LEX REVIEWS AND SEMINARS INC;

NATIONAL BAR REVIEW CENTER

FOUR HUNDRED AND SEVENTY-NINE (479) QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS IN
POLITICAL LAW AND PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
(Culled from Significant Laws and Decisions of the Supreme Court)

Attorney EDWIN REY SANDOVAL

(As of August 25, 2006)

PART I

A. POLITICAL LAW

That branch of public law which deals with the organization and operations of the
governmental organs of the State and defines the relations of the State with the
inhabitants of its territory.

Scope/Divisions of Political Law:

1) Constitutional Law—the study of the maintenance of the proper balance between
authority as represented by the three inherent powers of the state and liberty as
guaranteed by the Bill of Rights.
2) Administrative Law-- That branch of public law which fixes the organization,
determines the competence of administrative authorities who executes the law, and
indicates to the individual remedies for the violation of his right.
3) Law on Municipal Corporations
4) Law of Public Officers
5) Elections Law

Basis:
1) 1987 Constitution
2) 1973 and 1935 Constitutions
3) Organic laws made to apply to the Philippines—
a) Philippine Bill of 1902
b) Jones Law of 1916
c) Tydings-McDuffie Law of 1934
4) Statutes, executive orders and decrees, and judicial decisions
5) US Constitution
Constitution Statute
legislation direct from the people legislation from the people’s
representative;

states general principles; provides the details of the subject matter

of
which it treats;
intended not merely to meet existing intended primarily to meet existing
conditions; conditions
only;
it is the fundamental law of the State it conforms to the Constitution

PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION
Constitution—it is the document, which serves as the fundamental law of the State; that
body of rules and maxims in accordance with which the power of sovereignty are habitually
exercised.

That written instrument enacted by direct action of the people by which the fundamental
powers of the government are established, limited and defined, and by which those powers
are distributed among the several departments for their safe and useful exercise for the
benefit of the body politic.

It is the basic and paramount law to which all other laws must conform and to which all
persons, including the highest officials of the land, must defer. No act shall be valid, how
noble its intention, if it conflicts with the Constitution. The Constitution must ever remain
supreme. All must bow to the mandate of this law. Right or wrong, the Constitution must be
upheld as long as the sovereign people have not changed it.

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Classification:
1. Written or unwritten
Written Unwritten
one whose precepts are embodied in one integrated into a single, concrete form
document or set of documents but are scattered in various sources
-consists of rules which have not been
Examples:
a. statutes of fundamentalcharacter;
b. judicial decisions;
c. commentaries of publicists;
d. customs and traditions;
e. certain common law principles

2. Enacted (conventional) or Evolved (Cumulative)

Enacted (conventional) Evolved (Cumulative)
formally struck off at a definite time and the result of political evolution, not
place following a conscious or deliberate inaugurated at any specific time but
effort taken by a constituent body or changing by accretion rather than by any
ruler systematic method

3. Rigid Flexible

Rigid Flexible
one that can be amended only by a one that can be changed by ordinary
formal and usually difficult process legislation

- The Philippine Constitution is written, conventional and rigid. It is embodied in one

document and can be amended only by a formal and usually difficult process.

Interpretation:
1) Verba Legis—whenever possible, the words used in the Constitution must be given
their ordinary meaning except where technical terms are employed.
2) When there is Ambiguity—ratio legis et anima--A doubtful provision shall be
examined in the light of the history of the times and the conditions and
circumstances under which the Constitution was framed. (Civil Liberties Union vs.
Executive Secretary, 194 SCRA 317)
3) Ut magis valeat quam pereat—the Constitution has to be interpreted as a whole.
(Francisco vs. HR, G.R. No. 160261, November 10, 2003) If the plain meaning
of the word is not found to be clear, resort to other aids is available—construe the
Constitution from what “appears upon its face”. The proper interpretation, therefore,
depends more on how it was understood by the people adopting it than in the
framers’ understanding thereof.

In case of doubt, the provision should be considered as self-executing; mandatory rather

than directory; and prospective rather than retroactive.

Self-executing provision—one which is complete in itself and becomes operative without

the aid of supplementary or enabling legislation, or that which supplies a sufficient rule by
means of which the right it grants may be enjoyed or protected.

Essential Qualities of the Written Constitution:

1) Broad;
2) Brief; and
3) Definite.

Essential parts of a good written Constitution:

a) Constitution of Liberty—sets forth the fundamental civil and political rights of the
citizens and imposes limitations on the powers of the government as a means of
securing the enjoyment of those rights. e.g. Bill of Rights

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 b) Constitution of Government—outlines the organization of the government,
enumerates its powers, lays down certain rules relative to its administration and
defines the electorate. e.g. Legislative, Executive and Judicial Departments,
Constitutional Commissions
c) Constitution of Sovereignty—the provisions pointing out the mode or procedure in
accordance with which formal changes in the fundamental law may be brought
about. e.g. Art. XVII-Amendments or Revisions

Effects of Declaration of Unconstitutionality:

2 Views:
a) ORTHODOX VIEW—
i. an unconstitutional act is not a law;
ii. it confers no rights;
iii. it imposes no duties;
iv. it affords no protection;
v. it creates no office;
vi. it is inoperative, as if it had not been passed at all.

b) MODERN VIEW—Courts simply refuse to recognize the law and determine the rights
of the parties as if the statute had no existence. Certain legal effects of the statute
prior to its declaration of unconstitutionality may be recognized. Thus, a public officer
who implemented an unconstitutional law prior to the declaration of
unconstitutionality cannot be held liable (Ynot vs. IAC).

Partial Unconstitutionality
Requisites:
a) The legislature must be willing to retain the valid portion(s), usually shown by the
presence of a separability clause in the law—INTENT OF THE LEGISLATIVE; and
b) The valid portion can stand independently as law—INDEPENDENCE OF THE
PROVISIONS.

Distinguish sovereignty from dominion.

Held: Sovereignty is the right to exercise the functions of a State to the exclusion of
any other State. It is often referred to as the power of imperium, which is defined as the
government authority possessed by the State. On the other hand, dominion, or dominium,
is the capacity of the State to own or acquire property such as lands and natural resources.
(Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of DENR, G.R. No.
135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc, See Footnote 86)

What is the Doctrine of Constitutional Supremacy?

Held: Under the doctrine of constitutional supremacy, if a law or contract violates

any norm of the Constitution, that law or contract, whether promulgated by the legislative or
by the executive branch or entered into by private persons for private purposes, is null and
void and without any force and effect. Thus, since the Constitution is the fundamental,
paramount and supreme law of the nation, it is deemed written in every statute and
contract. (Manila Prince Hotel v. GSIS, 267 SCRA 408 [1997] [Bellosillo])

What are self-executing and non-self executing provisions of the Constitution?

Held: A provision which lays down a general principle, such as those found in Article
II of the 1987 Constitution, is usually not self-executing. But a provision which is complete in
itself and becomes operative without the aid of supplementary or enabling legislation, or
that which supplies sufficient rule by means of which the right it grants may be enjoyed or
protected, is self-executing. Thus a constitutional provision is self-executing if the nature
and extent of the right conferred and the liability imposed are fixed by the Constitution
itself, so that they can be determined by an examination and construction of its terms, and
there is no language indicating that the subject is referred to the legislature for action.
(Manila Prince Hotel v. GSIS, 267 SCRA 408 [1997] [Bellosillo])

Are provisions of the Constitution self-executing or non-self executing? Why?

