Al-Mustansiriyah University Fourth Grade

College of Science Nuclear Structure

Physics Department Dr. Waleed Jabbar Mhana
Dr. Hanaa Salih Sabaa

Chapter Five
(Interaction of Radiation with Matter)

Different types of radiation interact with matter in widely different

ways. A large, massive, charged alpha particle cannot penetrate a
piece of paper and even has a limited range in dry air. A neutrino, at the
other extreme, has a low probability of interacting with any matter, even if it
passed through the diameter of the earth.
Radiation can be classified into two general groups, charged and
uncharged; therefore, it may be expected that interactions with matter fall
into two general types. Charged particles directly ionize the media through
which they pass, while uncharged particles and photons can cause ionization
only indirectly or by secondary radiation.
A moving charged particle has an electrical field surrounding it,
which interacts with the atomic structure of the medium through which it is
passing. This interaction decelerates the particle and accelerates electrons in
the atoms of the medium. The accelerated electrons may acquire enough
energy to escape from the parent atom, this process is called ionization.
Uncharged moving particles have no electrical field, so they can only lose
energy and cause ionization by such means as collisions or scattering. A
photon can lose energy by the photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, or pair
production. Because ionizing radiation creates ions in pairs, the intensity of

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ionization or the specific ionization is defined as the number of ion-pairs
formed per centimeter of travel in a given material. The amount of
ionization produced by a charged particle per unit path length, which is a
measure of its ionizing power, is roughly proportional to the particle's mass
and the square of its charge as illustrated in the equation below.
mz 2
I
K.E.
Where: I is the ionizing power, m is the mass of the particle, z is the
number of unit charges it carries and K.E. is its kinetic energy
Since m for an alpha particle is about 7300 times as large as m for a
beta particle, and z is twice as great, an alpha will produce much more
ionization per unit path length than a beta particle of the same energy. This
phenomenon occurs because the larger alpha particle moves slower for a
given energy and thus acts on a given electron for a longer time.

Alpha Radiation:
Alpha radiation is normally produced from the radioactive decay of
heavy nuclides and from certain nuclear reactions. The alpha particle
consists of 2 neutrons and 2 protons, so it is essentially the same as the
nucleus of a helium atom. Because it has no electrons, the alpha particle has
a charge of +2. This positive charge causes the alpha particle to strip
electrons from the orbits of the target atoms. As the alpha particle passes
through material, it removes electrons from the orbits of atoms it passes
near. Energy is required to remove electrons and the energy of the alpha
particle is reduced by each reaction. Eventually the particle will expend its
kinetic energy, gain 2 electrons in orbit, and become a helium atom.
Because of its strong positive charge and large mass, the alpha particle

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deposits a large amount of energy in a short distance of travel. This rapid,
large deposition of energy limits the penetration of alpha particles. The most
energetic alpha particles are stopped by a few centimeters of air or a sheet of
paper.

Beta-Minus Radiation:
A beta-minus particle is an electron that has been ejected at a high
velocity from an unstable nucleus. An electron has a small mass and an
electrical charge of -1. Beta particles cause ionization by displacing
electrons from atom orbits. The ionization occurs from collisions with
orbiting electrons. Each collision removes kinetic energy from the beta
particle, causing it to slow down. Eventually the beta particle will be slowed
enough to allow it to be captured as an orbiting electron in an atom.
Although more penetrating than the alpha, the beta is relatively easy to stop
and has a low power of penetration. Even the most energetic beta radiation
can be stopped by a few millimeters of metal.

Positron Radiation:
Positively charged electrons are called positrons. Except for the
positive charge, they are identical to beta-minus particles and interact with
matter in a similar manner. Positrons are very short-lived, however, and
quickly are annihilated by interaction with a negatively charged electron,
producing two gammas with a combined energy (calculated below) equal to
the rest mass of the positive and negative electrons.

Bremsstrahlung:

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 Small charged particles such as electrons or positrons may be
deflected by nuclei as they pass through matter, which may be due to the
positive charge of the atomic nuclei. This type of interaction generates x-
radiation known as bremsstrahlung (Fig. below), which in German means
“braking radiation.”

Figure (5-1): Bremsstrahlung. Beta particles (β−) and positrons (β+) that
travel near the nucleus will be attracted or repelled by the positive charge of
the nucleus, generating x-rays in the process.

