = 1.04 (303 - 373) =- 72.8 kJ/kg Ans.

The -ve sign indicates that the specific enthalpy is reduced after the gas is cooled.
EXERCISES
I .
Determine the final pressure of a gas when 2 m3 of gas at 6 bar is heated by keeping the temperature
constdnt. The final volume is 6 m3. lAns. 2 barl
2. A certain quantity of air is cooled at a constant pressure from 300 K to 280 K. If the initial volume
of the air is 0.15 m3, tind by how much the volume will diminish ? tAns.0.0l mrl
l. A gas at a temperature of 333" C and 20 bar has a volume of 0.06 m3. It is expanded to a volume
of 0.54 m'. Determine the final pressure of the gas if the temperature of the gas after expanrt""
iill, f,, o"r,
4. A gas at a temperature of 20n C and pressure of 1.5 bar occupies a volume of 0.105 m3. If the gas
is compressed to a pressure of 7.5 bar and volume of 0.04 m3, what will be the final temperature of the gas ?
lAns. 285" C]
5. A cylintler contains 3 kg of air at a pressure of 300 bar and a temperature of 27o C. Find the volume
of air occupied by the gas. Assume R for air iAZ lftg f. tAns. 0.0086 m3l
6. A vessel of capacity 5
^
kg of an ideal gas having a molecular mass of 25. If the
m3 contains 20
temperature of the gas is 15" C, find its pressure. [Ans. 3.83 barl

I --
l- R. R?r4 I
L
HinL R =
fi = T = 332.5QIkg K ( .' & for an ideal gas
-l
= 83l4Jftg K) |

7. Acertaingasoccupies0.l5 m3atatemperatureof 20nCandapressureof l,2bar.If ttregashas

mass of 200 g, calculate (i) value of gas'constant, and (ii) molecular mass of the gasrAns.
307.2 JkgK;.27.o6l
8. A certain gas has cp=1.96 kJ/kg K and co = 1.5 kJ/kg K. Eind its molecular mass and the gas
constant. The universal gas constant is 8.315 kJ/kg K. [Ans. l8 ; 0.46 kJ/kg Kl
9. The volume of air at a pressure of 5 bar and 47n C is 0,5 m3, Calculate the mass of the air, if the
specitic heats at constant pressure and volume are I kJ/kg K and 0.72 kJ/kg K respectively, [Ans. 2.8 kg]
48 A'lext Book of Thermrtl Engineering
10. The heated ninogen gas expands from 0.2 m3 to 0.85 m3 in a quasi-static process at a constant
I
pressure of 1000 kPa. For kg mass of gas, determine the amount of workdone. by the_gas.and the..final
temperature. R = 296.8 J/kg K, ior nitrogen. l-Ans' 650 kJ , 286:l ilu K I

I tr. The gas constant for atmospheric air is 0.287 kJ/kg K and the specific heat at constant volume is
0.713 Hkg K. Find the specific heat at constant pressure and the ratio of specific heats.
lzlns. I ir.ilkg K . l.40.ll
!2. A certain quantity of gas occupies 0.14 m3 at 12.6 bar and 100o C. Calculate the change in internal
energy if the gas is heated to a temperature of 300n C' Take cr-- I Hlkg K and co = O.72kIkgK'
lAtts" 24.'i k.i i
13. The temperature of 3.5 kg of gas is raised from 95n C to 225" C at a constant pressure. Find the
amount of heat supplied to the gas and the amount of the external workdone. The specific heats at constant
pressure and volumi are I kJ/kgk and 0.72 kJ/kg K respectively' [Ans' 455 k'l ; I 2'i 4 kJ I
14. An ideal gas 0.9 kg having gas constant 281 J/rg K is heated at constant pressure of 8 bar from
30n C to 200n C. If the specific heat at constant volume is 0.72 kJ/kg K, find l. specific heat at constant pressure,
2. total heat supplied to the gas, 3. increase in intemal energy, and 4' workdone i1 9xpa1si91, . - . "
[Ans. 1.007 kJ/kg K ; 154.1 kJ ; I l0.l(rki ;43.9'1 kJl
1,5. One kg mole of nitrogen (molecular mass = 28) is contained in a vessel of volume 2.5 m3 at 100"
C. L Evaluate the mass, the pressure and the specific volume of ttre gas ;2.|f the ratio of specific heats is L4,
evaluate c, and cr. 3. If the gas cools to the atmospheric temperature of 30' C, evaluate the f inal pressure of the
gas.4. Find the increase in specific intemal energy and the increase in ryeqi-fic e-n{glpy. -_ . _ -
()7 bar : 52 kJ/kg. '/2.u k.l/kil l
IAns. 28 kg, 12.4 6ar, O.(]tlg mr,ftg ; l J)4 kJ/ktj K,0.1425 k.l/kg K ; l0

QIiESI'I()NS
l, What is a perfect gas ? Under what conditions does a real gas behave as a perfect gas?
2" Name the variables which control the physical properties of a perfect gas.
3. State Boyle's law and Charles' law and prove that the characteristic gas equation is
p,a = mRT.
.1. What is the difference between universal gas constant and characteristic gas constant ?
5. Define the specific heat at constant volume and at constant pressure.
6. What do you understand by enthalpy ? Show that for a constant pressure process, the heat
supplied to the gas is equal to the change ofenthalpy.
7. Prove that the difference between two specific heats (cn and cr) is equal to characteristic
gas constant (R).
l]' What is an adiabatic index ? Why its value is always greater than unity ?

OB.IECTM TYPE QUESTIONS

I, If the temperature remains constant, the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure. This is known as
(a) Charles' law (b) Boyle's law (c) Joule's law (d) Gay-Lussacos law
2. The state of a substance whose evaporation from its liquid state is complete, is known as

(a) steam vapour

(b) (c) air (d) perfect gas
3. The characteristic equation of a gas is
1
(a) pa =constant (b) pa = mR (c) po = mRT (d) pa = RT n
where p, 'u,T andm = Pressure, volume, temperature and mass of the gas respectively,
andR = Gasconstant.
4. The value of gas constant (R) is
(a) 287 J/kg K (b) 28.7 J/kg K (c) 2.87 J/kg K (O 0.287 J/kg K
It rr t pe rt ic,t rfi' P e rt''ec t G u^s e.s
49

5. The valug of universal gas constant (R,,) is

(a) 8.3t4 J/kg K (b) 83. 14 J/kg K (c) 83 l-.4 J/kg K (d) 8314 J/kg K
6. The gas constant (R) is equai to the ....of two sPecific heats.
(c) surn (b) difference (c) product (d) ratio
7 . The specific heat at constant pressure is . .that of specific heat at constant volume.
(4) equal to (b) less than (c) more than
It. The ratio of specific heat at constant pressure (cr,) and specific heat at constant volume

(c',,) is

(rr) eclual to one (b) less than one (c) more than one (d) none of these
()- The value of c',,/c', for air is
(ct) I (b) t.4 (c) 1.8 @) 2.3
I0. When the gas is heated at constant pressure, then the heat .suPPlied
(a) raises the telttpet'ature of the gas
(b) increases the internal energy of the gas
(c) does some external work during expansion
(r/) both (a) and (b)
(e) both (b) and (c)
ANSWERS
I .'({i} 2::',Id}
:.

'
',
i :r I

3'-.{r}''
:t :t: ,. r:1.:

' :' 4r. (a) ,5. (fi

: :. , ' .,

6. (b) 7': (c) '' 8.'"(e)' , "" t} (1r) 1,0" {e)