PROPERTIES OF rao tN > 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or ‘gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid staties. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.2.1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the ‘mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted by the symbol p (tho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i, kg/m®. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature. ‘Mathematically, mass density is written as Mass of fluid ‘Volume of fluid © ‘The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm? or 1000 kg/m>, 1.2.2. Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called ‘weight density and itis denoted by the symbol w. Weight of fluid _ (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity ‘Thus mathematically, " * Volume of uid Volume of fluid = Mass of fluid x g © Volume of uid cox { Mass of luid__ } ace Volume of fluid wpe (ay[2 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m* in SI units. 1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied. by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as Volume of fluid 1 1 volume Mass of fluid Mass of fluid“ 5 ‘Volume of fluid ‘Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m’/kg. It is commonly applied to gases. Speci 1.2.4. Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. Itis dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Weight density (density) of liquid ‘Weight density (density) of water ‘Weight density (density) of gas Weight density (density) of air Sx Weight density of water X 1000 x 9.81 Nim? Sx Density of water = 5x 1000 kg/m’, (LIA) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m’. Mathematically, S(for liquids) ‘S(for gases) = ‘Thus weight density of a liqui ‘The density of a liquid Problem 1.1 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. Solution. Given : 1 1 ow 3 Volume = 1 tre = itre= ire = lume = 1 tire= 55m? (' Thte=—A morte = 1000 em) Weight = 7N Weight ___7N i), Specific weight (w a OE: CD) ‘Volume ( 1 a 1000 (i Density (p) = A = me kg/m? = 713.5 kg/m®. Ans. Density of liquid _ 7135 Density of water 1000 (Density of water = 1000 kg/m?} (iii) Specific gravity[ Properties of Fluids 3) Problem 1.2 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7 Solution. Given: Volume = 1 hie= 1 1000 em® = 02 m*= 0.001 m? Sp. gravity s=07 (0 Density (p) Using equation (1.14), Density (p) = 5 x 1000 kg/m? = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m*, Ans. (id) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w= px g= 7009.81 Nim? = 6867 N/m’. Ans. (i) Weight (W) Weight We know that specific weight = a ete Volume or 6867 = ‘0007 0.001 W= 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. > 1.3 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance “dy” apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig. I.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers, The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower ayer wie te lowe layer eases \ a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear a stres is proportional tothe rate of change of ve- t [Lew locity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol y a ft) A-veoory prone Mathematically, eo or 1.2) ‘where 1 (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity ony viscosity. represent thereof shear stn rate of shea efomatono velo grate du dy Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. 1.3.1 Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the {quantities in equation (1.3) From equation (1.2), we have jt (1.3) Fig. 11 Velocity variation near a solid boundary.[4 Fluid Mechanics ] Shear stress Foree/Area Change of velocity EG. Tene), Change of distance (Time )* Length Force/(Length)*_ Force x Time 1 (Length) Time In MKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (m), in CGS system, force is represented by dyne and length by cm and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length by metre (m).. 