Lecture Notes ON Disaster Management: Department of Civil Engineering

LECTURE NOTES
ON
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Department of Civil Engineering
Government Polytechnic Boudh

Natural Hazards & Disaster Management
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Objectives of the chapter: Background:

The main objective of this chapter is to The global context:
have a basic understanding of various
Disasters are as old as human history but the
concepts used in Disaster Management.
dramatic increase and the damage caused by
The concepts explained here are: them in the recent past have become a cause
Disaster, Hazard, Vulnerability, Capacity, of national and international concern. Over
Risk and Disaster Management Cycle. the past decade, the number of natural and
Apart from the terminologies, the chapter manmade disasters has climbed inexorably.
also tries to explain various types of From 1994 to 1998, reported disasters
disasters. In standard VIII, IX and X many average was 428 per year but from 1999 to
of you have already been introduced to 2003, this figure went up to an average of 707
some of these concepts. This chapter has disaster events per year showing an increase
been designed to upgrade your of about 60 per cent over the previous years.
knowledge and skill so as to have a better The biggest rise was in countries of low
understanding of natural hazards, human development, which suffered an
disasters and their management. increase of 142 per cent.
The figure 1.1 shows the deadliest disasters
of the decade (1992 – 2001). Drought and
After reading this chapter the students
famine have proved to be the deadliest
and the teachers will be able to have a disasters globally, followed by flood,
basic understanding of the concepts and technological disaster, earthquake, winds-
should be able to differentiate between torm, extreme temperature and others. Global
them with suitable examples. economic loss related to disaster events
average around US $880 billion per year.
Fig : 1.1 World Scenario: Reported Deaths from all

Disasters (1992-2001)
1
Indian scenario: affected millions across the country

leaving behind a trail of heavy loss of life,
The scenario in India is no different from property and livelihood. Table 1.1 shows a
the global context. The super cyclone of list of some of the major disasters that
Orissa (1999), the Gujarat earthquake have caused colossal impact on the
(2001) and the recent Tsunami (2004) community.
Table 1.1 Major disasters in India since 1970
Sl. No Disaster Impact

Cyclone
1 29th October 1971, Orissa Cyclone and tidal waves killed 10,000
people
2 19th November, 1977, Cyclone and tidal waves killed 20,000
Andhra Pradesh people
3 29th and 30th October 1999, Cyclone and tidal waves killed 9,000 and
Orissa 18 million people were affected
Earthquake
4 20th October 1991 Uttarkashi An earthquake of magnitude 6.6 killed
723 people
5 30th September 1993 Latur Approximately 8000 people died and
there was a heavy loss to infrastructure
6 22 May 1997 Jabalpur 39 people dead
7 29th March 1997, Chamoli 100 people dead
8 26th January, 2001, Bhuj, More than 10,000 dead and heavy loss
Gujarat to infrastructure
Landslide
9 July 1991, Assam 300 people killed, heavy loss to roads
and infrastructure
10 August 1993, Nagaland 500 killed and more than 200 houses
destroyed and about 5kms. Road
damaged.
11 18th August 1998, Malpa 210 people killed. Villages were washed
away
Flood
12 1978 Floods in North East India 3,800 people killed and heavy loss to
property.
13 1994 Floods in Assam, More than 2000 people killed and
Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and thousands affected
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Panjab, Uttar Pradesh, Goa,
Kerala and Gujarat
2
While studying about the impact we need to origin to the French word “Desastre” which is
be aware of potential hazards, how, when and a combination of two words ‘des’ meaning
where they are likely to occur, and the bad and ‘aster’ meaning star. Thus the term
problems which may result of an event. In refers to ‘Bad or Evil star’. A disaster can be
India, 59 per cent of the land mass is defined as “A serious disruption in the
susceptible to seismic hazard; 5 per cent of functioning of the community or a society
the total geographical area is prone to floods; causing wide spread material, economic,
8 per cent of the total landmass is prone to social or environmental losses which exceed
cyclones; 70 per cent of the total cultivable the ability of the affected society to cope
area is vulnerable to drought. Apart from this using its own resources”.
the hilly regions are vulnerable to avalanches/
landslides/hailstorms/cloudbursts. Apart from A disaster is a result from the combination
the natural hazards, we need to know about of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient
the other manmade hazards which are capacity or measures to reduce the
frequent and cause huge damage to life and potential chances of risk.
property. It is therefore important that we are
A disaster happens when a hazard impacts
aware of how to cope with their effects.
on the vulnerable population and causes
We have seen the huge loss to life, property damage, casualties and disruption. Fig: 1.2
and infrastructure a disaster can cause but would give a better illustration of what a
let us understand what is a disaster, what disaster is. Any hazard – flood, earthquake or
are the factors that lead to it and its impact. cyclone which is a triggering event along with
greater vulnerability (inadequate access to
What is a Disaster ? resources, sick and old people, lack of
awareness etc) would lead to disaster
Almost everyday, newspapers, radio and causing greater loss to life and property. For
television channels carry reports on disaster example; an earthquake in an uninhabited
striking several parts of the world. But what desert cannot be considered a disaster, no
is a disaster? The term disaster owes its matter how strong the intensities produced.
Fig: 1.2
3
An earthquake is disastrous only when it 1. Natural hazards are hazards which are
affects people, their properties and caused because of natural phenomena
activities. Thus, disaster occurs only when (hazards with meteorological, geological or
hazards and vulnerability meet. But it is also even biological origin). Examples of natural
to be noted that with greater capacity of the hazards are cyclones, tsunamis, earth-quake
individual/community and environment to and volcanic eruption which are exclusively of
face these disasters, the impact of a hazard natural origin. Landslides, floods, drought,
reduces. Therefore, we need to understand fires are socio-natural hazards since their
the three major components namely
causes are both natural and man made. For
hazard, vulnerability and capacity with
example flooding may be caused because of
suitable examples to have a basic
heavy rains, landslide or blocking of drains
understanding of disaster management.
with human waste.
What is a Hazard ? How is it clas- 2. Manmade hazards are hazards which
sified ? are due to human negligence. Manmade
hazards are associated with industries or
Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous energy generation facilities and include
condition or event, that threat or have the explosions, leakage of toxic waste,
potential for causing injury to life or damage pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife etc.
to property or the environment.” The word
‘hazard’ owes its origin to the word‘hasard’ The list of hazards is very long. Many
in old French and ‘az-zahr’ in Arabic occur frequently while others take place
meaning ‘chance’ or ‘luck’. Hazards can be occasionally. However, on the basis of
grouped into two broad categories namely their genesis, they can be categorized as
natural and manmade. follows:
Table 1.2: Various types of hazards
Types Hazards
Geological Hazards 1. Earthquake 4. Landslide
2. Tsunami 5. Dam burst
3. Volcanic eruption 6. Mine Fire
Water & Climatic Hazards 1. Tropical Cyclone 6. Cloudburst
2. Tornado and Hurricane 7. Landslide
3. Floods 8. Heat & Cold wave
4. Drought 9. Snow Avalanche
5. Hailstorm 10. Sea erosion
Environmental Hazards 1. Environmental pollutions 3. Desertification
2. Deforestation 4. Pest Infection
Biological 1. Human / Animal Epidemics 3. Food poisoning
2. Pest attacks 4. Weapons of Mass
Destruction
4
Types Hazards
Chemical, Industrial and 1. Chemical disasters 3. Oil spills/Fires
Nuclear Accidents 2. Industrial disasters 4. Nuclear
Accident related 1. Boat / Road / Train 3. Building collapse
accidents / air crash 4. Electric Accidents
Rural / Urban fires 5. Festival related
Bomb /serial bomb disasters
blasts 6. Mine flooding
2. Forest fires
What is vulnerability ? proximity, location and nature of the hazard.

It also relates to the technical capability of
Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent building and structures to resist the forces
to which a community, structure, services or acting upon them during a hazard event.
geographic area is likely to be damaged or
disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, Figure 1.3 shows the settlements which are
on account of their nature, construction and located in hazardous slopes. Many
proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster landslide and flooding disasters are linked
prone area.” to what you see in the figure 1.3.
Unchecked growth of settlements in unsafe
Vulnerabilities can be categorized into areas exposes the people to the hazard. In
physical and socio-economic vulnerability. case of an earth-quake or landslide the
ground may fail and the houses on the top
Physical Vulnerability: It includes notions of may topple or slide and affect the
who and what may be damaged or destroyed settlements at the lower level even if they
by natural hazard such as earth-quakes or are designed well for earthquake forces.
floods. It is based on the physical condition of
people and elements at risk, such as Socio-economic Vulnerability: The degree to
buildings, infrastructure etc; and their which a population is affected by a hazard
Figure 1.3 : Site after pressures from population growth and urbanization
5
will not merely lie in the physical safe areas and their houses are built with
components of vulnerability but also on stronger materials. However, even when
the socio-economic conditions. The socio- everything is destroyed they have the
economic condition of the people also capacity to cope up with it.
determines the intensity of the impact. For
example, people who are poor and living Hazards are always prevalent, but the
in the sea coast don’t have the money to hazard becomes a disaster only when there
construct strong concrete houses. They is greater vulnerability and less of capacity
are generally at risk and loose their to cope with it. In other words the frequency
shelters when ever there is strong wind or or likelihood of a hazard and the
cyclone. Because of their poverty they too vulnerability of the community increases the
are not able to rebuild their houses. risk of being severely affected.
What is risk ?
What is capacity ?
Capacity can be defined as “resources, Risk is a “measure of the expected losses
means and strengths which exist in due to a hazard event occurring in a given
households and communities and which area over a specific time period. Risk is a
enable them to cope with, withstand, function of the probability of particular
prepare for, prevent, mitigate or quickly hazardous event and the losses each
recover from a disaster”. People’s would cause.” The level of risk depends
capacity can also be taken into account. upon:
Capacities could be:
Nature of the hazard
Physical Capacity: People whose houses
Vulnerability of the elements which
have been destroyed by the cyclone or
are affected
crops have been destroyed by the flood
can salvage things from their homes and Economic value of those elements
from their farms. Some family members
A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’
have skills, which enable them to find
when it is exposed to hazards and is likely
employment if they migrate, either
to be adversely affected by its impact.
temporarily or permanently.
Whenever we discuss ‘disaster
Socio-economic Capacity: In most of the management’ it is basically ‘disaster risk
disasters, people suffer their greatest losses management’. Disaster risk management
in the physical and material realm. Rich includes all measures which reduce
people have the capacity to recover soon disaster related losses of life, property or
because of their wealth. In fact, they are assets by either reducing the hazard or
seldom hit by disasters because they live in vulnerability of the elements at risk.
6
Disaster Risk Reduction can take place in the following ways:

1. Preparedness
This protective process embraces measures which enable governments,
communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with
them effectively. Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans,
the development of warning systems, the maintenance of inventories and the
training of personnel. It may also embrace search and rescue measures as well as
evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk from a recurring disaster.
Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a disaster
event which are aimed at minimising loss of life, disruption of critical services, and
damage when the disaster occurs.
2. Mitigation
Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the
vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore
mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to the
threat. Examples of mitigation measures which are hazard specific include water
management in drought prone areas, relocating people away from the hazard prone
areas and by strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs.
In addition to these physical measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing the
economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters
Disaster Management Cycle community level etc. Such risk reduction

measures taken under this stage are termed
Disaster Risk Management includes sum as mitigation and preparedness activities.
total of all activities, programmes and
measures which can be taken up before, 2. During a disaster (disaster
during and after a disaster with the purpose occurrence).
to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or
recover from its losses. The three key Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and
stages of activities that are taken up within provisions of victims are met and suffering is
disaster risk management are: minimized. Activities taken under this stage
are called emergency response activities.
1. Before a disaster (pre-disaster).
3. After a disaster (post-disaster)
Activities taken to reduce human and
property losses caused by a potential Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with
hazard. For example carrying out aware- a purpose to achieve early recovery and
ness campaigns, strengthening the existing rehabilitation of affected communities,
weak structures, preparation of the disaster immediately after a disaster strikes. These are
management plans at household and called as response and recovery activities.
7
Reference: Are you prepared? Learning from the Great Hanshin-Awaji

Earthquake Disaster - Handbook for Disaster Reduction and Volunteer activities
Figure 1.4 : Disaster Management
In the subsequent chapters we would Times of Disaster. UNESCO and West

view Press, Inc., Colorado.
discuss in detail some of the major hazards
prevalent in our country its causes, impact, 3. Anderson M. Vulnerability to Disaster and
preparedness and mitigation measures that Sustainable Development: A General
need to be taken up. Framework for Assessing Vulnerability.
4. UNDP Disaster Management Training

Reference for further reading: Programme.1992. An Overview of
Disaster Management.
1. Reading materials of 11th Community Based 5. International Federation of Red Crescent
Disaster Risk Management Course, Societies World Disaster Report: Focus on
Bangkok, Thailand July 21 – August 1, 2003. Community resilience.
2. Anderson, M. and P. Woodrow. 1989. Rising 6. http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/lib-

from the Ashes: Development Strategies in terminology
8
Exercise 3) Define risk and suggest two ways

of reducing risk with appropriate
1) Explain with examples the difference
examples.
between hazard, and vulnerability. How
does capacity influence vulnerability? 4) Briefly discuss the Disaster
2) Explain in detail the vulnerability Management Cycle with suitable
profile of our country. examples.
9
Chapter 2
NATURAL HAZARDS - CAUSES,
DISTRIBUTION PATTERN,
CONSEQUENCE, AND MITIGATION
MEASURES
The discussion on various terminologies has kilometers under the sea to 65 kilometers
helped us in having a basic understanding under the continents. The crust is not one
of disaster management. However, each piece but consists of portions called ‘plates’
hazard has its own characteristics. To which vary in size from a few hundred to
understand the significance and implications thousands of kilometers (Fig 2.1.1). The
of various types of hazards we must have a ‘theory of plate tectonics’ holds that the
basic understanding about the nature, plates ride up on the more mobile mantle,
causes and effects of each hazard type and and are driven by some yet unconfirmed
the mitigation measures that need to be mechanisms, perhaps thermal convection
taken up. In this chapter, we would discuss currents. When these plates contact each
the following hazards namely earthquake, other, stress arises in the crust (Fig 2.1.2).
tsunami, landslide, flood, cyclone and
drought that we normally face in our country. These stresses can be classified
according to the type of movement along
the plate’s boundaries:
2.1 Earthquake a) pulling away from each other,
Earthquake is one of the most destructive b) pushing against one another and
natural hazard. They may occur at any time of
c) sliding sideways relative to each other.
the year, day or night, with sudden impact and
little warning. They can destroy buildings and All these movements are associated with
infrastructure in seconds, killing or injuring the earthquakes.
inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the
entire habitation but may de-stabilize the The areas of stress at plate boundaries
government, economy and social structure of which release accumulated energy by
the country. But what is an earthquake? It is slipping or rupturing are known as 'faults'.
the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust
impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is continuously stressed by the movement of
is hardly any warning, making it impossible to the tectonic plates; it eventually reaches a
predict. point of maximum supportable strain. A
rupture then occurs along the fault and the
Cause of Earthquake : rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses
until the strain is relieved. The fault rupture
The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying generates vibration called seismic (from the
thickness ranging from a depth of about 10 Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or
10
Fig. : 2.1.1 : Tectonic Plates
Seven major plates and several minor ones- They move a few inches a year,
riding on semi-molten layers of rock underneath the crust
Fig. : 2.1.2 : Tectonic Plates

11
Table 2.1.1 Different types of plate movement
Plate Motions Examples Illustrations
Divergent - where new The Mid-Atlantic Ridge,

crust is generated as the which splits nearly the entire
plates pull away from Atlantic Ocean north to
each other. south, is probably the best-
known and most-studied
example of a divergent-plate
boundary. The rate of
spreading along the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge averages
about 2.5 centimeters per
year (cm/yr), or 25 km in a
million years. Mid Atlantic Ridge
2. Convergent - where Ring of Fire and The

crust is destroyed as one Himalayan mountain range
plate dives under another. dramatically demonstrates
one of the most visible and
spectacular consequences
of plate tectonics.
3. Transformational - where The San Andreas fault

crust is neither produced slicing through the Carrizo
nor destroyed as the plates Plain in the Temblor Range
slide horizontally past each east of the city of San Luis
other. Obispo
San Andreas fault,

California, U.S.A
12
earthquake) waves, which radiates from  Deep:- 300 to 700 kms from the
the focus in all directions. earth surface

The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and  Medium:- 60 to 300 kms
may be located near the surface or deep 
below it. The point on the surface directly  Shallow: less than 60 kms
above the focus is termed as the 'epicenter'
The deep focus earthquakes are rarely
of the earthquake (see Fig 2.1.3).
destructive because by the time the waves
reach the surface the impact reduces.
Shallow focus earthquakes are more
common and are extremely damaging
because of their proximity to the surface.
Measuring Earthquakes
Earthquakes can be described by the use of
two distinctively different scales of
measurement demonstrating magnitude and
intensity. Earthquake magnitude or amount
Fig 2.1.3 of energy released is determined by the use
of a seismograph’ which is an instrument
General characteristics that continuously records ground vibration.
The scale was developed by a seismologist
Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of named Charles Richter. An earthquake with a
frequencies and velocities. The actual magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale releases
rupture process may last for a few seconds 30 times the energy than one with 6.5
to as long as one minute for a major magnitudes. An earthquake of magnitude 3 is
earthquake. The ground shaking is caused the smallest normally felt by humans. The
by ‘body waves’ and ‘surface wave’. largest earthquake that has been recorded
with this system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and
Body waves (P and S waves) penetrate Chile, 1960).
the body of the earth, vibrating fast. ‘P’
waves travel about 6 kilometers per hour The second type of scale, the earthquake
and ‘S’ waves travel with a speed of 4 intensity scale measures the effects of an
kilometers per hour. earthquake where it occurs. The most widely
used scale of this type was developed in 1902
Surface waves vibrate the ground by Mercalli an Italian seismologist. The scale
horizontally and vertically. These long period was extended and modified to suit the modern
waves cause swaying of tall buildings and times. It is called the Modified Mercalli Scale,
slight waves motion in bodies of water even which expresses the intensity of earthquake
at great distances from the epicenter. effect on people, structure and the earth’s
surface in values from I to XII. With an intensity
Earthquakes can be of three types based of VI and below most of the people can feel the
on the focal depth: shake and there are cracks on the walls,
13
but with an intensity of XII there is general down of communication facilities. The effect
panic with buildings collapsing totally and of an earthquake is diverse. There are large
there is a total disruption in normal life. number of casualties because of the poor
engineering design of the buildings and
Predictability: Although some scientists claim close proximity of the people. About 95 per
ability to predict earthquakes, the methods are cent of the people who are killed or who are
controversial. Accurate and exact predictions affected by the earthquake is because of
of such sudden incidents are still not possible. the building collapse. There is also a huge
loss to the public health system, transport
Typical adverse effects and communication and water supply in the
affected areas.
Physical damage:
Distribution pattern of
Earthquakes in India
India falls quite prominently on the 'Alpine -
Himalayan Belt'. This belt is the line along
which the Indian plate meets the Eurasian
plate. This being a convergent plate, the
Indian plate is thrusting underneath the
Eurasian plate at a speed of 5 cm per year.
The movement gives rise to tremendous
stress which keeps accumulating in the
rocks and is released from time to time in
Fig 2.1.4 shows the adverse effect s of an earthquake the form of earthquakes.
Damage occurs to human settlement,

buildings, structures and infrastructure,
especially bridges, elevated roads,
railways, water towers, pipelines,
electrical generating facilities. Aftershocks
of an earthquake can cause much greater
damage to already weakened structures.
Secondary effects include fires, dam failure Fig 2

and landslides which may block water ways
and also cause flooding. Damage may
occur to facilities using or manufacturing
dangerous materials resulting in possible
chemical spills. There may also be a break
Fig 2.1.5 Fault lines in India
14
Table 2.1.2: List of significant Earthquakes in India
Year Location Magnitude of 6+