Held: Unless it is expressly provided that a legislative act is necessary to enforce a

constitutional mandate, the presumption now is that all provisions are self-executing. If the
constitutional provisions are treated as requiring legislation instead of self-executing, the
legislature would have the power to ignore and practically nullify the mandate of the

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fundamental law. This can be cataclysmic. (Manila Prince Hotel v. GSIS, 267 SCRA 408
[1997] [Bellosillo])

What is the “Filipino First” Policy enshrined in the Constitution?

Ans.: In the grant of rights, privileges, and concessions covering the national
economy and patrimony, the State shall give preference to qualified Filipinos. (Sec. 10, 2nd
par., Art. XII, 1987 Constitution)

Is the “Filipino First” Policy expressed in Section 10, Article XII of the
Constitution a self-executing provision?

Held: Yes. It is a mandatory, positive command which is complete in itself and

which needs no further guidelines or implementing laws or rules for its enforcement. From
its very words the provision does not require any legislation to put it in operation. It is per
se judicially enforceable. When our Constitution mandates that [i]n the grant of rights,
privileges, and concessions covering the national economy and patrimony, the State shall
give preference to qualified Filipinos, it means just that – qualified Filipinos must be
preferred. (Manila Prince Hotel v. GSIS, G.R. No. 118295, May 2, 1997, 267 SCRA
408 [Bellosillo])

Give examples of non-self executing provisions of the Constitution.

Held: By its very nature, Article II of the Constitution is a “declaration of principles

and state policies.” These principles in Article II are not intended to be self-executing
principles ready for enforcement through the courts. They are used by the judiciary as aids
or as guides in the exercise of its power of judicial review, and by the legislature in its
enactment of laws. As held in the leading case of Kilosbayan, Incorporated v. Morato (246
SCRA 540, 564, July 17, 1995), the principles and state policies enumerated in Article II and
some sections of Article XII are not “self-executing provisions, the disregard of which can
give rise to a cause of action in courts. They do not embody judicially enforceable
constitutional rights but guidelines for legislation.” (Tanada v. Angara, 272 SCRA 18
[1997], En Banc [Panganiban])

When are acts of persons considered “State action” covered by the Constitution?

Held: In constitutional jurisprudence, the act of persons distinct from the

government are considered “state action” covered by the Constitution (1) when the activity
it engages in is a “public function”; (2) when the government is so significantly involved with
the private actor as to make the government responsible for his action; and (3) when the
government has approved or authorized the action. (Manila Prince Hotel v. GSIS, 267
SCRA 408 [1997] [Bellosillo])

PREAMBLE
WE, THE SOVEREIGN FILIPINO PEOPLE, IMPLORING THE AID OF ALMIGHTY GOD, IN
ORDER TO BUILD A JUST AND HUMANE SOCIETY AND ESTABLISH A GOVERNMENT
THAT SHALL EMBODY OUR IDEALS AND ASPIRATIONS, PROMOTE THE COMMON
GOOD, CONSERVE AND DEVELOP OUR PATRIMONY, AND SECURE TO OURSELVES
AND OUR POSTERITY THE BLESSINGS OF INDEPENDENCE AND DEMOCRACY UNDER
THE RULE OF LAW AND A REGIME OF TRUTH, JUSTICE, FREEDOM, LOVE, EQUALITY,
AND PEACE, DO ORDAIN AND PROMULGATE THIS CONSTITUTION.

The Preamble is not a source of power or right for any department of government. It sets
down the origin, scope, and purpose of the Constitution. It bears witness to the fact that the
Constitution is the manifestation of the sovereign will of the Filipino people.
The identification of the Filipino people as the author of the constitution calls attention to an
important principle: that the document is not just the work of representatives of the people
but of the people themselves who put their mark approval by ratifying it in a plebiscite.
1) It does not confer rights nor impose duties.
2) Indicates authorship of the Constitution; enumerates the primary aims and
aspirations of the framers; and serves as an aid in the construction of the
Constitution.

ARTICLE I
NATIONAL TERRITORY
The national territory comprises the Philippine archipelago, with all the islands
and waters embraced therein, and all other territories over which the Philippines
has sovereignty or jurisdiction, consisting of its terrestrial, fluvial and aerial
domains, including its territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves,

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and other submarines areas. The waters around, between and connecting the
islands of the archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part
of the internal waters of the Philippines.”

Two (2) Parts of the National Territory:

1) The Philippine archipelago with all the islands and waters embraced therein; and
2) All other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction.

Do you consider the Spratlys Group of Islands as part of Philippine

Archipelago? _Spratlys Group of Islands is not part of the Philippine Archipelago because it
is too far away from the three main islands of the Philippines. It is found, geographically,
almost in the middle of the South China Sea. It is not part of the Philippine Archipelago.
Historically, when we talk about Philippine Archipelago, we refer to those islands and waters
that were ceded by the Spain to the United States by virtue of Treaty of Paris in 1898. And
that did not include the Spratlys Group of Islands yet. Under the treaty, the islands that were
ceded by Spain were identified—the main islands—Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Clearly, it
did not include the Spratlys Group of Islands.

Spratlys Group of Islands was only discovered sometime in the 1950’s by a Filipino, Tomas
Cloma. The latter waived his rights over the islands in favor of the Philippine Government. In
effect, the government stepped into the shoes of the discoverer. By then President Marcos,
what he did the moment Tomas Cloma waived his rights over the Spratlys Group of Islands,
is to have the islands immediately occupied by Philippine troops. He then issued PD 1596,
constituting the Spratlys Group of Islands as a regular municipality claiming it the
Municipality of Kalayaan placing it under the Province of Palawan. And then he had the
elections immediately held in the islands so from that time on until now, we continue to hold
elections there. The Philippine exercises not only jurisdiction but also sovereignty over the
Spratlys Group of Islands, yet it is not part of the Philippine Archipelago. Geographically, it is
too far away from the Philippine Archipelago.

On May 20, 1980, the Philippines registered its claim with the UN Secretariat.
The Philippine claim to the islands is justified by reason of history, indispensable need, and
effective occupation and control. Thus, in accordance with the international law, the Spratlys
Group of islands is subject to the sovereignty of the Philippines.

Do you consider the Spratlys group of Islands as part of our National Territory?
Yes. Article I of the Constitution provides: “The national territory comprises the
Philippine archipelago, x x x, and all other territories over which the Philippines has
sovereignty or jurisdiction, x x x.” The Spratlys Group of islands falls under the second
phrase “and all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction”. It
is part of our national territory because Philippines exercise sovereignty (through election of
public officials) over Spratlys Group of Islands.

What was the basis of the Philippines’ claim over the Spratlys?
Through discovery of Tomas Cloma and occupation

Modes of acquiring territories:

1) Discovery and Occupation—which are terra nullius (land belonging to no one)
Doctrine of Effective Occupation—discovery alone is not enough. Mere discovery gives
only an inchoate right to the discoverer. For title to finally vest, discovery must be followed
by effective occupation in a reasonable time and attestation of the same.
2) Cession by Treaty. Examples are Treaty of Paris, treaty between France and US
ceding Louisiana to the latter and treaty between Russia and US ceding Alaska to the
latter;
3) Prescription—which is a concept under the Civil Code. Territory may also be acquired
through continuous and uninterrupted possession over a long period of time.
However, in international law, there is no rule of thumb as to the length of time for
acquisition of territory through prescription. In this connection, consider the Grotius
Doctrine of immemorial prescription, which speaks of uninterrupted possession
going beyond memory.
4) Conquest or Subjugation (conquistadores)—this is no longer recognized
inasmuch as the UN Charter prohibits resort to threat or use of force against the
territorial integrity or political independence of any state; and
5) Accretion—another concept in the Civil Code. It is the increase in the land area of
the State, either through natural means, or artificially, through human labor.