1. MKS unit of viscosity = REESE m dyne-see em In the above expression N/m? is also known as Pascal which is represented by Pa, Hence N/m? = Pascal CGS unit of viscosity Sl unit of viscosity = Ns/m? = Pa s. Sl unit of viscosity Newion-see _ Ne ‘The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS unit to CGS unit is given below : 981N-see one kgf-sec (1 kgf= 9.81 Newton) m m But one Newton = one kg (mass) x one ( ) (acceleration) wee (1000 gm) x (100 em) ~ sec 1000 x 100 © = 1000 x 100 dyne , dyne=am x $2} me KBE-SEE 9 81 109000 IEE « 0,81 x 100000 9H m = 100 x 100 x en = 98.1 HME 08.1 poise {: sneree, Poise} ‘Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get its equivalent numerical value in MKS. one kgf-sec _ 981NS one Ns _ 981 LNs 8 poise = 10 poise or One poise = + NS m 981° a Pose 0 m But = 98.1 poise[ Properties of Fluids 5) Alternate Method. One poise = 2%°%S. (teste xo But dyne kg One poise m too 2-1 KS, ke sm 10 sm sm Note, (i) In SI units second is represented by ‘s’ and not by ‘sec’. 4i)_IE viscosity is given in pois, it must be divided by 10 to get its equivalent numerical value in SI unit. Sometimes a unit of viscosity as centipoise is used where 1 1 1 centipoise = 1 poise or 1eP=—- p [cP = Cemtipoise, P = Poise poise = 755 pol mm? & ip 1 ‘The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0.01 poise oF 1.0 centipoise 1.3.2. Kinematic Viscosity. It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called ‘nu’. Thus, mathematically, Viscosity _ a Density ~ p ‘The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as Unitsof_ Force x Time ___ Force x Time Units of (Leng? x Mass" “Mass Teng)” — Length Length Mass x xTime = (Time)? b Mass Length (Length)? = Time” In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre”/sec or m*/sec while in CGS units it is written as em?/s. In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke. ts ; cette = ue 100 1.3.3. Newton's Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (¢) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, itis expressed as given by equation (1.2) or as[6 Fluid Mechanics ] Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not ‘obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids. 1.3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperature affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases increases With the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids, the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due t0 closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are: .(— ay Trartpr where t= Viscosity of liquid at °C, in poise ‘iscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise (0 For liquids, ©, B= Constants forthe liquid For water, Hy = 1.79 x 10° poise, «= 0.03368 and B = 0.000221. Equation (1.4) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decreases. (ii) For a gas, H= Hy +r - BP (1.48) where for air [ly = 0.000017, 0 = 0.000000056, f = 0.1189 x 10°°. Equation (1.48) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases. 1.3.5 Types of Fluids. The fluids may be classified into the following five types : 1. Ideal fluid, 2. Real fluid, 3. Newtonian fluid, 4, Non-Newtonian fluid, and 5. Ideal plastie fluid. 1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. eal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity 2. Real Fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids. 3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient, is known as a Newtonian fluid. — vetoorry eraoienr ($3) 4. Non-Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the ‘yi shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or ig. 1.2 Types of fluids. velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid. 5. Ideal Plastic Fluid. A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid. —+ shear srress: Problem 1.3. if the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = z y =¥ in which w is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = Ocand y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises.[ Properties of Fluids 7) Solution. Given : u ),_.( w 863 Value of [= 8.63 poise SI units = 0.863 N sim? Now shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as t= #. (0 Shear suess at y= 0 is given by cas) setoroenasrmican (i) Shear stress at y= 0.15 mis given by ©, -01s=H (#) 7 088 0.367 = 03167 Nin. A Problem 1.4 A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2N per unit area i.e., 2 N/m to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates. Solution. Given : 1 Distance between plates, dy = .025 mm B 025 x 107 m Velocity of upper plate, = 60 em/s = 0.6 mis Te N FIXED PLATE. Force on upper plate, e205 9 ‘This is the value of shear stress i.e., Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is 1. du Using the equation (1.2), we have t where 2 OX M2510" gy 495 BE = 8.33 x 10° x 10 poise = “ poise. Ans. Problem 1.5 A flat plate of area 1.5 x 10° mn’ is pulled with a speed of 04 mis relative 10 ‘another plate located ata distance of 0.15 mm from it Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, ifthe fluid separating them is having viscosity as I poise.