1950 Arunachal Pradesh - China Border 8.5
1956 Anjar, Gujarat 7.0
1967 Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5
1975 Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh 6.2
1988 Manipur - Myanmar Boarder 6.6
1988 Bihar - Nepal Border 6.4
1991 Uttarkashi - Uttar Pradesh Hills 6.0
1993 Latur - Maharashtra 6.3
1997 Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 6.0
1999 Chamoli, Uttar Pradesh 6.8
2001 Bhuj, Gujarat 6.9
2005 Muzaffarabad (Pakistan) Impact in 7.4
Jammu & Kashmir
The seismic zoning map of India is divided earthquakes. Much of India lies in zone III.
into four zones namely Zone II, III, IV and New Delhi the capital city of India lie in
V, with zone V shown in red colour in zone IV where as big cities like Mumbai
figure 2.1.6 being most vulnerable to and Chennai are in zone III.
Fig: 2.1.6
15
Possible risk reduction measures: earthquake and preparedness measures.

It can be created through sensitization
Community preparedness: Community and training programme for community,
preparedness is vital for mitigating architects, engineers, builders, masons,
earthquake impact. The most effective teachers, government functionaries
way to save you even in a slightest teachers and students.
shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.
Engineered structures: Buildings need
Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards
to be designed and constructed as per the
has published building codes and guidelines
building by laws to withstand ground
for safe construction of buildings against
shaking. Architectural and engineering
earthquakes. Before the buildings are
inputs need to be put together to improve
constructed the building plans have to be
building design and construction
checked by the Municipality, according to
practices. The soil type needs to be
the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline
analyzed before construction. Building
buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire
structures on soft soil should be avoided.
stations may not be built with earthquake
Buildings on soft soil are more likely to get
safety measures. Their earthquake safety
damaged even if the magnitude of the
needs to be upgraded by retrofitting
earthquake is not strong as shown in
techniques.
Figure 2.1.7. Similar problems persist in
Public education is educating the public the buildings constructed on the river
on causes and characteristics of an banks which have alluvial soil.
Effect of Soil type on ground shaking Essential requirements in a Masonry building

Fig: 2.1.7
16
Web Resources: 2.2 Tsunami

§ www.nicee.org: Website of The National
Information Center of Earthquake
The term Tsunami has been derived from
Engineering (NICEE) hosted at Indian a Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbor'
Institute of Technology Kanpur (IITK) is and nami meaning 'waves'. Tsunamis are
intended to collect and maintain information popularly called tidal waves but they
resources on Earthquake Engineer-ing and
make these available to the interested
actually have nothing to do with the tides.
professionals, researche-rs, academicians These waves which often affect distant
and others with a view to mitigate shores, originate by rapid displacement of
earthquake disasters in India. The host also water from the lake or the sea either by
gives IITK-BMTPC Earthquake Tips.
seismic activity, landslides, volcanic
§ www.imd.ernet.in/section/seismo/static/ eruptions or large meteoroid impacts.
welcome.htm Earthquake Information – What ever the cause may be sea water is
India Meteorological Department, India. displaced with a violent motion and swells
IMD detects and locates earthquakes and
evaluates seismicity in different parts of up, ultimately surging over land with great
the country. destructive power. The effects of a
tsunami can be unnoticeable or even
§ www.bmtpc.org In order to bridge the gap
destructive.
between research and development and
large scale application of new building
material technologies, the erstwhile Causes of a Tsunami
Ministry of Urban Development,
Government of India, had established the The geological movements that cause
Building Materials And Technology
Promotion Council in July 1990.
tsunamis are produced in three major
ways. The most common of these are
§ www.earthquake.usgs.gov Source for fault movements on the sea floor, accom-
science about the Earth, its natural and panied by an earth-quake. They release
living resources, natural hazards, and the
huge amount of energy and have the
environment.
capacity to cross oceans. The degree of
Exercise: movement depends on how fast the
earthquake occurs and how much water is
1. What are earthquakes ? List out displaced. Fig 3.1 shows how an
the causes of an earthquake. earthquake causes tsunami.
2. Differentiate between magnitude The second most common cause of the
and intensity of an earthquake. tsunami is a landslide either occurring under
How are they measured ? water or originating above the sea and then
3. Identify three major mitigation plunging into the water. The largest tsunami
measures to reduce earthquake risk. ever produced by a landslide was in Lituya
17
Fig 2.2.2 Picture of a Tsunami
General Characteristics:
Tsunami differs from ordinary ocean waves,
which are produced by wind blowing over
water. The tsunamis travel much faster than
ordinary waves. Compared to normal wave
speed of 100 kilometers per hour, tsunami
in the deep water of the ocean may travel
the speed of a jet airplane - 800 kilometers
per hour! And yet, in spite of their speed,
tsunami increases the water height only 30-
45cm and often passes unnoticed by ships
at sea.
Fig 3.1 An Earthquake causing Tsunami Contrary to the popular belief, the tsunami is
Bay, Alaska 1958. The massive rock slide not a single giant wave. It is possible for a
tsunami to consist of ten or more waves which
produced a wave that reached a high water
is then termed as 'tsunami wave train'. The
mark of 50 - 150 meters above the shoreline.
waves follow each other 5 to 90 minutes
The third major cause of tsunami is volcanic apart. Tsunami normally causes flooding as a
activity. The flank of a volcano located near huge wall of water enters the main land.
the shore or under water may be uplifted or
depressed similar to the action of a fault, or, Predictability:
the volcano may actually explode. In 1883, There are two distinct types of tsunami
the violent explosion of the famous volcano, warning:
Krakotoa in Indonesia, produced tsunami
a) International tsunami warning
measuring 40 meters which crushed upon
systems and
Java and Sumatra. Over 36,000 people lost
their lives in this tyrant waves. b) Regional warning systems.
18
In 1995 the US National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
began developing the Deep Ocean
Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami
(DART) system. By 2001 six stations had
been deployed in the Pacific Ocean.
Each station consists of a sea bed bottom
pressure recorder (at a depth of about
6000 m) which detects the passage of a
tsunami and transmits the data to a
Fig 2.2.3 Flooding caused by the 2004 Tsunami in surface buoy. The surface buoy then
Tamil Nadu
radios the information to the PTWC.
Tsunamis have occurred in all the oceans In India, the Survey of India maintains a
and in the Mediterranean Sea, but the tide gauge network along the coast of India.
great majority of them have occurred in The gauges are located in major ports as
the Pacific Ocean. Since scientists cannot shown in the figure 2.2.4. The day-to-day
exactly predict earthquakes, they also maintenance of the gauge is carried with
cannot exactly predict when a tsunami will the assistance from authorities of the ports.
be generated.
a) International Tsunami Warning

Systems: Shortly after the Hilo Tsunami
(1946), the Pacific Tsunami Warning
System (PTWS) was developed with its
operational center at the Pacific
Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) near
Honolulu, Hawaii. The PTWC is able to
alert countries several hours before the
tsunami strikes. The warning includes
predicted arrival time at selected coastal
communities where the tsunami could
travel in few hours. A tsunami watch is
issued with subsequent arrival time to
other geographic areas.
Fig. 2.2.4 : Tide gauge network in India
Apart from the tide gauge, tsunami can be
b) Regional Warning Systems usually detected with the help of radars. The 2004
use seismic data about nearby Indian Ocean tsunami, recorded data from
earthquakes to determine if there is four radars and recorded the height of
a possible local threat of a tsunami. tsunami waves two hours after the
Such systems are capable enough earthquake. It should be noted that the
to provide warnings to the general satellites observations of the Indian Ocean
public in less than 15 minutes. tsunami would not have been of any use in
19
delivering warnings, as the data took five Tsunami - A Terror

hours to process and it was pure chance
that the satellites were overhead at that The year 2004 has come to an end.
time. However, in future it is possible that A memorable year it has been. Ups
the space-based observation might play a
and downs and highs and lows in
direct role in tsunami warning.
the past year we have seen. The
Typical adverse effects: year went by smoothly but came to
a crashing end.
Local tsunami events or those less than 30
Nature's fury shattered the life of so many
minutes from the source cause the majority
of damage. The force of the water can raze Broken pieces we are still to mend.
everything in its path. It is normally the Tsunami - a huge tidal wave swept
flooding affect of the tsunami that causes over the life of all. Nature's wrath
major destruction to the human settlements,
spared none Mankind suffered a
roads and infrastructure thereby disrupting
the normal functioning of the society. great fall. Thousands of homes were
destroyed Thousands of lives were
Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major
damage. As the waves withdraw towards taken.
the ocean they sweep out the foundations We have taken nature for granted and
of the buildings, the beaches get a heavy price we have forsaken.
destroyed and the houses carried out to
sea. Damage to ports and airports may
prevent importation of needed food and The aftershocks of the
medical supplies. Apart from the physical disaster We are still enduring.
damage, there is a huge impact on the The ones alive are being given
public health system. Deaths mainly occur help Their pains we are curing.
because of drowning as water inundates
In the history of mankind
homes. Many people get washed away or
crushed by the giant waves and some are This blemish will remain forever.
crushed by the debris, causes. When reminded of this grave calamity
There are very few evidences which show The world will always shiver.
that tsunami flooding has caused large The wounds will take time to heal
scale health problem. This disaster will always remain in our
mind.
Availability of drinking water has always
been a major problem in areas affected by a But we will stand up with a smile
disaster. Sewage pipes may be damaged And walk ahead leaving this terror
causing major sewage disposal problems. behind.
Open wells and other ground water may be Ashwathi Thampi
contaminated by salt water and debris and J.K. Singhania School
sewage. Flooding in the locality may lead to (Standard VIII), Thane
crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and
nets, environmental degradation etc.
20
Distribution pattern of Tsunami in their effectiveness has been questioned, as