Other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction:

1. Batanes—(1935 Constitution);
2. Those contemplated under Article I, 1973 Constitution—belonging to the

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Philippines by historic right or legal title;
PD 1596, June 11, 1978-- constituting the Spratly’s Group of Islands as a regular municipality
claiming it the Municipality of Kalayaan, placing it under the Province of Palawan.

“xxx The waters around, between and connecting the islands of the
archipelago, regardless of their breadth and dimensions, form part of the internal
waters of the Philippines.”
This second sentence of Article I is not the Archipelago Doctrine. This is only our
restatement/reaffirmation of our adherence to the Archipelago Doctrine simply because we
are an archipelago consisting of 7,107 islands. It is essential for our national survival that we
adhere to the archipelago principle.

Archipelago Doctrine—merely emphasizes the unity of lands and waters. It is a body of

waters interconnected with other natural features. Under the United Nation Convention on
the Law of Sea (UNCLOS), it consists of drawing imaginary baseline connecting the
outermost islands of the archipelago in which all waters, islands is considered as one
integrated whole. An archipelago is defined as group of islands, interconnecting waters and
other natural features which are so closely interrelated that such islands, waters and natural
features form an intrinsic geographical, economical and political entity, or which historically
been regarded as such.

Correlate this doctrine to right of innocent of passage, right of arrival under stress and
UNCLOS requiring the designation of archipelagic seaways so that foreign vessels may pas
through an archipelago.

Components of National Territory:

i. Terrestrial—land mass on which the inhabitants live;
ii. Fluvial—maritime;
a. Internal or national waters—bodies of water within the land mass, among them are:
i. Rivers—which may be:
1. National
2. Boundary—divides the territories of States
3. International—flows thru various States
a. Thalweg Doctrine—for boundary rivers, in the absence of an agreement between
the riparian states, the boundary line is laid on the middle of the main navigable
channel.
b. Middle of the Bridge Doctrine—where there is a bridge over a boundary river,
the boundary line is the middle or center of the bridge.

ii. Bays and gulfs—a bay is a well-marked indentation whose penetration is in such
proportion to the width of its mouth as to contain a land-locked waters and constitutes
more than a curvature of the coast. Also referred to as juridical bay. The area must be
as large as, or larger than, a semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the
mouth of such indentation, or if the mouth is less than 24 miles wide.
e.g. Hudson Bay in Canada, one whose waters are considered internal because of the
existence of a historic title.

iii. Straits—narrow passageways connecting 2 bodies of water. If the distance between

the 2 opposite coast is not more than 6 miles, they are considered internal waters.
In international law, when a strait within a country has a width of more than six (6) miles,
the center lane in excess of the three (3) miles on both sides is considered international
waters.

iv. Canals—the most famous is the Suez Canal, which is neutralized, and the Panama
Canal, which is open to everyone in times of war or peace.

b. Archipelagic waters—are the waters enclosed by the archipelagic baselines,

regardless of their depth or distance from the coast.
Archipelagic State—a state made up wholly of one or two archipelagos. It may
include other islands.

Straight Archipelagic Baseline—to determine the archipelagic waters, the state

shall draw straight baselines connecting the outermost points of the outermost
islands and drying reefs, provided that the ratio of the area of the water to the area
of the land, including atolls, is between 1:1 and 9:1. The length of such baselines
shall not exceed 100 nautical miles, except up to 3% of the total number of baselines
enclosing any archipelago may exceed that length, up to a maximum 125 miles. The
baselines drawn should not depart, to any appreciable extent, from the general

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 configuration of the archipelago. All the waters within the baselines shall then be
considered internal waters. The breadth of the 12-mile territorial sea, the contiguous
zone, the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf shall then be measured
from the archipelagic baselines.

Vessels may be allowed innocent passage within the archipelagic waters, but this
right may be suspended, after publication, in the interest of international security.
The coastal state may also designate archipelagic sea lanes for continuous,
unobstructed transit of vessels.

c. Territorial Sea—the belt of the sea located between the coast and the internal waters
of the coastal state on the other hand, and the high seas on the other, extending up to 12
nautical miles from the low-water mark, or in the case of archipelagic states, from the
baselines.

Baseline—is a line from which the breadth of the territorial sea, the contiguous zone
and the exclusive economic zone is measured in order to determine the maritime
boundary of the coastal state.

Types of baseline:
i. Normal Baseline Method
ii. Straight Baseline method

d. Contiguous Zone—extends up to 12 nautical miles from the territorial sea; this shall
not exceed 24 nautical miles from the archipelagic baselines.
The coastal state may exercise limited jurisdiction over the contiguous zone:
1. To prevent infringement of customs, fiscal immigration or sanitary laws and
regulations within its territory or territorial sea; and
2. To punish infringement of the above laws and regulations committed within its
territory.

e. Exclusive Economic Zone—shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the
archipelagic baselines.

f. Continental shelf—it is the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas extending
beyond the Philippine territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of the land
territory. It extends up to:
i. The outer edge of the continental margin; or
ii. A distance of 200 nautical miles from the archipelagic baselines, whichever is the
farthest.

The continental shelf does not form part of the Philippine territory. The
Philippines has the sovereign rights over the continental shelf for the purpose of exploring it
and exploiting its natural resources.

g. High Seas—treated as res communes, thus, not territory of any particular State. These
are the waters which do not constitute the internal waters, archipelagic waters, territorial
sea and exclusive economic zones of a state. They are beyond the jurisdiction and sovereign
rights of States.

Freedom of navigation—refers to the right to sail ship on the high sea, subject to
international law and the laws of the flag of the state.

iii. Aerial—this refers to the air space above the land and waters of the
State (See Discussions under International Law)

ARTICLE II
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES
Sec. 1, Article II
The Philippines is a democratic and republican State. Sovereignty resides
in the people and all government authority emanates from them.
(Relate this to Article XI)

Essential features: Representation and Renovation.

Manifestations:

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 1) Ours is a government of law and not of men (Villavicencio vs. Lukban, 39 Phil
778)
2) Rule of the majority. (Plurality in elections)
3) Accountability of public officials
4) Bill of rights
5) Legislature cannot pass irrepealable laws.
6) Separation of powers.

Republicanism
What is a republican form of government?
It is a government of the people, by the people, and for the people, a representative
government wherein the powers and duties of government are exercised and
discharged for the common good and welfare.thus, the supreme power resides on
the body of people.

Characteristics of a republican form of government:

1) The people do not govern themselves directly but through their
representatives;
2) It is founded upon popular suffrage;
3) There is the tripartite system of the government, the mutual interdependence
of the three departments of the government.

STATE—a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a

definite portion of territory, independent of external control, and possessing a
government to which a great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience. (CIR
vs. Campos Rueda, 42 SCRA 23)

State vs. Nation

State is a legal or juristic concept while a Nation is an ethnic or racial concept

State vs. Government

State possesses a government to which a great body of inhabitants render habitual
obedience while a Government is merely an instrumentality of the State through
which the will of the State is implemented and realized.

Elements of State:
1) People—the inhabitants of the State; the # of which is capable for self-
sufficiency and self-defense; of both sexes for perpetuity.
a. Inhabitants;
b. Citizens;
c. Electors.
2) Territory—a fixed portion of the surface of the earth inhabited by the people
of the State.
3) Government—the agency or instrumentality through which the will of the
State is formulated, expressed and realized.