Neutron Radiation:
Neutrons have no electrical charge. They have nearly the same mass
as a proton (a hydrogen atom nucleus). A neutron has hundreds of times
more mass than an electron, but 1/4 the mass of an alpha particle. The source
of neutrons is primarily nuclear reactions, such as fission, but they may also
be produced from the decay of radioactive nuclides. Because of its lack of

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charge, the neutron is difficult to stop and has a high penetrating power.
Neutrons are attenuated (reduced in energy and numbers) by three major
interactions, elastic scatter, inelastic scatter, and absorption. In elastic
scatter, a neutron collides with a nucleus and bounces off. This reaction
transmits some of the kinetic energy of the neutron to the nucleus of the
atom, resulting in the neutron being slowed, and the atom receives some
kinetic energy (motion). As the mass of the nucleus approaches the mass of
the neutron, this reaction becomes more effective in slowing the neutron.
Hydrogenous material attenuates neutrons most effectively. In the inelastic
scatter reaction, the same neutron/nucleus collision occurs as in elastic
scatter. However, in this reaction, the nucleus receives some internal energy
as well as kinetic energy. This slows the neutron, but leaves the nucleus in
an excited state. When the nucleus decays to its original energy level, it
normally emits a gamma ray. In the absorption reaction, the neutron is
actually absorbed into the nucleus of an atom. The neutron is captured, but
the atom is left in an excited state. If the nucleus emits one or more gamma
rays to reach a stable level, the process is called radiative capture. This
reaction occurs at most neutron energy levels, but is more probable at lower
energy levels.

Electromagnetic (Gamma) Radiation:

Gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation. It is commonly
referred to as a gamma ray and is very similar to an x-ray. The difference is
that gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus of an atom, and x-rays are
produced by orbiting electrons. The x-ray is produced when orbiting
electrons move to a lower energy orbit or when fast-moving electrons

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approaching an atom are deflected and decelerated as they react with the
atom's electrical field (called Bremsstrahlung).
The gamma ray is produced by the decay of excited nuclei and by
nuclear reactions. Because the gamma ray has no mass and no charge, it is
difficult to stop and has a very high penetrating power. A small fraction of
the original gamma stream will pass through several feet of concrete or
several meters of water. There are three methods of attenuating gamma rays.
The first method is referred to as the photoelectric effect. When a low
energy gamma strikes an atom, the total energy of the gamma is expended in
ejecting an electron from orbit (generally inner shell). The result is
ionization of the atom and expulsion of a high energy electron. This
reaction is most predominant with low energy gammas interacting in
materials with high atomic weight and rarely occurs with gammas having
energy above 1MeV. Any gamma energy in excess of the binding energy of
the electron is carried off by the electron in the form of kinetic energy.
The second method of attenuation of gammas is called Compton
scattering. The gamma interacts with an orbital (outer shell) or free
electron; however, in this case, the photon loses only a fraction of its energy.
The actual energy loss depending on the scattering angle of the gamma
(scattering angle can range from nearly 0o to 180o). The gamma continues on
at lower energy, and the energy difference is absorbed by the electron. This
reaction becomes important for gamma energies of about 0.1 MeV and
higher.
In Compton scattering, a photon scatters from an electron, resulting in
a scattered electron (Compton electron) and a less energetic photon. If we
regard the stuck electron as free and at rest (good approx.), we can use
relativistic conservation to find a formula for:
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 At higher energy levels, a third method of attenuation is
predominant. This method is pair-production. When a high energy gamma
passes close enough to a heavy nucleus, the gamma completely disappears,
and an electron and a positron are formed. For this reaction to take place, the
original gamma must have at least 1.02MeV energy. Any energy greater
than 1.02 MeV becomes kinetic energy shared between the electron and
positron. The probability of pair-production increases significantly for
higher energy gammas. The forth method is the Coherent Scattering
(unmodified scattering). The interaction in which radiation undergo a
change in direction without a change in wavelength. There are two types: 1.
Thomson Scattering, a single electron is involved in the interaction. 2.
Rayleigh Scattering, results from a cooperative interaction with all electrons
of an atom. While the fifth on is Photodisintegration. In this method, part of
nucleus of an atom is ejected by a high energy photon. The ejected portion
may be neutron, a proton, an alpha particle, or cluster of particles. The
photon energy must be in order of 7-15 MeV.
If we consider a beam of photons on a slab of thickness x, we have μ
as a "total linear attenuation coefficient", where simply μ=τ+σ+κ (for
photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, and pair production losses,
respectively). The fractional loss in intensity is:
dI/I=-μdx so that I=Ioe-μx

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 Figure (5-2): (a) Photoelectric effect, (b) Compton scattering.

Shielding
Alpha particles can be shielded by a piece of paper.
Beta particles can be shielded by a thin sheet of metal.
Gamma rays require thicker metal, often of high Z such as lead.
Neutrons moderated (slowed down) by low Z materials, captured by boron,
cadmium.

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