India: tsunamis are often higher than the barriers.
For instance, the tsunami which hit the island
Even though India has not faced frequent of Hokkaido on July 12, 1993 created waves
Tsunamis but there is a need to identify the as much as 30m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-
areas that are generally affected by Tsunamis. story building. The port town of Aonae on
The whole of the Indian coastal belt is prone to Hokkaido was completely surrounded by a
Tsunami. Table 2.2.1 shows incidents of tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over
tsunamis that have affected our country. the wall and destroyed all the wood-
Table 2.2.1: History of tsunami’s in India

Date Location Impact
1524 Near Dabhol, Maharashtra Sufficient data not available
02 April 1762 Arakan Coast, Myanmar Sufficient data not available
16 June 1819 Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat Sufficient data not available
31 October 1847 Great Nicobar Island Sufficient data not available
31 December 1881 An earthquake of 7.9 in the Entire east coast of India and
Richter scale in Car Nicobar Andaman & Nicobar Islands;
Island 1m tsunamis were recorded at
Chennai.
26 August 1883 Explosion of the Krakatoa volcano East coast of India was affected;
in Indonesian. 2m tsunamis were recorded at
Chennai.
26 June 1941 An 8.1 Richter scale earthquake in East coast of India was affected
the Andaman archipelago. but no estimates of height of the
tsunami is available
27 November 1945 An 8.5 Richter scale earthquake at West coast of India from north to
a distance of about 100km south Karwar was affected; 12m tsunami
of Karachi was felt at Kandla.
26 December 2004 Banda Aceh, Indonesia; Tamil Nadu, The East cost of India was affected.
Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Andaman The waves measured around 10 m
and Nicobar Islands, India; Sri Lanka; high killing more than 10,000 precious
Thailand; Malaysia; Kenya; Tanzania lives.
Possible risk reduction measures:

While it is of course not possible to prevent
a tsunami, in certain tsunami prone
countries some measures have been taken
to reduce the damage caused on shore.
Japan has implemented an extensive
programme of building tsunami walls of up
to 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated
coastal areas. Other localities have built
flood gates and channels to redirect the
water from incoming tsunamis. However, Fig 2.2.5 Tsunami walls in populated
coastal areas of Japan
21
framed structures in the area. The wall - In areas where it is not feasible to
may have succeeded in slowing down and restrict land to open-space uses,
moderating the height of the tsunami but it other land use planning measures
did not prevent major destruction and loss can be used. These include
of life. strategically controlling the type of
development and uses allowed in
Some other systematic measures to protect hazard areas, and avoiding high-
coastlines against tsunamis include: value and high-occupancy uses to
the greatest degree possible.
Site Planning and Land Management-
Within the broader framework of a Engineering structures – Most of the
comprehensive plan, site planning habitation of the fishing community is
determines the location, configuration, seen in the coastal areas. The houses
and density of development on particular constructed by them are mainly of light
sites and is, therefore, an important tool in weight materials without any engineering
reducing tsunami risk. inputs. Therefore there is an urgent need
to educate the community about the good
construction practices that they should
adopt such as:
Fig 2.2.7 Design solution to tsunami effect
Fig 2.2.6 Damaged houses constructed on the sea

coast in Chennai
- The designation and zoning of  Site selection – Avoid building or

tsunami hazard areas for such open- living in buildings within several
space uses as agriculture, parks and hundred feet of the coastline as
recreation, or natural hazard areas is these areas are more likely to
recommended as the first land use experience damage from tsunamis.

planning strategy. This strategy is
 Construct the structure on a higher
designed to keep development at a
ground level with respect to mean
minimum in hazard areas. sea level.
22
 Elevate coastal homes: Most Exercise:

tsunami waves are less than 3
meters in height. Elevating house 1. What is Tsunami? Identify three
will help reduce damage to property causes, consequences and impact
from most tsunamis. of tsunami waves.

 Construction of water breakers to 2. How can we predict Tsunami?
reduce the velocity of waves.
 3. Suggest five risk reduction measures
 Use of water and corrosion resistant that can be taken up to prevent
materials for construction. severe damage.

 Construction of community halls at
higher locations, which can act as
2.3 CYCLONE
shelters at the time of a disaster.
What is a Cyclone?
Flood management - Flooding will result Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric
from a tsunami. Tsunami waves will flood pressure surrounded by high atmospheric
the coastal areas. Flood mitigation pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric
measures could be incorporated. disturbance accompanied by powerful winds
blowing in anticlockwise direction in the
Web Resources: Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere. They
§ http://ioc.unesco.org/itsu/ IOC/UNESCO
International Coordination group for the occur mainly in the tropical and temperate
Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific regions of the world. Cyclones are called by
(ICG/ ITSU), Paris, France various names in different parts of the world
as mentioned in box on the next page.
§ http://quake.usgs.gov/tsunami/ Tsunamis
and Earthquakes, USGS, USA
General Characteristics:
§ www.asc-india.org Amateur Seismic Centre
is a comprehensive website carrying details Cyclones in India are moderate in nature.
of state wise seismicity for the country. This
Some of the general characteristics of a
also has extensive reports on various past
Earthquakes/Tsunamis. cyclone are:
§ http://www.prh.noaa.gov/pr/itic/ International 1. Strong winds

Tsunami Information Center, Honolulu, Hawaii
2. Exceptional rain
§ http://www.tsunami.org/ Pacific Tsunami
Museum site. Includes answers to frequently 3. Storm surge
asked questions, links, and information related
to Pacific Ocean tsunamis. Cyclones are generally accompanied by
23
Cyclones are known by different names

in different parts of the world:
 Typhoons in the Northwest Pacific
Ocean west of the dateline
 Hurricanes in the North Atlantic
Ocean, the Northeast Pacific
Ocean east of the dateline, or the
South Pacific Ocean.
 Tropical cyclones - the Southwest
Pacific Ocean and Southeast
Indian Ocean.
 Severe cyclonic storm” (the North
Indian Ocean)
 Tropical cyclone (the Southwest
Indian Ocean) Fig 2.3.2 Stages of cyclone formation
 Willie-Willie in Australia

 Tornado in South America
strong winds which cause a lot of storm travelled more than 250 km inland
destruction. In some cases it is and within a period of 36 hrs ravaged
accompanied by heavy downpour and more than 200 lakh hectares of land,
also the rise in the sea which intrudes devouring trees and vegetation, leaving
inland there by causing floods. behind a huge trail of destruction. The
violent cyclone was merciless and broke
the backbone of Orissa’s economy and
killed thousands and devastated millions.
The development of a cyclone covers
three stages namely
a) Formation and initial development
state: Four atmospheric/ oceanic
conditions are necessary for the
formation of a cyclone namely:
 A warm sea temperature in
Fig 2.3.1 Orissa Super Cyclone excess of 26 degree centigrade,
to a depth of 60 meters, which
29th October 1999, Super-cyclone with wind
provides abundant water vapour
speed of 260-300 km/hour hit the 140
in the air by evaporation.
kilometer coast of Orissa with a storm surge 
created in the Bay-of-Bengal with water level  High relative humidity (degree
9 metres higher than normal. The super to which the air is saturated by
24
water vapor) of the atmosphere cumulus thundercloud bands. These

to a height of about 7000 bands spiral inwards and form a
meters, facilitates condensation dense highly active central cloud core
of water vapor into droplets and which raps around a relatively calm
clouds, releases heat energy zone. This is called the “eye” of a
and induces drop in pressure. cyclone. The eye looks like a black
hole or a dot surrounded by thick
 Atmospheric instability (an above clouds. The outer circumference of the
average decrease of tempera- thick cloud is called the ‘eye wall’.
ture with altitude) encourages
considerable vertical cumulus c) Weakening or decay: A tropical
cloud convection when conden- cyclone begins to weaken as soon
sation of rising air occurs. as its source of warm moist air is
 abruptly cut off. This is possible
 A location of at least 4-5 latitude when the cyclone hits the land, on
degrees from the Equator allow the cyclone moves to a higher
the influence of the force due to altitude or when there is the
the earth’s rotation (Coriolis interference of another low pressure.
force) to take effect in inducing
cyclonic wind circulation around Depending on their track on the warm
low pressure centers. tropical sea and proximity to land a cyclone
may last for less than 24 hours to more than
3 weeks. On an average the life cycle of a
cyclone (a cyclone to complete these three
stages mentioned above) takes six days.
The longest cyclone is typhoon John which
lasted for 31 days (August to September,
1994 in the north east and north west
pacific basins).
Indian Cyclones
Cyclones vary in frequency in various parts
of the world. The 7516.6 kilometers long
Indian coastline is the earth’s most cyclone
battered stretch of the world. Around 8 per
cent of the total land area in India is prone
to cyclones. About two-third of the cyclones
that occur in the Indian coastline occur in
the Bay of Bengal. The states which are
Fig 2.3.3 Cyclone formation
generally affected in the east coast are
b) Fully matured: The main feature of West-Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh;
a fully mature tropical cyclone is a Tamil Nadu and on the west coast Gujarat,
spiral pattern of highly turbulent giant Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala.
25
Distributional Pattern: damage. The satellites track the movement of