De Jure vs. De Facto

De Jure has a rightful title but no power or control, either because the same has
been withdrawn from it or because it has not yet actually entered into the exercise
thereof while a De Facto Actually exercises the power or control but without legal
title.
a) De facto proper—government that gets possession and control of, or
usurps, by force or by the voice of the majority, the rightful legal government
and maintains itself against the will of the latter;
b) Government of Paramount Forces—established and maintained by the
military forces who invade and occupy a territory of the enemy in the course
of war;
c) Independent Government—established by the inhabitants of the country
who rise in insurrection against the parent State.

Presidential vs. Parliamentary

1) In Presidential, there is separation of legislative and executive powers. The
first is lodged in the President and the second is vested in Congress while in

8
 Parliamentary there is fusion of both executive and legislative powers in
Parliament, although the actual exercise of the executive powers is vested
in a Prime Minister who is chosen by, and accountable to, Parliament.
2) In Presidential it embodies interdependence by separation and coordination
while in Parliamentary, It embodies interdependence by integration.

Doctrine of Parens Patriae—the government as guardian of the rights of the

people may initiate legal actions for and in behalf of particular individual.
(Government of the Philippine Islands vs. Monte de Piedad, 35 SCRA 738;
Cabañas vs. Pilapil, 58 SCRA 94)

4) Sovereignty—It is the right to exercise the functions of a State to the

exclusion of any other State.

While sovereignty has traditionally been deemed absolute and all-encompassing on

the domestic level, it is however subject to restrictions and limitations voluntarily
agreed to by the Philippines, expressly or impliedly, as a member of the family of
nations. In its Declaration of Principles and State Policies, the Constitution adopts
the generally accepted principles of international law as part of the law of the land,
and adheres to the policy of peace, equality, justice, freedom, cooperation and
amity, with all nations. By the doctrine of incorporation, the country is bound by
generally accepted principles of international law, which are considered to be
automatically part of our own laws.

“Government of Laws and Not of Men.”—sovereignty of the people also

includes the concept that government officials have only the authority given them
by law and defined by law, and such authority continues only with the consent of
the people.

Kinds of Sovereignty:
a) Legal—the power to issue final commands;
b) Political—the sum total of all the influences which lie behind the law;
c) Internal—the supreme power over everything within its territory;
d) External—also known as independence—freedom from external control.

Characteristics:
i. Permanence
ii. Exclusiveness
iii. Comprehensiveness
iv. Absoluteness
v. Indivisibility
vi. Inalienability
vii. Imprescriptibility

Sovereignty, often referred to as Imperium—is the State’s authority to govern; it

includes passing laws governing a territory, maintaining peace and order over it,
and defending it against foreign invasion.
It is the government authority possessed by the State expressed in the concept of
sovereignty.

Dominium—is the capacity of the State to own or acquire property such as lands
and natural resources. (Lee Hong Hok vs. David, No. L-30389, December 27,
1972; Separate Opinion of Justice Kapunan in Cruz vs. Secretary of DENR,
G.R. No. 135385, December 2000)

Effect of Belligerent Occupation—there is no change in sovereignty. However,

political laws, except those of treason, are suspended; municipal laws remain in
force unless changed by the belligerent occupant.

Principle of Jus Postliminium—at the end of the occupation, when the occupant
is ousted from the territory, the political laws which have been suspended shall

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automatically become effective again. (Peralta vs. Director of Prisons, No.
L049, November 12, 1945)

Effect of Change of Sovereignty—political laws of the former sovereign are

abrogated unless they are expressly reenacted by the affirmative act of the new
sovereign. Municipal laws remain in force. (Macariola vs. Asuncion, Adm. Case
No. 133-J, May31, 1982)

Effect of Revolutionary Government—it is bound by no constitution. However, it

did not repudiate the Covenant or Declaration in the same way it repudiated the
Constitution. As the de jure government, the revolutionary government could not
escape responsibility for the State’s good faith compliance with its treaty
obligations under international law. During the interregnum when no constitution or
Bill of Rights existed, directives and orders issued by government officers did not
exceed the authority granted them by the revolutionary government. The directives
or orders should not have also violated the Covenant or the Declaration. (Republic
vs. Sandiganbayan, G.R. No. 104768, July 21, 2003)

Jurisdiction—is the manifestation of sovereignty.

a) Territorial—power of the State over persons and things within its territory
subject to its control and protection.
b) Personal—power of the State over its nationals, which may be exercised by
the state even if the individual is outside the territory of the State.
c) Extraterritorial—power of the State over persons, things or acts beyond its
territorial limits by reason of their effects to its territory.

The Doctrine of State Immunity from Suit

Discuss the basis of the doctrine of State immunity from suit.

Held: The basic postulate enshrined in the Constitution that “[t]he State may not be
sued without its consent,” reflects nothing less than a recognition of the sovereign character
of the State and an express affirmation of the unwritten rule effectively insulating it from the
jurisdiction of courts. It is based on the very essence of sovereignty. As has been aptly
observed by Justice Holmes, a sovereign is exempt from suit, not because of any formal
conception or obsolete theory, but on the logical and practical ground that there can be no
legal right as against the authority that makes the law on which the right depends . True,
the doctrine, not too infrequently, is derisively called “the royal prerogative of dishonesty”
because it grants the state the prerogative to defeat any legitimate claim against it by
simply invoking its non-suability. We have had occasion to explain in its defense, however,
that a continued adherence to the doctrine of non-suability cannot be deplored, for the loss
of governmental efficiency and the obstacle to the performance of its multifarious functions
would be far greater in severity than the inconvenience that may be caused private parties,
if such fundamental principle is to be abandoned and the availability of judicial remedy is
not to be accordingly restricted. (Department of Agriculture v. NLRC, 227 SCRA 693,
Nov. 11, 1993 [Vitug])

Is the rule absolute, i.e., that the State may not be sued at all? How may consent
of the State to be sued given?

Held: The rule, in any case, is not really absolute for it does not say that the state
may not be sued under any circumstances. On the contrary x x x the doctrine only conveys,
“the state may not be sued without its consent;” its clear import then is that the State may
at times be sued. The State's consent may be given either expressly or impliedly. Express
consent may be made through a general law (i.e., Commonwealth Act No. 327, as amended
by Presidential Decree No. 1445 [Sections 49-50], which requires that all money claims
against the government must first be filed with the Commission on Audit which must act
upon it within sixty days. Rejection of the claim will authorize the claimant to elevate the
matter to the Supreme Court on certiorari and, in effect, sue the State thereby) or a special
law. In this jurisdiction, the general law waiving the immunity of the state from suit is found
in Act No. 3083, where the Philippine government “consents and submits to be sued upon
any money claim involving liability arising from contract, express or implied, which could
serve as a basis of civil action between the private parties.” Implied consent, on the other

10
hand, is conceded when the State itself commences litigation, thus opening itself to a
counterclaim or when it enters into a contract. In this situation, the government is deemed
to have descended to the level of the other contracting party and to have divested itself of
its sovereign immunity. (Department of Agriculture v. NLRC, 227 SCRA 693, Nov. 11,
1993 [Vitug])

The rule that when the State enters into a contract with a private individual or
entity, it is deemed to have descended to the level of that private individual or
entity and, therefore, is deemed to have tacitly given its consent to be sued, is
that without any qualification? What is the Restrictive Doctrine of State
Immunity from Suit?

