 Introduction

For any closed loop industrial control system, there are three steps applying the input
(reference value) ,control the process and feedback (negative feedback) that measuring
the output and applying it back to the input stage. In the measuring stage we need
special devices which can sense changes in the controlled physical quantity such
devices are Sensors.

A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of
energy (usually an electrical and/or digital signal). For example, a pressure sensor
might detect pressure (a mechanical form of energy) and convert it to electricity for
display at a remote gauge.
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal
which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury-in-
glass thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction
of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts
temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all
sensors need to be calibrated against known standards.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile
sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also
innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware.
Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics

Hence, sensor can be defined as a device which receives a signal and converts it
into electrical form which can be further used for electronic devices. A sensor
differs from a transducer in the way that a transducer converts one form of energy
into other form whereas a sensor converts the received signal into electrical
form only
  SENSITIVITY A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output
changes when the measured quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a
thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity
is 1 cm/°C. Sensors that measure very small changes must have very high
sensitivities. Sensors also have an impact on what they measure; for instance, a
room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid
while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors need to be designed to have a
small effect on what is measured, making the sensor smaller often improves this
and may introduce other advantages.

 Classification of Sensors
All sensors may be of two kinds:

a). passive
A passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly
generates an electric signal in response to an external stimulus; that is, the
input stimulus energy is converted by the sensor into the output signal. The
examples are a thermocouple, a photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor.
b). active.
The active sensors require external power for their operation, which is called
an excitation signal. That signal is modified by the sensor to produce the
output signal. For example, a thermistor is a temperature-sensitive resistor. It
does not generate any electric signal, but by passing an electric current
through it (excitation signal), its resistance can be measured by detecting
variations in current and/or voltage across the thermistor. These variations
(presented in ohms) directly relate to temperature through a known function

Types of sensor

1. Temperature Sensors
(a) Oral Temperature
An oral thermometer like the one shown in Figure. Liquid mercury inside of a glass tube
expands and pushes up the scale on the tube as temperature increases. The scale is
calibrated in degrees (ºF— Fahrenheit in this case) of body temperature; therefore, the oral
thermometer converts the physical quantity of temperature into a scale value that humans
can read. The oral thermometer is a temperature sensor with mechanical scale readout.
 Oral Thermometer

(b) Thermocouples
A thermocouple is another common temperature sensor. The thermocouple is a closed tube
system that contains a gas. The gas expands as it is heated and expands a diaphragm at the
end of the tube that is in the gas control module.
The system works as follows: A button on the pilot light gas control module is pressed to
open valve A to initially allow gas to flow to light the pilot light. The expanded diaphragm
of the thermocouple system controls valve A; therefore, the button for the pilot light must be
held until the thermocouple is heated by the pilot light so that the gas expands and expands
the diaphragm. The expanded diaphragm holds valve A open; therefore, the pilot light button
can be released because the pilot light heating the thermocouple keeps the gas expanded.
Since the pilot light is burning, any demand for heat from the thermostat will light the
burners and the house is heated until the demand by the thermostat is met. A thermocouple
that puts out an electrical signal as temperature varies is shown in Figure 2-4. It is
constructed by joining two dissimilar metals. When the junction of the
two metals is heated, it generates a voltage, and the result is a temperature sensor that
generates millivolts of electrical signal directly. The total circuit really includes a cold-
junction reference, but the application uses the earth connection of the package as the cold
reference junction.

Rear view of bimetal strip thermometer

 A bimetal thermocouple

There may be a need to amplify the output signal from the sensor, as shown in Figure 3-5,
because the output voltage amplitude must be increased to a useful level.

A sensor output signal may have to be increased to a useful level by amplification

(c) Thermistor
A thermistor is a resistor whose value varies with temperature. We can use the thermistor in
a voltage divider to produce a varying voltage output or with a transistor to amplify the
current change provided by the thermistor as temperature changes. In some micromachined
thermistors, the resistance at 25ºC is of the order of 10 kΩ.

Thermistor temperature sensor

One of the disadvantages of using a thermistor is that its characteristics with temperature
are not linear. As a result, in order to produce linear outputs, the nonlinearity must be
compensated for.
 (d) Semiconductor P-N Junction Sensors

A semiconductor p-n junction in a diode and a bipolar transistor exhibits quite a strong
thermal dependence. If the forward-biased junction is connected to a constant-current
generator, the resulting voltage becomes a measure of the junction temperature.
A very attractive feature of such a sensor is its high degree of linearity. This allows a
simple method of calibration using just two points to define a slope (sensitivity) and an
intercept.