[8 Fluid Mechanics ] Solution. Given : ‘Area of the plate, A= 15x 10° mm? = 1.5 m* Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 m/s, Distance between the plates, dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10° m ec r a (2) Le dy 10 15x10 > im oO Shear force, F = 7X area = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans. (W Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec = Fx w= 400 x 0.4 = 160 W. Ans. Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The oil is used {for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 em and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.p.m. Solution. Given : w= 1 poise= + Ss 10 m Dia. of shaft, D=10em=0.1m Distance between shaft and journal bearing, dy = 1.5 mm=15x 10m Speed of shaft, N= 150rp.m, ‘Tangential speed of shaft is given by EDN _ KxX01X150 B= 0.785 mis Using equation (1.2), where d= change of velocity between shaft and bearing = « - 0 =u 10785 10" 15x10 Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : 52.33 Nim*. Ans. Area of plate, A= 0.8% 0.8 = 0.64 m? Angle of plane, @=30° Weight of plate, W=300N Velocity of plate, u=03 mis * Power= PxuNmis= Fx uW(: Nes = Watt)Properties of Fluids 9) Thickness of oil film, t= dy=15mm= 15109 m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N ‘Thus the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N and shear stress, te OO Nm ‘Area 068 Now using equation (1.2), we have du dy where du = change of velocity = u—0 = w= 0.3 mis dy= 215% 10% m 150 03 ost" 15x10" p= ROIS AIO 117 N sim? = 1.17 x 10 = 11.7 poise. Ans. 064% 03 Problem 1.8 Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 em apart, the space between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 25 mis Solution. Given : Distance between plates, dy = 1.25 em = 0.0125 m 4 FI Viscosity, = 14 poise = 4 N sim? y w= 14 poise = 7 Velocity of upper plate, w= 2.5 m/sec. Shear stress is given by equ: du 12) as,t=4 (12) as, t= 4 where du = Change of velocity between plates = u ~ 2.5 misec. dy = 0.0125 m. 425 ; T= 19% pias = 280. Nim*. Ans. Problem 1.9 The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the late is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes ifthe specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. Solution. Given : Each side of a square plate = 60.em = 0.60 m Area, A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m? Thickness of oil film, dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10° m Velocity of upper plate, = 2.5 m/sec[10 Fluid Mechanics ] Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 mise = 981.N Force _F__981N Area A 0.36m* (i) Let 1 = Dynamic viscosity of oil Force required on upper plate, Shear stress, du | 981 25 Se ee dy” 036 125x10™ 981, 12.5%10" 036 25 3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans. Using equation (1.2), = cas 7 NS= 10 poise) (Gi) Sp. gr. of oil, $ = 0.95 Let v = kinematic viscosity of oi Using equation (1.14), Mass density of oil, p= Sx 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m? 1 360 *s) Using the relation, v= 4, we get y= ——™/ = 001435 m*ise 930 = 14,35 stokes. Ans. ( em?ls = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m*. The shear stress at 44 point in oil is 0.2452 N/m? and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, Shear stress, Velocity gradient, Using the equation (1.2), 02452 “0.200 Kinematic viscosity v is given by we _ 1226 | = 1.226 Nsim? 125 x 10°? m/sec p 98L 0.125 x 10? x 10 em*/s = 0.125 x 10? emis = 12.5 cm/s = 12.5 stoke. Ans. (Cz em*Is = stoke) Problem 1.11 Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : soy = 005 pote = MS Nant[ Properties of Fluids 11) (0.035 stokes 0.035 em*/s = 0.035 x 10°* mis Kinematic viscosity, stoke = em*Is} Using the relation v= !., we get 0.035 x 104 e ° P 905 1 _ 3408.5 kein? 10 * 0.03510 of liquid _ 14285 _ Det of liquid = rece Density of water 1000 = 1.4285 = 1.43. Ans. Problem 1.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 19. Solution. Given : Kinematic viscosity V = 6 stokes = 6 em*/ Sp. gt. of liquid 9 Let the viscosity of Hiquid = yt _ Density of the liquid Density of water 6x10 ms Now sp. gr. of a liquid or 1.9 = Density of liquid 1000 kg “. Density of liquid = 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 “8 m :. Using the relation x 10" x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m? -14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = y—y* inwhich wis the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress, at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given : At y=0.15, Viscosity,[12 Fluid Mechanics ] du _ 85 N Hy SONS ge = ORRRS Te Ams. Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m, Calculate the power lost in the bearing {fora sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : $0 Viscosity H=6 poise Using equation (1.2), Dia. of shaft, Speed of shaft, Sleeve length, ‘Thickness of oil film, ‘Tangential velocity of shaft, w 60 Using the relation cep where di 98 mis Change of velocity =u — dy = Change of distance x 103m t=10x oe 592 N/m? 15x10° This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area 1592 x RD x L= 1592 x rx 4x90 x 10°? = 180.05 N 04 Tonge onthe shat, T= Foxe x 2= 18005 x 84 =3601 Nm = 2RNT _ 2nx190%36.01 ~— 60 60 Problem 1.18 ifthe velocity profile ofa fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 em from the plate, where the velocity is 120 emlsec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, ifthe viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise. Solution. Given : Distance of vertex from plate = 20 em Velocity at vertex, = 120 emisee “Power lost = 716.48 W. Ans. SSNs 10 m? Viscosity, H=85 poise * Power in $. uni[ Properties of Fluids 13) ‘The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is, uray tbyte od) where a, b and ¢ are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (@) aty=0,u=0 (®) aty = 20 em, u = 120 em/see du (© aty= 20m, = 0. Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get Boundary condition (b) on substitution in (i) gives 120 = a(20)* + b(20) = 4000+ 200 Ai) Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i) gives du Grete ii) or 0=2xax204D=400+b Solving equations (i) and (i) for @ and b From equation (iii), b=-40a Substituting this value in equation (i), we get 120 = 4000 + 20 x ( 40a) = 4000 - 8000 2023 =400 *~ 70 . b==40x(-03) = 120 ‘Substituting the values of a, b and ¢ in equation (i), u=—0.3y? + 12y. Ei a -03 Velocity Gradient == 03x 2y+ 12=-0.6y +12 aty = 0.6 x 0+ 12 = 124. Ans. at y= 10cm, 0.6 x 10 + 12=-6 + 12 = 6/s. Ans. at y= 20cm, 0.6 x 204 12 =~ 12+ 12=0. Ans. Shear Stresses Shear stress is given by,[14 Fluid Mechanics ] 0.85 x 12.0 = 10.2 Nim’. (@ Shear stress at (24) =08860=51 wm i) Shear stress at y = 10, w 5) ey (Gil) Shear stress at y= 20, Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in he clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cmd, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied. Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, uy = 50 em/s when force, F,=40N. Let speed of sleeve is te when force, F = 200 N. Using relation where t = Shear stress ‘du = Change of velocity dy = Clearance {¥ A,qand y are constant} Substituting values, we get 42 = 200 50 My 50x20 = 59 x5 50 cm/s. Ans. 40 Problem 1.17 A 15 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another eylinder of diameter 15.10 cm, Both cylinders are 25 em high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r-p.m., determine the viscosity of the fluid. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder = 15 em = 0.15 m Dia. of outer cylinder = 15.10 em = 0.151 m Length of cylinders, 1 = 250m=0.25 m Torque, T = 12.0 Nm[ Properties of Fluids 15) Speed, Let the viscosity RDN _ rx 015x100 Tangential velocity of eylinder, «= = 0.7854 mis o SENS. 0 Cy Surface area of eylinder, A= RD XL= nx 0.15 x 0.25 = 1178 m? Now using relation ee ay where dus u-0=u= 7854 mis y= O1SI=0150 Fy - 0905 m 2 yx. 7854 [0005 Shear foree, D Torque, TeFxe 120 BME srg tS 12.0%.0005 2 9 s64 N gm? 7854 x 1178 15 = 0.864 x 10 = 8.64 poise. Ans. Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 em apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 ms, if (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 em from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10"! N s/n? Solution. Given : Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 em separa ‘Area of thin plate, A=05m? 12cm Velocity of thin plate, = 0.6 mis er Viscosity of glycerine, = 8.10 10" N sim? idem Case I. When the thin plate is in the midale of the two plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] ooh Let F, = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 17 (@) F, = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate F =Total force required