Held: This rule x x x is not x x x without qualification. Not all contracts entered into
by the government operate as a waiver of its non-suability; distinction must still be made
between one which is executed in the exercise of its sovereign function and another which is
done in its proprietary capacity.

In United States of America v. Ruiz (136 SCRA 487), where the questioned
transaction dealt with the improvements on the wharves in the naval installation at Subic
Bay, we held:

“The traditional rule of immunity exempts a State from being sued in the
courts of another State without its consent or waiver. This rule is a necessary
consequence of the principle of independence and equality of States. However, the
rules of International Law are not petrified; they are constantly developing and
evolving. And because the activities of states have multiplied, it has been necessary
to distinguish them - between sovereign and governmental acts (jure imperii) and
private, commercial and proprietary acts (jure gestionis). The result is that State
immunity now extends only to acts jure imperii. The restrictive application of State
immunity is now the rule in the United States, the United Kingdom and other states in
Western Europe.

Xxx

The restrictive application of State immunity is proper only when the

proceedings arise out of commercial transactions of the foreign sovereign, its
commercial activities or economic affairs. Stated differently, a State may be said to
have descended to the level of an individual and can thus be deemed to have tacitly
given its consent to be sued only when it enters into business contracts. It does not
apply where the contracts relate to the exercise of its sovereign functions. In this
case the projects are an integral part of the naval base which is devoted to the
defense of both the United States and the Philippines, indisputably a function of the
government of the highest order; they are not utilized for nor dedicated to
commercial or business purposes.”
(Department of Agriculture v. NLRC, 227 SCRA 693, Nov. 11, 1993 [Vitug])

When is a suit against a public official deemed to be a suit against the State?
Discuss.

Held: 1. The doctrine of state immunity from suit applies to complaints filed against
public officials for acts done in the performance of their duties. The rule is that the suit must
be regarded as one against the State where the satisfaction of the judgment against the
public official concerned will require the State itself to perform a positive act, such as
appropriation of the amount necessary to pay the damages awarded to the plaintiff.

The rule does not apply where the public official is charged in his official capacity for
acts that are unlawful and injurious to the rights of others. Public officials are not exempt, in
their personal capacity, from liability arising from acts committed in bad faith.

Neither does it apply where the public official is clearly being sued not in his official
capacity but in his personal capacity, although the acts complained of may have been
committed while he occupied a public position. (Amado J. Lansang v. CA, G.R. No.
102667, Feb. 23, 2000, 2nd Div. [Quisumbing])

2. As early as 1954, this Court has pronounced that an officer cannot shelter himself
by the plea that he is a public agent acting under the color of his office when his acts are
wholly without authority. Until recently in 1991 (Chavez v. Sandiganbayan, 193 SCRA 282
[1991]), this doctrine still found application, this Court saying that immunity from suit cannot
institutionalize irresponsibility and non-accountability nor grant a privileged status not

11
claimed by any other official of the Republic. (Republic v. Sandoval, 220 SCRA 124,
March 19, 1993, En Banc [Campos, Jr.])

State instances when a suit against the State is proper.

Held: Some instances when a suit against the State is proper are:

1) When the Republic is sued by name;

2) When the suit is against an unincorporated government agency;
3) When the suit is on its face against a government officer but the case is such that
ultimate liability will belong not to the officer but to the government.
Republic v. Sandoval, 220 SCRA 124, March 19, 1993, En Banc [Campos, Jr.])

Hundreds of landless peasants, farmers and farmworkers marched in Mendiola on

their way to Malacanang protesting against the implementation of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program of the government. As the
demonstration became unruly, police and military personnel assigned in the area
violently dispersed the rallyists causing deaths and injuries to several
demonstrators, in what is now referred to as the infamous “Mendiola Massacre.”
The next day, an indignation rally was held where no less than the President
herself joined. In that rally, she promised to look into the plight of the victims
and their heirs and she created a Task Force to investigate the cause of the
Mendiola massacre. After investigation, the Task Force found that although
initially, the police and military personnel assigned in the area performed their
functions in accordance with law but when later they fired their guns directlty at
the demonstrators, they exceeded their authority. Consequently, the Task Force
recommended that the individual police and military officers involved be
prosecuted criminally and for the government to indemnify the victims and/or
their heirs. For the government’s failure to indemnify the victims and their heirs,
the latter brought an action for damages against the government. The Solicitor
General filed a motion to dismiss invoking State immunity from suit. The
plaintiffs opposed the motion contending that the government has waived its
immunity from suit based on the acts and pronouncements of the President, as
well as the recommendation of the Task Force to indemnify the victims and/or
their heirs. Has the government waived its immunity from suit in the Mendiola
massacre, and, therefore, should indemnify the heirs and victims of the Mendiola
incident? Consequently, is the suit filed against the Republic by petitioners in
said case really a suit against the State?

Held: Petitioners x x x advance the argument that the State has impliedly waived its
sovereign immunity from suit. It is their considered view that by the recommendation made
by the Commission for the government to indemnify the heirs and victims of the Mendiola
incident and by the public addresses made by then President Aquino in the aftermath of the
killings, the State has consented to be sued.
Xxx
This is not a suit against the State with its consent.

Firstly, the recommendation made by the Commission regarding indemnification of

the heirs of the deceased and the victims of the incident by the government does not in any
way mean that liability automatically attaches to the State. It is important to note that A.O.
11 expressly states that the purpose of creating the Commission was to have a body that
will conduct an “investigation of the disorder, deaths and casualties that took place.” In the
exercise of its functions, A.O. 11 provides guidelines, and what is relevant to Our discussion
reads:

“1. Its conclusions regarding the existence of probable cause for the commission
of any offense and of the persons probably guilty of the same shall be sufficient
compliance with the rules on preliminary investigation and the charges arising therefrom
may be filed directly with the proper court.”

In effect, whatever may be the findings of the Commission, the same shall only serve
as the cause of action in the event that any party decides to litigate his/her claim.
Therefore, the Commission is merely a preliminary venue. The Commission is not the end in
itself. Whatever recommendation it makes cannot in any way bind the State immediately,
such recommendation not having become final and executory. This is precisely the essence
of it being a fact-finding body.

Secondly, whatever acts or utterances that then President Aquino may have done or
said, the same are not tantamount to the State having waived its immunity from suit. The

12
President’s act of joining the marchers, days after the incident, does not mean that there
was an admission by the State of any liability. In fact to borrow the words of petitioner x x x,
“it was an act of solidarity by the government with the people.” Moreover, petitioners rely
on President Aquino’s speech promising that the government would address the grievances
of the rallyists. By this alone, it cannot be inferred that the State has admitted any liability,
much less can it be inferred that it has consented to the suit.

Although consent to be sued may be given impliedly, still it cannot be maintained

that such consent was given considering the circumstances obtaining in the instant case.

Thirdly, the case does not qualify as a suit against the State.

Xxx

While the Republic in this case is sued by name, the ultimate liability does not pertain
to the government. Although the military officers and personnel, then party defendants,
were discharging their official functions when the incident occurred, their functions ceased
to be official the moment they exceeded their authority. Based on the Commission findings,
there was lack of justification by the government forces in the use of firearms. Moreover,
the members of the police and military crowd dispersal units committed a prohibited act
under B.P. Blg. 880 as there was unnecessary firing by them in dispersing the marchers.