The current-to-voltage equation of a p-n junction diode can be expressed as

𝑰𝑰
I = 𝑰𝑰 𝑰𝑰𝑰
𝑰𝑰𝑰
Where I0 is the saturation current, which is a strong function of temperature. It can be shown
that the temperature-dependent voltage across the junction can be expressed as

𝑰 = Eg – 2KT (𝑰𝑰 𝑰 − 𝑰𝑰 𝑰)
𝑰 𝑰
Where Eg is the energy band gap for silicon at 0 K (absolute zero), q is the charge of an
electron, and K is a temperature-independent constant.

When the junction is operated under constant-current conditions, the voltage is linearly
related to the temperature

2. Pressure Sensors
Piezoresistive Diaphragm
The physical construction of a pressure sensor includes a fluid or gas under pressure is
contained within a tube the end of which is covered with a thin, flexible diaphragm. As the
pressure increases the diaphragm deflects. The deflection of the diaphragm can be
calibrated to the pressure applied to complete the pressure sensor characteristics.

Using integrated circuit metallization techniques, the thin diaphragm, which changes
resistance as it deflects, is connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit. This provides a very
sensitive, temperature compensated, measuring circuit. RX in the circuit is the thin
diaphragm resistance exposed to pressure. R1, R2, and R3 are similarly micromachined
resistors but they are not exposed to pressure. As temperature changes all the resistors
change in like fashion because they are located very close together on the small
semiconductor surface and have the same temperature coefficient. As a result, the sensor is
temperature compensated. And since the resistors are very close together on the substrate,
and are machined at the same time, they are very uniform in value.
(a). The Wheatstone Bridge

The sensing voltage, VO, is measured across the bridge from point A to point B. VO = 0
when the bridge is balanced and is at its most sensitive measuring point. The circuit is
analyzed as follows:
The voltage from point A to ground is:
VA = RX/ (RX + R3) × V
The voltage from point B to ground is:
VB = R1/ (R1 + R2) × V
When the bridge is balanced, VA = VB and
RX/ (RX + R3) × V = R1/ (R1 + R2) × V
Cancelling V on both sides of the equation,
RX/ (RX + R3) = R1/ (R1 + R2)
and transposing,
RX (R1 + R2) = R1 (RX + R3)
or
RXR2 = R1R3
Because R1RX cancels on each side of the equation.
Therefore,
RX = R3 × R1/R2
At balance, the unknown resistance is equal to R3 times the ratio of R1 to R2. As RX
changes, the bridge will become unbalanced and a voltage, V O, other than zero results. The
voltage, VO, is calibrated to the pressure to complete the sensor characteristics. Pressures
from 0–500 psi (pounds per square inch) can be measured with such a pressure sensor. If R 1,
R2, and R3 all equal 10 kΩ, when RX varies from 10 kΩ to 20 kΩ, the output voltage will be
approximately from 10 mV to 20 mV per 1 kΩ of resistance change.
(b)Capacitive Touch Diaphragm

The capacitive touch diaphragm sensor has the same micromachined structure The deflected
diaphragm is designed to touch against a dielectric layer attached to a metal electrode. It
forms a capacitor and as pressure increases, the capacitance between the diaphragm and the
metal electrode, separated by the dielectric, increases linearly with pressure. The
characteristic curve is shown in. For very extreme operating conditions of aircraft and
automotive applications, there is a capacitive sensor with a ceramic diaphragm that deflects
into a cavity. Its capacitance again increases with pressure.

Capacitive touch pressure sensor

3. Light Sensors
(a) Photoresistor Sensor
A sensor that changes resistance as light is shined on it is made from Cadmium Sulfide
(CdS), a semiconductor that is light sensitive. In the dark with no light shining on it its
resistance is greater than 0.5 MΩ. When 1 foot candlelight shining on it, its resistance is
1700 Ω, and the resistance is reduced to 100 Ω when 100 foot-candles of light shine on it. It
can be used to change resistance values, to provide a sensor with a voltage output, or as a
sensor supplying current to a load.
(b) Solar Cell