these cyclones based on which the people are
The map of India (Fig 2.3.4) shows the evacuated from areas lively to be affected. It
areas that are generally affected by strong is difficult to predict the accuracy. Accurate
winds/ cyclones. Some of the major landfall predictions can give only a few hours’
cyclones that have affected the country in notice to threatened population.
the past are as mentioned in table 2.3.1
India has one of the best cyclone warning
systems in the world. The India
Meteorological Department (IMD) is the
nodal department for wind detection,
tracking and forecasting cyclones. Cyclone
tracking is done through INSAT satellite.
Cyclone warning is disseminated by several
means such as satellite based disaster
warning systems, radio, television,
telephone, fax, high priority telegram, public
announcements and bulletins in press.
These warnings are disseminated to the
general public, the fishing community
Fig 2.3.4 Wind and Cyclone map of India
Table 2.3.1: Death associate with noteworthy Tropical Cyclones (1970 – 2005)
Sl No Year Area Death toll
1 1971 Eastern Coast 9658
2 1972 Andhra Pradesh and Orissa 100
3 1977 Chennai, kerala & Andhra Pradesh 14,204
4 1979 Andhra Pradesh 594
5 1981 Gujarat 470
6 1982 Gujarat & Maharashtra 500
7 1984 Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh 512
10 1990 Orissa 250
11 1999 Orissa 8913
(Source: Office of the US Foreign Disaster Assistance)
Warning: especially those in the sea, port

authorities, commercial aviation and the
Low pressure and the development can be
government machinery.
detected hours or days before it causes
26
Elements at Risk: Strong winds, torrential Water supplies – Ground and pipe water
rains and flooding cause a huge loss to life supply may get contaminated by flood
and property. The 1999 Super Cyclone of waters.
Orissa killed more than 10,000 precious
lives with women and children greatly Crops and food supplies – high winds and
affected. Apart from loss to life there is a rains ruin the standing crop and food stock
huge loss to infrastructures like houses built lying in low lying areas. Plantation type
of mud, older buildings with weak walls, crops such as banana and coconut are
bridges, settlements in low lying areas. extremely vulnerable. Salt from the sea
water may get deposited on the agricultural
Typical Adverse effect: land and increase the salinity. The loss of
the crop may lead to acute food shortage.
First, in a sudden, brief onslaught, high
winds cause major damage to infrastructure Communication – severe disruption in the
and housing, in particular fragile communication links as the wind may
constructions. They are generally followed bring down the electricity and
by heavy rains and floods and, in flat communication towers, telephone poles,
coastal areas by storm surge riding on tidal telephone lines, antennas and satellite
waves and inundating the land over long disk and broadcasting services. Transport
distances of even upto 15 kilometer inland. lines (road and rail) may be curtailed,
Lack of proper communication affects
effective distribution of relief materials.
Possible Risk Reduction Meas-

ures:
Coastal belt plantation - green belt
plantation along the coastal line in a scientific
interweaving pattern can reduce the effect of
the hazard. Providing a cover through green
belt sustains less damage. Forests act as a
2.3.5 Mangrove plantation on the coastal belt wide buffer zone against strong winds and
flash floods. Without the forest the cyclone
Physical damage – structures will be travel freely inland. The lack of protective
damaged or destroyed by the wind force, forest cover allows water to inundate large
flooding and storm surge. Light pitched
areas and cause destruction. With the loss of
roofs of most structures especially the
the forest cover each consecutive cyclone
ones fitted on to industrial buildings will
can penetrate further inland.
suffer severe damage.
Hazard mapping – Meteorological records
Casualties and public heath – caused by of the wind speed and the directions give
flooding and flying elements,
the probability of the winds in the region.
contamination of water supplies may lead
Cyclones can be predicted several days in
to viral outbreaks, diarrhea, and malaria.
advance. The onset is extensive and often
27
very destructive. Past records and paths plains is at utmost risk. Siting of key
can give the pattern of occurrence for facilities must be marked in the land use.
particular wind speeds. A hazard map will Policies should be in place to regulate land
illustrate the areas vulnerable to cyclone use and building codes should be enforced.
in any given year. It will be useful to
estimate the severity of the cyclone and Engineered structures – structures need
various damage intensities in the region. to be built to withstand wind forces. Good
The map is prepared with data inputs of site selection is also important. Majority of
past climatological records, history of wind the buildings in coastal areas are built
speed, frequency of flooding etc. Fig.2.3.6 with locally available materials and have
shows the wind and cyclone zone map of no engineering inputs. Good construction
Andhra Pradesh. practice should be adopted such as:
- Cyclonic wind storms inundate the

coastal areas. It is advised to
construct on stilts or on earth mound.
- Houses can be strengthened to resist
wind and flood damage. All elements
holding the structures need to be
properly anchored to resist the uplift or
flying off of the objects. For example,
avoid large overhangs of roofs, and
the projections should be tied down.
- A row of planted trees will act as a

Fig. 2.3.6 Andhra Pradesh state wind and
cyclone zone map shield. It reduces the energy.
Land use control designed so that least - Buildings should be wind and water
critical activities are placed in vulnerable resistant.
areas. Location of settlements in the flood
- Buildings storing food supplies must
be protected against the winds and
water.
- Protect river embankments.
Communication lines should be
installed underground.
- Provide strong halls for community
shelter in vulnerable locations.
Fig 2.3.7 A shelter with special feature to withstand

cyclones and floods. Traditional homes can be
improved by building in disaster resistant features.
Such homes could withstand cyclones with moderate
speeds.
28
If natural elevation is not available construction on

Construction at ground level –risk of inundation
stilts or on artificially raised earth mounds
Large overhangs get lifted and broken. For large overhangs, use ties. Fig. 2.3.8 Safe
Construction Practices
Flood management – Torrential rains, prevent or lessen flooding. The use of tree
strong wind and storm range leads to planted in rows will act as a windbreak.
flooding in the cyclone affected areas. Coastal shelterbelt plantations can be
There are possibilities of landslides too. developed to break severe wind speeds. It
Flood mitigation measures could be minimizes devastating effects. The Orissa
incorporated (see section on floods for calamity has also highlighted the need for
additional information). urgent measures like shelterbelt plantation
along cyclone-prone coastal areas. Species
Improving vegetation cover – The roots chosen for this purpose should not only be
of the plants and trees keep the soil intact able to withstand the impact of strong
and prevent erosion and slow runoff to cyclonic winds, but also check soil erosion.
Web Resources:
§ www.imd.ernet.in Indian Meteorologi-cal
Department (IMD) provides all India weather
report, end of monsoon season report, weather
charts, satellite images, rainfall maps,
earthquake reports and severe weather
warnings. IMD provides cyclone warnings from
the Area Cyclone Warning Centres (ACWCs) It
has developed the necessary infrastructure to
originate and disseminate the cyclone
warnings at appropriate levels. It has made
Fig 2.3.9 Coastal belt plantation operational a satellite based communication
29
system called Cyclone Warning Dissemination Exercise

System for direct dissemination of cyclone
warnings to the cyclone prone coastal areas. 1. Explain the characteristics of a
cyclone.
§ www.ndmindia.nic.in Natural Disaster
Management India. Provides current news 2. Explain in detail the conditions
on Flood, Drought and Cyclones, Weather necessary for the development of a
Links from NIC and weather conditions/ cyclone.
temperatures on Indian Ocean
(www.weather.nic.in). 3. Identify risk reduction measures for
cyclones.
§ www.bmtpc.org/disaster.htm In order to bridge
the gap between research and development
and large scale application of new building
material technologies, the erstwhile Ministry of 2.4 FLOOD
Urban Development, Government of India, had
established the Building Materials And Flood is a state of high water level along a
Technology Promotion Council in July 1990. river channel or on the coast that leads to
§ www.gsdma.org/cycpre.htm Link to Cyclone
inundation of land, which is not usually
preparedness on the Gujarat State Disaster submerged. Floods may happen gradually
Management Authority website. The and also may take hours or even happen
Government of Gujarat (GOG) established suddenly without any warning due to
the Gujarat State Disaster Management breach in the embankment, spill over,
Authority to co-ordinate the comprehensive
earthquake recovery program.
heavy rains etc.
§ www.osdma.org website of Orissa State There are different types of floods namely:
Disaster Mitigation Authority. The flash flood, riverine flood, urban flood, etc.
Government of Orissa established the Orissa Flash floods can be defined as floods
State Disaster Management Authority to co- which occur within six hours of the
ordinate the comprehensive Orissa Super
Cyclone recovery program. Visit the section
beginning of heavy rainfall, and are
‘Safety Tips’ for cyclones and other hazards. usually associated with cloud bursts,
storms and cyclones requiring rapid
§ www.tropmet.res.in The IITM functions as a localized warnings and immediate
national centre for basic and applied
response to reduce damage. Wireless
research in monsoon meteorology of the
tropics in general with special reference to network and telephone connections are
monsoon meteorology of India and used to monitor flood conditions. In case
neighborhood. Its primary functions are to of flash floods, warnings for timely
promote, guide and conduct research in the evacuation may not always be possible.
field of meteorology in all its aspects.
§ www.colorado.edu/hazards is an excellent Causes:

site having a comprehensive coverage of
disaster-related information organized in an There are several causes of floods and differ
easy to read way. from region to region. The causes may vary
30
from a rural area to an urban area. Some Distributional Pattern of floods

of the major causes are: in India
a. Heavy rainfall Floods occur in almost all the river basins
b. Heavy siltation of the river bed of the country. The Vulnerability Atlas of
reduces the water carrying capacity India shows pictorially the areas liable to
of the rivers/stream. floods. Around 12 per cent (40 million
hectare) of land in India is prone to floods.
c. Blockage in the drains lead to
flooding of the area.
d. Landslides blocking the flow of the

stream.
e. Construction of dams and reservoirs
f. In areas prone to cyclone, strong

winds accompanied by heavy down
pour along with storm surge leads to
flooding.
Typical Adverse Effects:

The most important consequence of floods
is the loss of life and property. Structures
like houses, bridges; roads etc. get
damaged by the gushing water, landslides
triggered on account of water getting
saturated, boats and fishing nets get Fig 2.4.1 Map showing Flood Zones in India
damaged. There is huge loss to life and
Most of the flood affected areas lie in the
livestock caused by drowning. Lack of
Ganga basin, Brahmaputra basin
proper drinking water facilities,
(comprising of Barak, Tista, Torsa,
contamination of water (well, ground water,
Subansiri, Sankosh, Dihang and Luhit), the
piped water supply) leads to outbreak of
northwestern river basin (comprising
epidemics, diarrhoea, viral infection, malaria
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas and the
and many other infectious diseases.
Ghagra), peninsular river basin (Tapti,
Flooding also leads to a large area of Narmada, Mahanadi, Baitarani, Godavari,
agricultural land getting inundated as a krishna, Pennar and the Kaveri) and the
result there is a huge crop loss. This coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh,
results in shortage of food, and animal Tamilnadu, orissa and Kerela. Assam, Uttar
fodder. Floods may also affect the soil Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa are some of the
characteristics. The land may be rendered states who have been severely prone to
infertile due to erosion of top layer or may floods. Our country receives an annual
turn saline if sea water floods the area.
31
rainfall of 1200 mm, 85% of which is level rises. Except for flash floods there is
concentrated in 3-4 months i.e June to usually a reasonable warning period. Heavy
September. Due to the intense and periodic precipitation will give sufficient warning of
rain, most of the rivers of the country are fed the coming river flood. High tides with high
with huge quantity of water, much beyond winds may indicate flooding in the coastal
their carrying capacity. areas. Evacuation is possible with suitable
monitoring and warning. Warning is issued
Table 2.4.1 below shows some of the major by the Central Water Commission (CWC),
floods that have affected the country. Irrigation & Flood Control Department,
Table 2.4.1 Death Toll in major floods of India

Year Number of Location
people killed
1961 2,000 North
1968 4,892 (1) Rajasthan, Gujarat - (2) North-East, West Bengal, Assam
1971 1,023 North India
1978 3,800 North, Northeast
1980 1,600 Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, Haryana
1989 1,591 Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat
1994 2,001 Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Gujarat states
1995 1,479 Bihar, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal, Maharashtra
1997 1,442 Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal states
1998 1,811 Assam, Arunachal, Bihar, Kerala, Meghalaya, Punjab, Sikkim,
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal states
2000 1,290 Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar,
Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal
Warning: and Water Resources Department. CWC

maintains close liaison with the
Flood forecasting and warning has been administrative and state engineering
highly developed in the past two decades. agencies, local civil authorities to
With the advancement of technology such communicate advance warning for
as satellite and remote-sensing equipments appropriate mitigation and preparedness
flood waves can be tracked as the water measures.
32
Possible Risk Reduction Meas-

ures:
Mapping of the flood prone areas is a
primary step involved in reducing the risk
of the region. Historical records give the
indication of the flood inundation areas
and the period of occurrence and the
extent of the coverage. Warning can be Fig 2.4.3 Khash Dhalai Flood Shelter.
issued looking into the earlier marked Flood shelters like this are just one example of how
heights of the water levels in case of communities can protect themselves from the
worst of the floods. Banks of earth are raised by up
potential threat. In the coastal areas the
to 5 metres and cover an area of several
tide levels and the land characteristics will kilometres. The people dig a huge pond in the
determine the submergence areas. Flood middle and use this earth to raise the ground.
hazard mapping will give the proper Whenever the floods come, people can bring their
livestock, possessions – even their homes – to
indication of water flow during floods. safety. The pond in the middle becomes an
important source of food, as it is used to farm fish.
Land use control will reduce danger of
life and property when waters inundate the Construction of engineered structures
floodplains and the coastal areas. The in the flood plains and strengthening of
structures to withstand flood forces and
number of casualties is related to the
seepage. The buildings should be
population in the area at risk. In areas
constructed on an elevated area. If
where people already have built their
necessary build on stilts or platform.
settlements, measures should be taken to
relocate to better sites so as to reduce Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage.
vulnerability. No major development This can be done by decreasing the amount
should be permitted in the areas which are of runoff with the help of reforestation (to
subjected to high flooding. Important increase absorption could be a mitigation
facilities like hospitals, schools should be strategy in certain areas), protection of
built in safe areas. In urban areas, water vegetation, clearing of debris from streams
holding areas can be created like ponds, and other water holding areas, conservation
lakes or low-lying areas. of ponds and lakes etc. Flood Diversion
include levees, embankments, dams and
channel improvement. Dams can store water
and can release water at a manageable rate.
But failure of dams in earthquakes and
operation of releasing the water can cause
floods in the lower areas. Flood Proofing
reduces the risk of damage. Measures
include use of sand bags to keep flood water
away, blocking or sealing of doors and
Fig 2.4.2 Houses constructed on stilts in slum areas windows of houses etc. Houses
33
may be elevated by building on raised § www.nih.ernet.in India National Institute of

land. Buildings should be constructed Hydrology perform tasks such as Ground
water zone mapping, Flood plain mapping,
away from water bodies.
land use, salinity, sedimentation, Soil
erosion, water-logging etc.
Flood Management In India, systematic
planning for flood management commenced
with the Five Year Plans, particularly with Exercise
the launching of National Programme of
1. Define Flood. List out some of the
Flood Management in 1954. During the last
causes and adverse effects of floods.
48 years, different methods of flood
protection structural as well as non- 2. Name two basins in India that are
structural have been adopted in different frequently affected by flood and explain
states depending upon the nature of the the warning dissemination system of
problem and local conditions. Structural India in the flood affected areas.
measures include storage reservoirs, flood
embankments, drainage channels, anti- 3. Explain in detail atleast five possible
erosion works, channel improvement works, risk reduction measures for floods.
detention basins etc. and non-structural
measures include flood forecasting, flood 2.5 DROUGHT
plain zoning, flood proofing, disaster
preparedness etc. The flood management
What is Drought?
measures undertaken so far have provided
reasonable degree of protection to an area Drought is either absence or deficiency of
of 15.81 million hectares through out the rainfall from its normal pattern in a region
country. for an extended period of time leading to
general suffering in the society. It is
Web Resources: interplay between demand that people
place on natural supply of water and natural
§ www.cwc.nic.in website of the Central Water
Commission of India, (CWC) of India.
event that provides the water in a given
geographical region. The state of Kerala
§ http://wrmin.nic.in website of the Ministry of which receives more than 3000 mm of
Water Resources, GoI. rainfall every year is declared drought
§ www.imd.ernet.in Indian Meteorological
affected as it is insufficient to have two
Department (IMD) provides all India weather good crops. The more the imbalance in
report, end of monsoon season report, supply the higher is the drought. The
weather charts, satellite images, rainfall following will help explaining this general
maps, earthquake reports and severe definition of the drought further.
weather warnings.
§ www.ndmindia.nic.in Natural Disaster  It is a slow on-set disaster and it is

Management India. Provides current news difficult to demarcate the time of its
on Flood, Drought and Cyclones, Weather onset and the end.
Links from NIC and weather conditions 
temperatures on Indian Ocean  Any unusual dry period which results
(www.weather.nic.in). in a shortage of useful water.
34
 Drought is a normal, recurrent What on earth do you know about

feature of climate. Climate is water?
expected to show some aberrations
and drought is just a part of it.  Approximately 80 per cent of
 earth’s surface is covered with
 Drought can occur by improper water but only 1% of it is fresh
distribution of rain in time and space, water that we can use.
and not just by its amount. 
  About 2.7 per cent of the total
 Drought is negative balance water available on the earth is
between precipitation and water use fresh water of which about 75.2
(through evaporation, transpiration per cent lies frozen in Polar
by plants, domestic and industrial Regions and another 22.6 per
uses etc) in a geographical region. cent is present as ground water.
The rest is available in lakes,
The effects of drought accumulate slowly rivers, atmosphere, moisture, soil
over a considerable period of time. and vegetation. This 1% of water
is now threatened by pollution!
Causes of Drought 
 Today, we have approximately the
Can you think of what causes drought? same amount of water as when the
Earth was formed. Earth will not
Though drought is basically caused by get/generate any more water!
deficit rainfall, which is a meteorological 
phenomenon, it manifests into different  We are using up the fresh water
spheres because of various vulnerability faster than we are recharging
factors associated with them (see the box). our groundwater