As early as 1954, this Court has pronounced that an officer cannot shelter himself by
the plea that he is a public agent acting under the color of his office when his acts are wholly
without authority. Until recently in 1991 (Chavez v. Sandiganbayan, 193 SCRA 282 [1991]),
this doctrine still found application, this Court saying that immunity from suit cannot
institutionalize irresponsibility and non-accountability nor grant a privileged status not
claimed by any other official of the Republic. The military and police forces were deployed
to ensure that the rally would be peaceful and orderly as well as to guarantee the safety of
the very people that they are duty-bound to protect. However, the facts as found by the
trial court showed that they fired at the unruly crowd to disperse the latter.

While it is true that nothing is better settled than the general rule that a sovereign
state and its political subdivisions cannot be sued in the courts except when it has given its
consent, it cannot be invoked by both the military officers to release them from any liability,
and by the heirs and victims to demand indemnification from the government. The principle
of state immunity from suit does not apply, as in this case, when the relief demanded by the
suit requires no affirmative official action on the part of the State nor the affirmative
discharge of any obligation which belongs to the State in its political capacity, even though
the officers or agents who are made defendants claim to hold or act only by virtue of a title
of the state and as its agents and servants. This Court has made it quite clear that even a
“high position in the government does not confer a license to persecute or recklessly injure
another.”

The inescapable conclusion is that the State cannot be held civilly liable for the
deaths that followed the incident. Instead, the liability should fall on the named defendants
in the lower court. In line with the ruling of this Court in Shauf v. Court of Appeals (191
SCRA 713 [1990]), herein public officials, having been found to have acted beyond the scope
of their authority, may be held liable for damages. (Republic v. Sandoval, 220 SCRA
124, March 19, 1993, En Banc [Campos, Jr.])

May the Government validly invoke the doctrine of State immunity from suit if its
invocation will serve as an instrument for perpetrating an injustice on a citizen?

Held: To our mind, it would be the apex of injustice and highly inequitable for us to
defeat petitioners-contractors’ right to be duly compensated for actual work performed and
services rendered, where both the government and the public have, for years, received and
accepted benefits from said housing project and reaped the fruits of petitioners-contractors’
honest toil and labor.

Incidentally, respondent likewise argues that the State may not be sued in the instant
case, invoking the constitutional doctrine of Non-suability of the State, otherwise known as
the Royal Prerogative of Dishonesty.

Respondent’s argument is misplaced inasmuch as the principle of State immunity

finds no application in the case before us.

Under these circumstances, respondent may not validly invoke the Royal Prerogative
of Dishonesty and conveniently hide under the State’s cloak of invincibility against suit,

13
considering that this principle yields to certain settled exceptions. True enough, the rule, in
any case, is not absolute for it does not say that the state may not be sued under any
circumstances.

Thus, in Amigable v. Cuenca, this Court, in effect, shred the protective shroud which
shields the state from suit, reiterating our decree in the landmark case of Ministerio v. CFI of
Cebu that “the doctrine of governmental immunity from suit cannot serve as an instrument
for perpetrating an injustice on a citizen.” It is just as important, if not more so, that there
be fidelity to legal norms on the part of officialdom if the rule of law were to be maintained.
(Citations omitted)

Although the Amigable and Ministerio cases generously tackled the issue of the
State’s immunity from suit vis a vis the payment of just compensation for expropriated
property, this Court nonetheless finds the doctrine enunciated in the aforementioned cases
applicable to the instant controversy, considering that the ends of justice would be
subverted if we were to uphold, in this particular instance, the State’s immunity from suit.

To be sure, this Court – as the staunch guardian of the citizens’ rights and welfare –
cannot sanction an injustice so patent on its face, and allow itself to be an instrument in the
perpetration thereof. Justice and equity sternly demand that the State’s cloak of invincibility
against suit be shred in this particular instance, and that petitioners-contractors be duly
compensated – on the basis of quantum meruit – for construction done on the public works
housing project. (EPG Construction Co. v. Vigilar, 354 SCRA 566, Mar.16, 2001, 2 nd
Div. [Buena])

Citizenship

1. What citizenship principle do the Philippines adhere to? Explain, and give illustrative
case.

Held: The Philippine law on citizenship adheres to the principle of jus sanguinis.
Thereunder, a child follows the nationality or citizenship of the parents regardless of the
place of his/her birth, as opposed to the doctrine of jus soli which determines nationality or
citizenship on the basis of place of birth. (Valles v. COMELEC, 337 SCRA 543, Aug. 9,
2000, En Banc [Purisima])

2. Rosalind Ybasco Lopez was born on May 16, 1934 in Napier Terrace, Broome, Western
Australia, to the spouses, Telesforo Ybasco, a Filipino citizen and native of Daet,
Camarines Norte, and Theresa Marquez, an Australian. Is she a Filipino citizen and,
therefore, qualified to run for Governor of her province?

Held: Private respondent Rosalind Ybasco Lopez was born on May 16, 1934 in
Napier Terrace, Broome, Western Australia, to the spouses, Telesforo Ybasco, a Filipino
citizen and native of Daet, Camarines Norte, and Theresa Marquez, an Australian.
Historically, this was a year before the 1935 Constitution took into effect and at that time,
what served as the Constitution of the Philippines were the principal organic acts by which
the United States governed the country. These were the Philippine Bill of July 1, 1902 and
the Philippine Autonomy Act of August 29, 1916, also known as the Jones Law.

Among others, these laws defined who were deemed to be citizens of the Philippine
Islands. x x x

Under both organic acts, all inhabitants of the Philippines who were Spanish subjects
on April 11, 1899 and resided therein including their children are deemed to be Philippine
citizens. Private respondent’s father, Telesforo Ybasco, was born on January 5, 1879 in
Daet, Camarines Norte, a fact duly evidenced by a certified true copy of an entry in the
Registry of Births. Thus, under the Philippine Bill of 1902 and the Jones Law, Telesforo
Ybasco was deemed to be a Philippine citizen. By virtue of the same laws, which were the
laws in force at the time of her birth, Telesforo’s daughter, herein private respondent
Rosalind Ybasco Lopez, is likewise a citizen of the Philippines.

The signing into law of the 1935 Philippine Constitution has established the principle
of jus sanguinis as basis for the acquisition of Philippine citizenship x x x. So also, the
principle of jus sanguinis, which confers citizenship by virtue of blood relationship, was
subsequently retained under the 1973 and 1987 Constitutions. Thus, the herein private
respondent, Rosalind Ybasco Lopez, is a Filipino citizen, having been born to a Filipino father.
The fact of her being born in Australia is not tantamount to her losing her Philippine
citizenship. If Australia follows the principle of jus soli, then at most, private respondent can

14
also claim Australian citizenship resulting to her possession of dual citizenship. (Valles v.
COMELEC, 337 SCRA 543, Aug. 9, 2000, En Banc [Purisima])

3. Does a legitimate child born under the 1935 Constitution of a Filipino mother and an
alien father who elected Philippine citizenship fourteen (14) years after attaining the age
of majority become a Filipino?

Held: Under Article IV, Section 1(3) of the 1935 Constitution, the citizenship of a
legitimate child born of a Filipino mother and an alien father followed the citizenship of the
father, unless, upon reaching the age of majority, the child elected Philippine citizenship.
C.A. No. 625 which was enacted pursuant to Section 1(3), Article IV of the 1935 Constitution,
prescribes the procedure that should be followed in order to make a valid election of
Philippine citizenship. However, the 1935 Constitution and C.A. No. 625 did not prescribe a
time period within which the election of Philippine citizenship should be made. The 1935
Charter only provides that the election should be made “upon reaching the age of majority.”
The age of majority then commenced upon reaching twenty-one (21) years. In the opinions
of the Secretary of Justice on cases involving the validity of election of Philippine citizenship,
this dilemma was resolved by basing the time period on the decisions of this Court prior to
the effectivity of the 1935 Constitution. In these decisions, the proper period for electing
Philippine citizenship was, in turn, based on the pronouncements of the Department of State
of the United States Government to the effect that the election should be made within a
“reasonable time” after attaining the age of majority. The phrase “reasonable time” has
been interpreted to mean that the election should be made within three (3) years from
reaching the age of majority.