The solar cell is again a semiconductor PN junction that is light sensitive. It is made up of an
N-type substrate with a very thin P region over the top surface.
Most of the thin P surface is covered with narrow strips of metal that form the anode of the
PN diode. A whole network of the narrow strips is interconnected on a silicon wafer to
provide increased current output at the PN-junction voltage. The back of the silicon wafer is
coated with metal to form the cathode of the diode. Light shining on the surface of the solar
cell generates a maximum voltage of about 0.55V.
Under load, the average voltage output is approximately 0.5V. A common characteristic
curve of voltage plotted against current is shown in Figure below. Solar cells can be applied
in circuits by paralleling the cells for increased current output, or by connecting the cells in
series for increased voltage output. Individual 2 × 4 cm solar cells are available at
RadioShack that provide 300 mA at 0.55V, or there are enclosed modules that provide up to
6V at 50 mA.

Solar Cell light sensor

4. Position, Displacement sensors
The measurement of position and displacement of physical objects is essential for many
applications: process feedback control, performance evaluation, transportation traffic control,
robotics, and security system.
By position, we mean the determination of the object‘s coordinates (linear or angular)
with respect to a selected reference. Displacement means moving from one position to another
for a specific distance or angle.
Position sensor is often a linear device whose output signal represents a distance to the
object from a certain reference point. Position and displacement sensors are static devices
whose speed response usually is not critical for the performance. we do not cover any sensors
whose response is a function of time, which, by definition, are dynamic sensors.

(a) Potentiometric Sensors

A position or displacement transducer may be built with a linear or rotary potentiometer or a
pot for short. the resistance linearly relates to the wire length. Thus, by making an object to
control the length of the wire, as it is done in a pot, a displacement measurement can be
performed. Because a resistance measurement requires passage of an electric current through
the pot wire, the potentiometric transducer is of an active type; that is, it requires an
excitation signal, (e.g., dc current). A stimulus (displacement) is coupled to the pot wiper,
whose movement causes the resistance change. In most practical circuits, the resistance
measurement is replaced by a measurement of voltage drop. The voltage across the wiper of
a linear pot is proportional to the displacement d:
V= E (d/D)
Where D is the full-scale displacement and E is the voltage across the pot (excitation signal).
This assumes that there is no loading effect from the interface circuit. If there is an
appreciable load, the linear relationship between the wiper position and the output voltage
will not hold. In addition, the output signal is proportional to the excitation voltage applied
across the sensor. This voltage, if not maintained constant, may be a source of error. For the
low-power applications, high-impedance pots are desirable; however, the loading effect
must be always considered. Thus, a good voltage follower is required.

(A) Potentiometer as a position sensor sensor (B) gravitational fluid level sensor
with a float;
5. Magnetic field sensors

Magnetic sensor definition is a sensor which is used to notice disturbances as

well as changes within a magnetic field such as strength, direction, and flux.

A Hall effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a

magnetic field. Its output voltage is directly proportional to the magnetic
strength through it.

Working principle
In a Hall effect sensor, a thin strip of metal has a current applied along it. In
the presence of a magnetic field, the electrons in the metal strip are deflected
toward one edge, producing a voltage gradient across the short side of the
strip (perpendicular to the feed current). Hall effect sensors have an
advantage over inductive sensor in that, while inductive sensors respond to a
changing magnetic field which induces current in a coil of wire and produces
voltage at its output, Hall effect sensors can detect static (non-changing)
magnetic fields.
In its simplest form, the sensor operates as a analog transducer, directly
returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall
plate can be determined. Using groups of sensors, the relative position of the
magnet can be deduced.
When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act
on the particles and the beam is deflected from a straight path. The flow of
electrons through a conductor form a beam of charged carriers. When an
conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the
electrons, they will be deflected from a straight path. As a consequence, one
plane of the conductor will become negatively charged and the opposite side
will become positively charged. The voltage between these planes is called the
Hall voltage.[2]
When the force on the charged particles from the electric field balances the
force produced by the magnetic field, the separation of them will stop. If the
current is not changing, then the Hall voltage is a measure of the magnetic flux
density. Basically, there are two kinds of Hall effect sensors: linear, which
means the output of voltage linearly depends on magnetic flux density; and
threshold, which means there will be a sharp decrease of output voltage at
each magnetic flux density. This experiment was the one to demonstrate that
there are only negative charges free to move in a conductor. Before this, it
was believed that positive charges move in a current carrying conductor. This
experiment is known as the Hall Experiment.