Some of these factors are human induced. –Meteorological drought
Though drought is a natural disaster, its
effects are made worst in developing Meteorological drought is simple
countries by over population, over grazing, absence/deficit of rainfall from the
deforestation, soil erosion, excessive use of normal. It is the least severe form of
ground and surface water for growing drought and is often identified by
crops, loss of biodiversity. sunny days and hot weather.
General Characteristics: –Hydrological drought
–Types of droughts Hydrological drought often leads to

reduction of natural stream flows or
Drought proceeds in sequential ground water levels, plus stored
manner. Its impacts are spread across water supplies. The main impact is
different domains as listed below. on water resource systems.
35
–Agricultural drought Can you think of some more

vulnerability factors to drought?
This form of drought occurs when
moisture level in soil is insufficient to   Low soil moisture holding capacity
maintain average crop yields. Initial   Absence of irrigation facilities
 Livestock without adequate
consequences are in the reduced
 fodder storage facilities
seasonal output of crops and other 
 Poor water management
related production. An extreme
  Deforestation
  Over grazing
agricultural drought can lead to a
famine, which is a prolonged   Water consuming cropping patterns
shortage of food in a restricted   Excessive ground water draft
region causing widespread disease   Soil erosion
and death from starvation.   Population growth and urbanization
  Industrialization
Socio-economic drought  Global warming
Socio-economic drought correlates the Can you believe it!!!

supply and demand of goods and services
with the three above-mentioned types of Cherapunji in Meghalaya, which was said
drought. When the supply of some goods to receive highest rainfall in the world, is
or services such as water and electricity now reeling under acute drinking water
are weather dependant then drought may problem. This is because of water runoff,
denudation and no storage facilities.
cause shortages in supply of these
economic goods.
Fig 2.5.1
Measuring Drought :
Elements at Risk Meteorological Drought
In general, all those elements that are

primarily dependent on water are most
affected. It affects the rainfed crops and then Hydrological Drought
slowly creeps into the irrigated crops. People
who are dependent on agriculture and areas
where the other livelihood opportunities are Agricultural Drought
least developed are greatly affected. The
herdsman, landless labourer, subsistence
farmers, women, children and farm animals
Socio-economic Drought
are the most vulnerable groups.
36
Drought Mathematics
The following criteria have been set by

the Indian Meteorological Division
(IMD) for identifying the drought.
 Onset of drought: Deficiency of a

particular year’s rainfall
exceeding 25 per cent of normal.

 Moderate drought: Deficit of rainfall
between 26-50 per cent of normal.

 Severe drought: Deficit of rainfall
more than 50 per cent of normal.
Fig 2.5.2 Map showing drought prone states in India.
Typical adverse effects Distribution Pattern

Ø Around 68 per cent of India’s total
Drought, different from any other natural area is drought prone to drought.
disaster, does not cause any structural Ø 315 out of a total of 725 Talukas in
damages. As the meteorological drought 99 districts are drought prone.
turns into hydrological drought, the Ø 50 million people are annually
affected by drought.
impacts start appearing first in agriculture
Ø In 2001 more than eight states
which is most dependant on the soil suffered the impact of severe drought.
moisture. Irrigated areas are affected Ø In 2003 most parts of Rajasthan
much later than the rainfed areas. experienced the fourth consecutive
However, regions surrounding perennial year of drought.
rivers tend to continue normal life even
when drought conditions are prevailing Possible Risk Reduction Meas-
around. The impacts slowly spread into ures:
social fabric as the availability of drinking
There are various mitigation strategies to
water diminishes, reduction in energy cope up with drought.
production, ground water depletion, food
shortage, health reduction and loss of life, 1. Public Awareness and education: If
the community is aware of the do’s
increased poverty, reduced quality of life
and don’ts, then half of the problem is
and social unrest leading to migration.
solved. This includes awareness on
37
the availability of safe drinking water,

water conservation techniques,
agricultural drought management
strategies like crop contingency
plans, construction of rain water
harvesting structure. Awareness can
be generated by the print, electronic
and folk media.
2. Drought Monitoring: It is continuous Fig. 2.5.3 Rain Water harvesting

observation of the rainfall situation,
availability of water in the reservoirs,
lakes, rivers etc and comparing with
the existing water needs in various
sectors of the society.
3. Water supply augmentation and

conservation through rainwater
harvesting in houses and farmers’
fields increases the content of water
available. Water harvesting by either
allowing the runoff water from all the
fields to a common point (e.g. Farm
ponds, see the picture) or allowing it to
infiltrate into the soil where it has fallen
(in situ) (e.g. contour bunds, contour
cultivation, raised bed planting etc)
helps increase water availability for
Fig 2.5.4 A watershed showing collection of water
sustained agricultural production. to common point.
4. Expansion of irrigation facilities
reduces the drought vulnerability. 6. Drought planning: the basic goal of
Land use based on its capability drought planning is to improve the
helps in optimum use of land and effectiveness of preparedness and
water and can avoid the undue response efforts by enhancing
demand created due to their misuse. monitoring, mitigation and response
measures.
5. Livelihood planning identifies those
livelihoods which are least affected by 7. Planning would help in effective
the drought. Some of such livelihoods coordination among state and national
include increased off-farm employment agencies in dealing with the drought.
opportunities, collection of non-timber Components of drought plan include
forest produce from the community establishing drought taskforce which is
forests, raising goats, carpentry etc. a team of specialists who can advise
38
the government in taking decision to started his movement concentrating on

deal with drought situation, trapping every drop of rain, which is
establishing coordination mechanism basically a drought mitigation practice.
among various agencies which deal So the villagers built check dams and
with the droughts, providing crop tanks. To conserve soil they planted
insurance schemes to the farmers to trees. The result: from 80 acres of
cope with the drought related crop irrigated area two decades ago, Ralegan
losses, and public awareness Siddhi has a massive area of 1300 acres
generation. under irrigation. The migration for jobs
has stopped and the per capita income
has increased ten times from Rs.225 to
2250 in this span of time.
The entire effort was only people’s
enterprise and involved no funds or
support from the Government.
Web Resources:
http://dmc.kar.nic.in/default.htm
Ralegan, before drought mitigation efforts www. watershedindia.net
www.rainwaterharvesting.org
www.drought.unl. edu
Exercise
1. Why is drought a slow onset disaster?
Identify five factors that cause drought.
2. Explain the four different types of

drought
Ralegan, after drought mitigation efforts
3. Identify the elements that are at risk
Fig 2.5.5 in areas that are prone to drought
and identify five risk reduction
What a mitigation approach can measures to combat drought.
do? A success story
The people of Ralegan Siddhi in 2.6 LANDSLIDE
Maharashtra transformed the dire straits to
prosperity. Twenty years ago the village What is a landslide?
showed all traits of abject poverty. It
practically had no trees, the topsoil had The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties
blown off, there was no agriculture and of mass movements of hill slopes and can
people were jobless. Anna Hazare, one of be defined as the downward and outward
the India’s most noted social activists, movement of slope forming materials
composed of rocks, soils, artificial fills or
39
combination of all these materials along Causes of Landslide

surfaces of separation by falling, sliding and
flowing, either slowly or quickly from one There are several causes of landslide.
place to another. Although the landslides are Some of the major causes are as follows:
primarily associated with mountainous
1. Geological Weak material: Weakness
terrains, these can also occur in areas where
in the composition and structure of
an activity such as surface excavations for
rock or soil may also cause landslides.
highways, buildings and open pit mines takes
place. They often take place in conjunction 2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to
with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At cutting down of vegetation,
times, prolonged rainfall causing landslide construction of roads might increase
may block the flow of river for quite some the vulnerability of the terrain to slide
time. The formation of river blocks can cause down.
havoc to the settlements downstream on its 3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce
bursting. Some of the common definitions are intense rainfall for periods as short as
below in table 1. several hours or have a more moderate
intensity lasting several days have
triggered abundant landslides. Heavy
melting of snow in the hilly terrains also
results in landslide.
4. Human Excavation of slope and its
toe, loading of slope/toe, draw down
in reservoir, mining, deforestation,
irrigation, vibration/blast, Water
Fig 2.6.1 Landslide in hilly terrain of India leakage from services.
Table 1 : Definitions
Landslide Hazard refers to the potential of occurrence of a damaging landslide
within a given area; such damage could include loss of life or injury, property
damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation.
Landslide Vulnerability reflects the extent of potential loss to given elements (or
set of elements) within the area affected by the hazard, expressed on a scale of 0
(no loss) to 1 (total loss); vulnerability is shaped by physical, social, economic and
environmental conditions.
Landslide Risk refers to the probability of harmful consequences-the expected
number of lives lost, persons injured, extent of damage to property or ecological
systems, or disruption of economic activity –within a landslide prone area. The risk
may be individual or societal in scope, resulting from an interaction between the
hazard and individual or societal vulnerability.
Landslide Risk Evaluation is the application of analyses and judgments
(encompassing physical, social, and economic dimensions of landslide
vulnerability) to determine risk management alternatives, which may include
determination that the landslide risk is acceptable or tolerable.
40
 Falls: Abrupt movements of

materials that become detached
from steep slopes or cliffs, moving
by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling.

 Flows: General term including many
types of mass movement, such as
debris flow, debris avalanche, lahar,
and mudflow.

