Series and transform

C, C plane, lı́mz→∞ f (z)

Ph.D. Alberth Tamo

Universidad Tecnológica del Perú

24 de abril de 2020
Accomplishment

→ Physical phenomena: Real numbers and real variables

2
Accomplishment

→ Physical phenomena: Real numbers and real variables

Too difficult, and sometimes is not possible, to solve algebraic

and differential equations, when used to model these phenomena

2
Accomplishment

→ Physical phenomena: Real numbers and real variables

Too difficult, and sometimes is not possible, to solve algebraic

and differential equations, when used to model these phenomena

→ Solution: Introduce complex numbers and variables and use

powerful techniques from complex analysis.

2
Roots of C - Root of 1
→ Solve zn = 1
zn = (|z|eiθ )n = |z|n eniθ
|z|n = 1 and arg (zn ) = n arg (z) = nθ = 2kπ .
2kπ
|z| = 1 and arg (z) = θ = n .
z = e2kπ i/n = wk , k = 0, 1, ..., n − 1
where w = 11/n = e2π i/n

3
Roots of C - Root of 1
→ Solve zn = 1
zn = (|z|eiθ )n = |z|n eniθ
|z|n = 1 and arg (zn ) = n arg (z) = nθ = 2kπ .
2kπ
|z| = 1 and arg (z) = θ = n .
z = e2kπ i/n = wk , k = 0, 1, ..., n − 1
where w = 11/n = e2π i/n

3
Functions of complex variables
→ Definition: The function of a complex variable z is an assignment
or rule. It is, to each z in S there is a complex number w.

w = f (z)

where S is f () domain.

→ If z = x + iy ⇒ w = f (u(x, y), v(x, y)) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

→ If x = z+z
2 y y= 1 z−z
i 2 ⇒ w = f (z)

4
Examples
→ Example 14: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = z2 + 1

→ Example 15: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y)), if

f (z) = 2x + iy + xx−iy
2 +y2

→ Example 16: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = zz

→ Example 17: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if

f (z) = [Re z]2 + i

5
Examples
→ Example 14: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = z2 + 1
= (x2 − y2 + 1) + i(2xy)
→ Example 15: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y)), if
f (z) = 2x + iy + xx−iy
2 +y2

→ Example 16: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = zz

→ Example 17: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if

f (z) = [Re z]2 + i

5
Examples
→ Example 14: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = z2 + 1

→ Example 15: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y)), if

f (z) = 2x + iy + xx−iy
2 +y2

= (x2 − y2 + 1) + i(2xy)
→ Example 16: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = zz

→ Example 17: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if

f (z) = [Re z]2 + i

5
Examples
→ Example 14: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = z2 + 1

→ Example 15: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y)), if

f (z) = 2x + iy + xx−iy
2 +y2

→ Example 16: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = zz

= x 2 + y2
→ Example 17: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if
f (z) = [Re z]2 + i

5
Examples
→ Example 14: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = z2 + 1

→ Example 15: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y)), if

f (z) = 2x + iy + xx−iy
2 +y2

→ Example 16: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if f (z) = zz

→ Example 17: Calculate S and f (u(x, y), v(x, y))), if

f (z) = [Re z]2 + i
= x2 + i
5
Limits
→ If a complex function f (z) has a limit f0 , as z approaches z0 in
any path, the limit exist. It is,
lı́m f (z) = f0
z→z0

→ Definition: Let be f (z), a complex function of the complex

variable z,
|f (z) − f0 | < ε0+ , ∀z tal que: 0 < |z − z0 | < δ0+

6
Examples
→ Example 18: Show that lı́mz→0 zz does not exist

7
Examples
→ Example 18: Show that lı́mz→0 zz does not exist
For this limit exists, it must be independent of the path along
which z = x + iy approaches z0 = 0. We show that the limits
z → 0 along the axes x and y are different
z x
lı́m = lı́m = 1
z→0,y→0 z x→0 x

z iy
lı́m = lı́m = −1
z→0,x→0 z y→0 −iy

7
Examples

x2 +x y2 +y
→ Example: Let be f (z) = x+y i x+y , determine if its limit exist
lı́mz→0 f (z)

8
Limit theorems
If a, b ∈ C are constants (independent of z) and lı́mz→z0 f (z) = f0 ,
lı́mz→z0 g(z) = g0 , then
→ Linearity:
lı́m (af (z) + bg(z)) = af0 + bg0
z→z0
→ Product:
lı́m (f (z)g(z)) = f0 g0
z→z0
→ Quotients:
f (z) f0
lı́m =
z→z0 g(z) g0̸=0
9
Examples

2
→ Example 19: Find the limit lı́mz→2 z iz+3

2
→ Example 20: Find the limit lı́mz→2 zz4 +1
−1

10
Continuity
→ Definition: the function w = f (z) is continuous in z = z0 if
→ f (z) must be defined in z = z0
→ lı́mz→z0 f (z) must exist
→ The limit must be equal to f (z0 )
( )
lı́m f (z) = f (z0 ) = f lı́m z
z→z0 z→z0

11
Continuity
→ The sum, difference and product of continuous functions are
continuous, the quotient is continuous except at points where the
denominator is zero.

12
Continuity
→ The sum, difference and product of continuous functions are
continuous, the quotient is continuous except at points where the
denominator is zero.
→ A continuous function of a continuous function us continuous.

12
Continuity
→ The sum, difference and product of continuous functions are
continuous, the quotient is continuous except at points where the
denominator is zero.
→ A continuous function of a continuous function us continuous.
→ Let be, f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and u(x, y) and iv(x, y) continuous
on all points that f (z) be continuous, and vice versa.

12
Continuity
→ The sum, difference and product of continuous functions are
continuous, the quotient is continuous except at points where the
denominator is zero.
→ A continuous function of a continuous function us continuous.
→ Let be, f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and u(x, y) and iv(x, y) continuous
on all points that f (z) be continuous, and vice versa.
→ If f (z) is continuous in a region R, then |f (z)| is continuous in R
also.
( )
lı́m f (z) = f (z0 ) = f lı́m z
z→z0 z→z0

12
Examples

→ Example 21: Show that f (z) = ez is continuous in C

→ Example 22: Show that f (z) = |z| is continuous in C

13
Series and transform
C, C plane, lı́mz→∞ f (z)

Ph.D. Alberth Tamo

Universidad Tecnológica del Perú

24 de abril de 2020