to drag the plate Then FeF\+hy ‘The shear stress (t,) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,[16 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘du dy}, where du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface 0.6 misee dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface 1.2 em = 0.012 m (plate isa thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected) as n=si0x10"x( 26) 40.5 Nim? 012 Now shear force, hear stress x Area 1 XA= 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N Similarly shear stress (,) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by 8.10 10 x { 2% 0012, ) = 40.5 im? Shear force, : 5x05 = 20.25N Total force, Fs F, + Fy= 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans. Case I. When the thin plate is ata distance of 0.8 em from one of the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (0)] yey ee Let the thin plate is at a distance 0.8 em from the lower plane surface. 166m “Ten distance ofthe plate rom the upper plane sutace atm | =24-0.8= 16cm 16m Va (Nepecting thcknes ofthe pate) ‘The shear force onthe upperside of he thin pate, = Shear stress Area t,x vig 170) ay, ‘The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, du axAcu |“) xa +(e), 06 087100 ‘Total force required = F, + F, = 15.18 + 30.36 = 45.54 N. Ans. Problem 1.19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N s/m* and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m X 1.2 m X0.2 em is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N. Solution. Given : Width of gap = 2.2 em, viscosity, y= 2.0 N s/m? Sq. gr. of fluid 09 =n(“*) xa=8.10%107x 22) x05 = 15.18 | 0.016 Fy =810310 (28) x05=20366[ Properties of Fluids 17) Weight density of fluid 091000500 gt = 9009.8 Nim? (oD kgf = 9.81 N) Volume of plate = 1.2mx1.2mx0.2em 1.2 1.2 x 002 m*= 00288 m? ‘Thickness of plate 0.2em Velocity of plate = 0.15 m/sec Weight of plate 40N. ‘When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate from vertical surface of the gap Fig. 18 . (wa of gap~Thickness of pie) . 2 C208) = em= 01m. 2 Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate, F, = Shear stress x Area =» (22) xam20s(28)xranian (cr Area = 1.2 x 1.2m?) Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate, ‘Total shear force = 1+ Fy = 43.2 443.2 = 864 N, In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be taken into account. ‘The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced 81 x 900 x.00288 N (C+ Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plate = .00288) = 2543 N, ‘The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust = Weight of plate ~ Upward thrust = 40 ~ 25.43 = 14.57 N Total force required to lift the plate up = Total shear force + 14.5 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97N. Ans. > 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic properties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo[18 Fluid Mechanics large variation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of state as pV =RTor t RT (1.5) where p = Absolute pressure of a gas in N/m? VW = Specific volume = F Gas constant Absolute temperature in °K. Density of a gas. 1.4.1 Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R is obtained from equation (1.5) as (© In MKS units For air, Rin MKs = 293 “82m kg °K Rin s1=29.3x9.81 S® = 287 igrk 8 eek 1.4.2 Isothermal Process. If the change in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by 6) 1.4.3 Adiabatic Process. If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the 288, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by 2 =Constant an where & = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant volume. = 1 for air.[ Properties of Fluids 19) 1.4.4. Universal Gas Constant Let ‘m= Mass of a gas in kg V = Volume of gas of mass m solute pressure solute temperature Then, we have p= mRT (1.8) where R = Gas constant. Equation (1.8) can be made universal, Z., applicable to all gases if itis expressed in mole-basis. Let n= Number of moles in volume of a gas V = Volume of the gas __ Mass of the gas molecules * “Mass of a hydrogen atom ‘m= Mass of a gas in kg Tenwepine nate Sting eve fmm qutin (1, ne poems? as) ‘pods Ms ld ergs const and sega 88 8s mo and 8314 J/kg-mole K in SI units. (One kilogram mole is defined as the product of one kilogram mass of the gas and its molecular weight. Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 N/m! at 25°C and at an absolute pressure of 0.25 N/mm. Deter- ‘mine the gas constant and density of the gas. Solution. Given : Weight density, w= 16 Nim’ Temperature, 125°C T= 273 4 1= 273 + 25 = 288°K p= 0.25 Nimm? (abs.) = 0.25 x 10° Nim? = 25 x 10 Nim? (0 Using relation w = pg, density is obtained as w_ 16 . JS 21.63 kg/m’. Ans. Pe ost ss (ii) Using equation (1.5), 2 = RT P P= 25x10" 539.55 NM ang pT 163x288 kek Problem 1.21. A cylinder of 0.6 m' in volume contains air at 50°C and 0.3 Ninn? absolute pressure. The air is compressed to 0.3 m*. Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process and (i) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4 Solution. Given : Initial volume, y >[20 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘Temperature Pressure py = 03 Nimm? = 0.3 x 10° N/m? = 30 x 10* N/m? Final volume 3m? kod (@ Isothermal process + Using equation (1.6), 30x10" x06 0.6 x 10° N/m? = 0.6 N/mm?. Ans. (ii) Adiabatic process : Using equation (1.7), 3, (06) tot (28 nxt (2) = 0.791 x 10° Nim? = 0.791 Némm?, Ans. For temperature, using equation (1.5), we get pY = RT and also p W* = Constant P or rv! or Tw Constant Constant {+ Ris also constant} ) = 323x204 = 426.2°K Ans. Problem 1.22 Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4 m’. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable. Solution. Given : Mass of nitrogen =5kg ‘Temperature, 10°C o T=273+10= ‘Volume of nitrogen, v=04m? Molecular weight =28 Using equation (1.9), we have pV = nx Mx RT[ Properties of Fluids 21) where Mx R = Universal gas constant = s314 —Nm___ Kg-mole*K and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight = (kg-mass) x28 for nitrogen = S314 956.9 _N™ 28 ke°K ‘The gas laws for nitrogen isp = mR, where R = Characteristic gs constant or px 0d = 5 x2969 x 283 p= 252969285 _ 1050283.7 Nim? = 1.08 Nim, Ans. 04 > 1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of — = ‘elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain, Consider a eylinder fited with a piston as shown in Fig. L9. ° Let V = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder ‘p= Pressure of gas when volume is : Let the pressure is increased to p+ dp, the volume of gas CYLINDER decreases from WV to V~ dV. Fig. 19 ‘Then increase in pressure Ip ketim> Decrease in volume av Volumetric strain paral v ~ ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure. Bulk modulus K = Inotease of pressure, Volumetric strain dp__-4dp 1 nae ay 1.10) ¥ 1 Compressibiit et ay pressibilty 3 Relationship between Bulk Modulus (K) and Pressure (p) for a Gas The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for two different processes of compression are as () For Isothermal Process. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) of a gas as 2 = Constant Pp[22 Fluid Mechanics ] or pV = Constant Differentiating this equation, we get (p and V both are variables) pav+Vdp=0 or pdv=-Vdp or p Substituting this value in equation (1.10), we get K=p (a2) (ii) For Adiabatic Process. Using equation (1.7) for adiabatic process. - Constant or p V* = Constant Differentiating, we get pa(v*) + V'(dp) or px kx dv 4 VE dp or pa + dp 0 [Cancelling W*! to both sides} or ka =~ dp or pk Hence from equation (1.10), we have K= pk (1.13) = Ratio of specifie heat Problem 1.23 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased from 70 Nicm? to 130 Néem?. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 per cent. Solution. Given : Initial pressure = 70 Niem? Final pressure = 130 Nlem? dp = Increase in pressure = 130 - 70 = 60 N/em? Decrease in volume = 0.15% ous where K = Bulk modulus and 100 Bulk modulus, K is given by equation (1.10) as dp _ 60N/em* _ 60100 cdv IS aS v 100 Problem 1.24 Whar is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a cylinder ‘from a volume of 0.0125 m' at 80 Nem? pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m* at 150 Nien? pressure ? Solution. Given : Initial volume, ¥ = 0.0125 m* Final volume 0.0124 m?* s+ Decrease in volume, dV =.0125 ~.012: K 4x 10Niem?, Ans.[ Properties of Fluids 23) Initial pressure Final pressure Increase in pressure, dp = (150 ~ 80) = 70 N/em® Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as v > 1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas ‘or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a ‘membrane under tension, The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter 6 (called sigma). In MKS units, itis expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. ‘The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by Pee coRrael Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero, But the molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced, Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid act as though it is an elastic membrane under tension. Fig. 110 Surface tension. 