 Creep: Slow, steady downslope
movement of soil or rock, often
indicated by curved tree trunks, bent
fences or retaining walls, tilted poles
or fences.
Fig 2.6.2 Bhachau Landslide - The land slipped 
during the 26th January 2001 earthquake event in  Debris flow Rapid mass movement
Bhachau. Note that people are still camped in which loose soils, rocks, and
beneath. Monsoon rains could possibly wash the organic matter combine with
soil down slope.
entrained air and water to form slurry
that then flows down slope, usually
5. Earthquake shaking has triggered associated with steep gullies.
landslides in many different 
topographic and geologic settings.  Debris avalanche A variety of very
rapid to extremely rapid debris flow.
Rock falls, soil slides and rockslides
from steep slopes involving relatively
thin or shallow dis-aggregated soils
or rock, or both have been the most
abundant types of landslides
triggered by historical earthquakes.
6. Volcanic eruption Deposition of

loose volcanic ash on hillsides
commonly is followed by accelerated
erosion and frequent mud or debris
flows triggered by intense rainfall.
Type of Landslides:
The common types of landslides are
described below. These definitions are
based mainly on the work of Varnes
(Varnes, D.J., 1978).
41
 Lahar Mudflow or debris flow that soil and in sloppy areas are also at risk.
originates on the slope of a volcano, Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.
usually triggered by heavy rainfall
eroding volcanic deposits, sudden
melting of snow and ice due to heat
from volcanic vents, or the breakout
of water from glaciers, crater lakes or
lakes dammed by volcanic eruptions


 Mudflow Rapidly flowing mass of
wet material that contains at least 50
per cent sand, silt, and clay-sized
particles.

 Lateral spreads Often occur on very
gentle slopes and result in nearly
horizontal movement of earth
materials. Lateral spreads usually Fig 2.6.4 adverse effects of landslide
are caused by liquefaction, where
saturated sediments (usually sands
and silts) are transformed from a
solid into a liquefied state, usually Distributional Pattern:
triggered by an earthquake.
 Landslides constitute a major natural
 Slides Many types of mass movement hazard in our country, which accounts for
are included in the general term considerable loss of life and damage to
“landslide.” The two major types of communication routes, human settlements,
landslides are rotational slides and agricultural fields and forest lands. The
translational landslides. Indian subcontinent, with diverse
 physiographic, seismic, tectonic and
 Topple A block of rock that tilts or climatological conditions is subjected to
rotates forward and falls, bounces, or varying degree of landslide hazards; the
rolls down the slope. Himalayas including Northeastern
mountains ranges being the worst affected,
Adverse Effects: followed by a section of Western Ghats and
the Vindhyas. Removal of vegetation and
The most common elements at risk are the toe erosion have also triggered slides.
settlements built on the steep slopes, built Torrential rainfall on the deforested slopes
at the toe and those built at the mouth of the is the main factor in the Peninsular India
streams emerging from the mountain valley. namely in Western Ghat and Nilgiris.
All those buildings constructed without Human intervention by way of slope
appropriate foundation for a given modification has added to this effect.
42
measures have been initiated as mitigation

measures. Fig. 2.6.6 shows landslide
hazard zonation map of India with red being
areas more susceptible to landslides than
areas depicted in light yellow.
Fig 2.6.5 Spots showing major landslides in India
One of the worst tragedies took place at

Malpa Uttarkhand (UP) on 11th and 17th
August 1998 when nearly 380 people were
killed when massive landslides washed
away the entire village. This included 60
pilgrims going to Lake Mansarovar in Tibet.
Consequently various land management
Table 2.6.2 : Some of the major Landslides in the last one decade
October 1990 Nilgris 36 people killed and several injured. Several
buildings and communication network damaged
July 1991 Assam 300 people killed, road and buildings damaged
November 1992 Nilgiris Road network and buildings damaged,
Rs.5 million damage estimate
July 1993 Itanagar 25 people buried alive 2 km road damaged
August 1993 Kalimpong, 40 people killed, heavy loss of
West Bengal property
August 1993 Kohima, 200 houses destroyed, 500 people died, about 5 km
Nagaland road stretch was damaged
November 1993 Nilgris 40 people killed, property worth several lakhs
damaged
43
January 1994 Kashmir National Highway 1A severely damaged

June 1994 Varundh ghat, 20 people killed, breaching of ghat road
Konkan Coast damaged to the extent of 1km at several
places
May 1995 Aizwal 25 people killed. Road severely damaged
Mizoram
September 1995 Kullu, HP 22 persons killed and several injured. About 1 km
road destroyed
14,August 1998 Okhimath 69 people killed
18,August 1998 Malpa, 205 people killed. Road network to Mansarovar
Kali river disrupted
August 2003 Uttarkashi Heavy loss of infrastructure
Possible risk reduction measures: § No construction of buildings in areas

beyond a certain degree of slope
Hazard mapping locates areas prone to
slope failures. This will help to avoid building Retaining Walls can be built to stop land
settlements in such areas. These maps will from slipping (these walls are commonly
seen along roads in hill stations). These are
also serve as a tool for mitigation planning.
constructed to prevent smaller sized and
secondary landslides that often occur along
Land use practices such as:
the toe portion of the larger landslides.
§ Areas covered by degraded natural
vegetation in upper slopes are to be
afforested with suitable species.
Existing patches of natural vegetation
(forest and natural grass land) in good
condition, should be preserved
§ Any developmental activity initiated
in the area should be taken up only
after a detailed study of the region Source: http://www.geoengineer.org/photos/
has been carried out. reearth1.jpg
§ In construction of roads, irrigation Fig. 2.6.7 Retaining wall - Reinforced wall

canals etc. proper care is to be taken constructed as a mitigation measure.
to avoid blockage of natural drainage Surface Drainage Control Works The
§ Total avoidance of settlement in the surface drainage control works are
risk zone should be made mandatory. implemented to control the movement of
§ Relocate settlements and infrastruc- landslides accompanied by infiltration of
ture that fall in the possible path of rain water and spring flows.
the landslide
44
Engineered structures with strong Exercise

foundations can withstand or take the
ground movement forces. Underground 1. What are landslides ? List out five
installations (pipes, cables, etc.) should major causes of landslides in India.
be made flexible to move in order to 2. Identify major type of landslides.
withstand forces caused by the landslide 3. Suggest risk reduction measures for
Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest landslide mitigation.
and most effective way of arresting landslides.
This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with
layers below, while preventing excessive run-
off and soil erosion.
Insurance will assist individuals whose
homes are likely to be damaged by
landslides or by any other natural hazards.
References for further reading:

§ http://www.csre.iitb.ac.in/rn/resume/landslide/
lsl.htm Landslide Information System - Center
of Studies in Resource Engineering IIT
Mumbai.
§ http://landslides.usgs.gov USGS National
Landslide Hazards Program (NLHP)
§ http://www.fema.gov/hazards/landslides/
landslif.shtm Federal Emergency
Management Agency FEMA, USA is tasked
with responding to, planning for, recovering
from and mitigating against disasters.
§ http://ilrg.gndci.pg.cnr.it/ The International
Landslide Research Group (ILRG) is an
informal group of individuals concerned
about mass earth movement and interested
in sharing information on landslide research.
45

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LECTURE NOTES

Department of Civil Engineering

Government Polytechnic Boudh

Objectives of the chapter: Background:

Fig : 1.1 World Scenario: Reported Deaths from all

Indian scenario: affected millions across the country

Table 1.1 Major disasters in India since 1970

Sl. No Disaster Impact

Table 1.2: Various types of hazards

What is vulnerability ? proximity, location and nature of the hazard.

Disaster Risk Reduction can take place in the following ways:

Disaster Management Cycle community level etc. Such risk reduction

Reference: Are you prepared? Learning from the Great Hanshin-Awaji

Figure 1.4 : Disaster Management

In the subsequent chapters we would Times of Disaster. UNESCO and West

4. UNDP Disaster Management Training

2. Anderson, M. and P. Woodrow. 1989. Rising 6. http://www.unisdr.org/eng/library/lib-

Exercise 3) Define risk and suggest two ways

Fig. : 2.1.1 : Tectonic Plates

Fig. : 2.1.2 : Tectonic Plates

Table 2.1.1 Different types of plate movement

Plate Motions Examples Illustrations

Divergent - where new The Mid-Atlantic Ridge,

2. Convergent - where Ring of Fire and The

3. Transformational - where The San Andreas fault

San Andreas fault,

Damage occurs to human settlement,

Secondary effects include fires, dam failure Fig 2

Table 2.1.2: List of significant Earthquakes in India

Year Location Magnitude of 6+

Possible risk reduction measures: earthquake and preparedness measures.

Effect of Soil type on ground shaking Essential requirements in a Masonry building

Web Resources: 2.2 Tsunami

Fig 2.2.2 Picture of a Tsunami

In 1995 the US National Oceanic and

a) International Tsunami Warning

delivering warnings, as the data took five Tsunami - A Terror

Distribution pattern of Tsunami in their effectiveness has been questioned, as

Table 2.2.1: History of tsunami’s in India

Possible risk reduction measures:

Fig 2.2.7 Design solution to tsunami effect

Fig 2.2.6 Damaged houses constructed on the sea

- The designation and zoning of  Site selection – Avoid building or

 Elevate coastal homes: Most Exercise:

§ http://www.prh.noaa.gov/pr/itic/ International 1. Strong winds

Cyclones are known by different names

water vapor) of the atmosphere cumulus thundercloud bands. These

Distributional Pattern: damage. The satellites track the movement of

Warning: especially those in the sea, port

Possible Risk Reduction Meas-

- Cyclonic wind storms inundate the

- A row of planted trees will act as a

Fig 2.3.7 A shelter with special feature to withstand

If natural elevation is not available construction on

system called Cyclone Warning Dissemination Exercise

§ www.colorado.edu/hazards is an excellent Causes:

from a rural area to an urban area. Some Distributional Pattern of floods

d. Landslides blocking the flow of the

e. Construction of dams and reservoirs