The span of fourteen (14) years that lapsed from the time that person reached the
age of majority until he finally expressed his intention to elect Philippine citizenship is clearly
way beyond the contemplation of the requirement of electing “upon reaching the age of
majority.”

Philippine citizenship can never be treated like a commodity that can be claimed
when needed and suppressed when convenient. One who is privileged to elect Philippine
citizenship has only an inchoate right to such citizenship. As such, he should avail of the
right with fervor, enthusiasm and promptitude. (Re: Application for Admission to the
Philippine Bar, Vicente D. Ching, Bar Matter No. 914, Oct. 1, 1999, En Banc
[Kapunan])

4. Is FPJ a natural-born Filipino citizen and, therefore, qualified to run for President?

Held: The term “natural-born citizens,” is defined to include “those who are citizens
of the Philippines from birth without having to perform any act to acquire or perfect their
Philippine citizenship.” (Section 2, Article IV, 1987 Constitution)

The date, month and year of birth of FPJ appeared to be 20 August 1939 during the
regime of the 1935 Constitution. Through its history, four modes of acquiring citizenship –
naturalization, jus soli, res judicata and jus sanguinis – had been in vogue. Only two, i.e., jus
soli and jus sanguinis, could qualify a person to being a “natural-born” citizen of the
Philippines. Jus soli, per Roa v. Collector of Customs (23 Phil. 315 [1912]), did not last long.
With the adoption of the 1935 Constitution and the reversal of Roa in Tan Chong v.
Secretary of Labor (Supra, which held that jus soli was never applied in the Philippines), jus
sanguinis or blood relationship would now become the primary basis of citizenship by birth.

Documentary evidence adduced by petitioner would tend to indicate that the earliest
established direct ascendant of FPJ was his paternal grandfather Lorenzo Pou, married to
Marta Reyes, the father of Allan F. Poe. While the records of birth of Lorenzo Pou had not
been presented in evidence, his death certificate, however, identified him to be a Filipino, a
resident of San Carlos, Pangasinan, and 84 years old at the time of his death on 11
September 1954. The certificate of birth of the father of FPJ, Allan F. Poe, showed that he
was born on 17 May 1915 to an Espanol father, Lorenzo Pou, and a mestiza Espanol mother,
Marta Reyes. Introduced by petitioner was an “uncertified” copy of a supposed certificate of
the alleged marriage of Allan F. Poe and Paulita Gomez on 05 July 1936. The marriage
certificate of Allan F. Poe and Bessie Kelley reflected the date of their marriage to be on 16
September 1940. In the same certificate, Allan F. Poe was stated to be twenty-five years
old, unmarried, and a Filipino citizen, and Bessie Kelley to be twenty-two years old,
unmarried, and an American citizen. The birth certificate of FPJ, would disclose that he was
born on 20 August 1939 to Allan F. Poe, a Filipino, twenty-four years old, married to Bessie
Kelley, an American citizen, twenty-one years old and married.

15
 Considering the reservations made by the parties on the veracity of some of entries
on the birth certificate of respondent and the marriage certificate of his parents, the only
conclusions that could be drawn with some degree of certainty from the documents would
be that –

1. The parents of FPJ were Allan F. Poe and Bessie Kelley;

2. FPJ was born to them on 20 August 1939;
3. Allan F. Poe and Bessie Kelley were married to each other on 16 September,
1940;
4. The father of Allan F. Poe was Lorenzo Poe; and
5. At the time of his death on 11 September 1954, Lorenzo Poe was 84 years old.

Would the above facts be sufficient or insufficient to establish the fact that FPJ is a
natural-born citizen? The marriage certificate of Allan F. Poe and Bessie Kelley, the birth
certificate of FPJ, and the death certificate of Lorenzo Pou are documents of public record in
the custody of a public officer. The documents have been submitted in evidence by both
contending parties during the proceedings before the COMELEC.

Xxx

Being public documents, the death certificate of Lorenzo Pou, the marriage certificate
of Allan F. Poe and Bessie Kelly, and the birth certificate of FPJ, constitute prima facie proof
of their contents. Section 44, Rule 130, of the Rules of Court provides:

“Entries in official records. Entries in official records made in the performance

of his duty by a public officer of the Philippines, or by a person in the performance of
a duty specially enjoined by law, are prima facie evidence of the facts therein
stated.”

Xxx

The death certificate of Lorenzo Pou would indicate that he died on 11 September
1954, at the age of 84 years, in San Carlos, Pangasinan. It could thus be assumed that
Lorenzo Pou was born sometime in the year 1870 when the Philippines was still a colony of
Spain. Petitioner would argue that Lorenzo Pou was not in the Philippines during the crucial
period of from 1898 to 1902 considering that there was no existing record about such fact in
the Records Management and Archives Office. Petitioner, however, likewise failed to show
that Lorenzo Pou was at any other place during the same period. In his death certificate, the
residence of Lorenzo Pou was stated to be San Carlos, Pangasinan. In the absence of any
evidence to the contrary, it should be sound to conclude, or at least to presume, that the
place of residence of a person at the time of his death was also his residence before death.
It would be extremely doubtful if the Records Management and Archives Office would have
had complete records of all residents of the Philippines from 1898 to 1902.

Xxx

Petitioner submits, in any case, that in establishing filiation (relationship or civil

status of the child to the father [or mother]) or paternity (relationship or civil status of the
father to the child) of an illegitimate child, FPJ evidently being an illegitimate son according
the petitioner, the mandatory rules under civil law must be used.

Xxx

It should be apparent that the growing trend to liberalize the acknowledgment or

recognition of illegitimate children is an attempt to break away from the traditional idea of
keeping well apart legitimate and non-legitimate relationships within the family in favor of
the greater interest and welfare of the child. The provisions are intended merely to govern
the private and personal affairs of the family. There is little, if any, to indicate that the
legitimate or illegitimate civil status of the individual would also affect his political rights or,
in general, his relationship to the State. While, indeed, provisions on “citizenship” could be
found in the Civil Code, such provisions must be taken in the context of private relations, the
domain of civil law x x x.

The relevance of “citizenship” or “nationality” to Civil Law is best exemplified in

Article 15 of the Civil Code x x x that explains the need to incorporate in the code a
reiteration of the Constitutional provisions on citizenship. Similarly, citizenship is significant
in civil relationships found in different parts of the Civil Code x x x. In adoption, for instance,
an adopted child would be considered the child of his adoptive parents and accorded the
same rights as their legitimate child but such legal fiction extended only to define his rights

16
under civil law (See Ching Leng v. Galang, L-11931, October 1958, unreported) and not his
political status.

Civil law provisions point to an obvious bias against illegitimacy. This discriminatory
attitude may be traced to the Spanish family and property laws, which, while defining
proprietary and successional rights of members of the family, provided distinctions in the
rights of legitimate and illegitimate children. X x x

These distinctions between legitimacy and illegitimacy were codified in the Spanish
Civil Code, and the invidious discrimination survived when the Spanish Civil Code became
the primary source of our own Civil Code. Such distinction, however, remains and should
remain only in the sphere of civil law and not unduly impede or impinge on the domain of
political law.