1.6.1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting, Let @'= Surface tension of the liquid p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) d= Dia, of droplet. Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be (0 tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (b) and this is equal to = 6 x Circumference oxnd[24 Fluid Mechanics ] Rep ® ii) pressure force on the area ~ d? = p x ~ d® as shown in (i ps ier Fig. 1.11 (0). These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions, ée., MIDEORe I eeteAce rersion x x= Peoxnd ext , co ged 49 aay me 4 (©) PRESSURE FORCES Equation (1.14) shows that with the decrease of diameter Fig. 1.11 Forces on droplet. of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet increases, 1.6.2 Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble. A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such case, we have pxt@ 2x(6x Rd) 2ond _ 86 crab (1.15) 4 1.6.3 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet. Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘a’ and length ‘L’ as shown in Fig. 1.12, Let p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure {= Surface tension of the liquid A Consider the equilibrium of the sem jet, we have Z Force due to pressure 1p Xarea of semi jet Z pxLxd L of Force due to surface tension = 0X2. Z Equating the forces, we have Z pXLxd =0x2L j ett ay Fig. 112 Forces on liquid jet. Problem 1.25 The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 Nim. The pressure inside a droplet of water isto be 0.02 N/em? greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. Solution. Given : Surface tension, 6 = 0.0725 Nim Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is oat % 7 Let of the droplet[ Properties of Fluids 25) d= ADO op m= 0085 100 = 148 mm. Ams. 0.02 x(10) Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 Nin? above atmospherie pressure. Solution. Given : Dia. of bubble, d= 40 mm = 40x 10m Pressure in excess of outside,p = 2.5 N/m? For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get $o or 25 = SxO 40x10 25%40x10° o 8 Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/ent (at- mospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 Nim of water. Solution. Given : N/m = 0.0125 Nim. Ans. Dia. of droplet, d= 0.04 mm = .04 x 10 m Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/em? = 10.32 x 10* N/m? Surface tension, = 00725 Nim The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation (1-14) or p= 49. -4%00725 _ 7959 nim? = 7250N. 0795 Nem? d= 04x10 10% cm? Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet 725 + 10.32 = 11.045 Niem?. Ans. 1.6.4 Capillarity. Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface i known as capillary depression. Itis expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid. Expression for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘a’ opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water. ‘The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. Let f= height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height 1 is balanced by the force atthe surface of the liquid in the tube. But the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension. Fig. 143, Let 6 = Surface tension of liquid = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. ‘The weight of liquid of height iin the tube = (Area of tube x h) x p xg Capillary rise.[26 Fluid Mechanics ] Pxhxpxe 0.17) where p = Density of liquid Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (6x Circumference) x cos ® xnd xcos 0 (1.18) For equilibrium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get FP xx p xe = Xd x cos 0 _ BX md xcosO _ 4.60080 or j= SARA X CSD _ Ao cos0 (1.19) Faxpxs pxgxd ‘The value of @ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos @ is ‘equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by _ 49 “ pxexd Expression for Capillary Fall. Ifthe glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14. Let = Height of depression in tube. ‘Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to Gx rd x cos 0. Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth “I x Area h (1.20) =pxt@ pexhx Si ( p=pshh x 4 Equating the two, we get oxndxcos O=pghx Tf 4G .cos® ae 21) pad Value of @ for mercury and glass tube is 128°. MERCURY Fig. 114 Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions = 0.0725 N/m for water and o= 0.52 Nim {for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 130°, Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, a Surface tension, 6 for water 6 for mercury Sp. gr. of mercury Smm=2.5x 10° m 0725 N/m 52. Nim 3.6[ Properties of Fluids 27) Density = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m’. (a) Capillary rise for water (@ = 0°) 4x 00725 pxgxd 1000x981x 25x10” = 0118 m= 1.18 em, Ans. Using equation (1.20), we get = () For mercury Angle of contact between mercury and glass tube, @ = 130° 4.0088 4 052 x €08 130° pxgxd 136x100 x981x25x10~ 004 m = - 0.4 em. Ans. ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Using equation (1.21), we get t= Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 Nim and 0.51 Nim respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury is 130°, Take density of water ‘at 20°C as equal to 998 kg/m. Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, d=4mm=4x 10m ‘The capillary effect (i.¢., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as p= 45.6088 pxexd where 6 = surface tension in N/m @ = angle of contact, and p = density (i Capillary effect for water 6 = 0.073575 Nim, 8 = 0° p= 998 kg/m? at 20°C = 40073575 x 0080" 998 x981%4 x10 (ii) Capillary effect for mercury 6 =0.51 Nim, @= 130° and 3. gr. x 1000 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? _ 4051 608 130° "= 13600981 x4 x 10 ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. =7.51 x 10? m=7.51 mm. Ans, .46 x 10° m= = 2.46 mm. Ans. Problem 1.30 The capillary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its ‘minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.0725 N/m. Solution. Given: Capillary rise, h= 0.2 mm = 0.2 x 10° m Surface tension, 6 = 0.0725 Nim[28 Fluid Mechanics ] Let dia. of tube ‘The angle @ for water Density (p) for water = 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1.20), we get 40 3 _ 4x 00725 pxexd "97%! = Too x9Bixd 4x 00725 ‘1000 x 981x 2x10 Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 14.8 em. = 0.148 m = 14.8 em. Ans. Problem 1.31. Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used 10 measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 N/m. Solution. Given : Capillary rise, f= 2.0 mm =2.0 10 m Surface tension, 6 = 0.073575 Nim Let dia. of tube a ‘The angle @ for water ‘The density for water, p= 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1,20), we get 40 9.9 x 19 = 4% 0.073575 pxgxd 1000 x 981 xd 4x 0073575, 4X 0075979 ___ = 0,015 m= 15 em. Ans. 1000 x 981 x 2.x 10™ ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 em. Problem 1.32 An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r-p.m. Calculate the power lost in oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of ol film is 1.0 mm. Solution. Given : Viscosity, I= 5 poise = 0.5 N sim? 10 Dia. of shaft, D=05m Speed of shaft, N= 200 rpm. Sleeve length, L = 100 mm = 100 x 10 m=0.1 m Thickness of oil film, 121.0 mm=1x 10% m RDN _ ©x05x200 Tangential velocity of shaft, u = = BK05%200 _ 5.235 mis es y 7 7 du Using the relation, ne wy[ Properties of Fluids 29) where, du = Change of velocity = u ~ 0 = u = 5.235 mls dy = Change of distance 1x 103m 255235 _ 36175 Nin? et The he sear aes on te a 1 Stew force on esha, P= heat wren x Area = 2617S XXD XL (Ara aD XE) zasinsxx03%01 = 41098 ea or Bw 41095 eae eee! oo 10274 252200 950 W = 2.5 1 Ane > 1.7 VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION ‘A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization (which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of continuous ‘escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface. Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporise at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours. Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is reduced t0 such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil ‘even at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature. Now considera flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes. ‘equal to of less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the ‘material from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure iscreated. The metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation, 20NT- ky, THe angular velocity w= 22%. 0,000 0 + Power ncasofSL. Unit Pxcwor 2 at