The proof of filiation or paternity for purposes of determining his citizenship status
should be deemed independent from and not inextricably tied up with that prescribed for
civil law purposes. The Civil Code or Family Code provisions on proof of filiation or paternity,
although good law, do not have preclusive effects on matters alien to personal and family
relations. The ordinary rules on evidence could well and should govern. For instance, the
matter about pedigree is not necessarily precluded from being applicable by the Civil Code
or Family Code provisions.

Xxx

Thus, the duly notarized declaration made by Ruby Kelley Mangahas, sister of Bessie
Kelley Poe submitted as Exhibit 20 before the COMELEC, might be accepted to prove the
acts of Allan F. Poe, recognizing his own paternal relationship with FPJ, i.e., living together
with Bessie Kelley and his children (including respondent FPJ) in one house, and as one
family x x x.

Xxx

Petitioner would have it that even if Allan F. Poe were a Filipino citizen, he could not
have transmitted his citizenship to respondent FPJ, the latter being an illegitimate child. X x
x But the documentary evidence introduced by no less than respondent himself, consisting
of a birth certificate of respondent and a marriage certificate of his parents showed that FPJ
was born on 20 August 1939 to a Filipino father and an American mother who were married
to each other a year later, or on 16 September 1940. Birth to unmarried parents would
make FPJ an illegitimate child. Petitioner contended that as an illegitimate child, FPJ so
followed the citizenship of his mother, Bessie Kelley, an American citizen, basing his stand
on the ruling of this Court in Morano v. Vivo (20 SCRA 562, Paa v. Chan, 21 SCRA 753), citing
Chiongbian v. de Leon (82 Phil. 771) and Serra v. Republic (91 Phil. 914, unreported).

On the above score, the disquisition made by amicus curiae Joaquin G. Bernas, SJ, is
most convincing; he states –

“We must analyze these cases and ask what the lis mota was in each of them.
If the pronouncement of the Court on jus sanguinis was on the lis mota, the
pronouncement would be a decision constituting doctrine under the rule of stare
decisis. But if the pronouncement was irrelevant to the lis mota, the pronouncement
would not be a decision but a mere obiter dictum which did not establish doctrine. I
therefore invite the Court to look closely into these cases.

“First, Morano v. Vivo. The case was not about an illegitimate child of a
Filipino father. It was about a stepson of a Filipino, a stepson who was the child of a
Chinese mother and a Chinese father. The issue was whether the stepson followed
the naturalization of the stepfather. Nothing about jus sanguinis there. The stepson
did not have the blood of the naturalized father.

“Second, Chiongbian v. de Leon. This case was not about the illegitimate son
of a Filipino father. It was about a legitimate son of a father who had become Filipino
by election to public office before the 1935 Constitution pursuant to Article IV,
Section 1(2) of the 1935 Constitution. No one was illegitimate here.

“Third, Serra v. Republic. The case was not about the illegitimate son of a
Filipino father. Serra was an illegitimate child of a Chinese father and a Filipino
mother. The issue was whether one who was already a Filipino because of his
mother who still needed to be naturalized. There is nothing there about invidious jus
sanguinis.

17
 “Finally, Paa v. Chan (21 SCRA 753). This is a more complicated case. The
case was about the citizenship of Quintin Chan who was the son of Leoncio Chan.
Quintin Chan claimed that his father, Leoncio, was the illegitimate son of a Chinese
father and a Filipino mother. Quintin therefore argued that he got his citizenship
from Leoncio, his father. But the Supreme Court said that there was no valid proof
that Leoncio was in fact the son of a Filipina mother. The Court therefore concluded
that Leoncio was not Filipino. If Leoncio was not Filipino, neither was his son Quintin.
Quintin therefore was not only not a natural-born Filipino but was not even a Filipino.

“The Court should have stopped there. But instead it followed with an obiter
dictum. The Court said obiter that even if Leoncio, Quintin’s father, were Filipino,
Quintin would not be Filipino because Quintin was illegitimate. This statement about
Quintin, based on a contrary to fact assumption, was absolutely unnecessary for the
case. X x x It was obiter dictum, pure and simple, simply repeating the obiter dictum
in Morano v. Vivo.

Xxx

“Aside from the fact that such a pronouncement would have no textual
foundation in the Constitution, it would also violate the equal protection clause of the
Constitution not once but twice. First, it would make an illegitimate distinction
between a legitimate child and an illegitimate child, and second, it would make an
illegitimate distinction between the illegitimate child of a Filipino father and the
illegitimate child of a Filipino mother.

“The doctrine on constitutionally allowable distinctions was established long

ago by People v. Cayat (68 Phil. 12). I would grant that the distinction between
legitimate children and illegitimate children rests on real differences. X x x But real
differences alone do not justify invidious distinction. Real differences may justify
distinction for one purpose but not for another purpose.

“x x x What is the relevance of legitimacy or illegitimacy to elective public

service? What possible state interest can there be for disqualifying an illegitimate
child from becoming a public officer. It was not the fault of the child that his parents
had illicit liaison. Why deprive the child of the fullness of political rights for no fault of
his own? To disqualify an illegitimate child from holding an important public office is
to punish him for the indiscretion of his parents. There is neither justice nor
rationality in that. And if there is neither justice nor rationality in the distinction, then
the distinction transgresses the equal protection clause and must be reprobated.”

The other amici curiae, Mr. Justice Mendoza (a former member of this Court),
Professor Ruben Balane and Dean Merlin Magallona, at bottom, have expressed similar
views. The thesis of petitioner, unfortunately hinging solely on pure obiter dicta, should
indeed fail.

Where jurisprudence regarded an illegitimate child as taking after the citizenship of

its mother, it did so for the benefit of the child. It was to ensure a Filipino nationality for the
illegitimate child of an alien father in line with the assumption that the mother had custody,
would exercise parental authority and had the duty to support her illegitimate child. It was
to help the child, not to prejudice or discriminate against him.

The fact of the matter – perhaps the most significant consideration – is that the 1935
Constitution, the fundamental law prevailing on the day, month and year of birth of
respondent FPJ, can never be more explicit than it is. Providing neither conditions nor
distinctions, the Constitution states that among the citizens of the Philippines are “those
whose fathers are citizens of the Philippines.” There utterly is no cogent justification to
prescribe conditions or distinctions where there clearly are none provided. (Maria
Jeanette Tecson, et al. v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 161434, March 3, 2004, En Banc
[Vitug])

5. How may Philippine citizenship be renounced? Is the application for an alien certificate
of registration, and the possession of foreign passport, tantamount to acts of
renunciation of Philippine citizenship?

Held: In order that citizenship may be lost by renunciation, such renunciation must
be express. Petitioner’s contention that the application of private respondent for an alien
certificate of registration, and her Australian passport, is bereft of merit. This issue was put

18
to rest in the case of Aznar v. COMELEC (185 SCRA 703 [1990]) and in the more recent case
of Mercado v. Manzano and COMELEC (G.R. No. 135083, 307 SCRA 630, May 26, 1999).

In the case of Aznar, the Court ruled that the mere fact that he is an American did not
mean that he is no longer a Filipino, and that an application for an alien certificate of
registration was not tantamount to renunciation of his Philippine citizenship.

And, in Mercado v. Manzano and COMELEC, it was held that the fact that respondent
Manzano was registered as an American citizen in the Bureau of Immigration and
Deportation and was holding an American passport on April 22, 1997, only a year before he
filed a certificate of candidacy for vice-mayor of Makati, were just assertions of his American
nationality before the termination of his American citizenship.

Thus, the mere fact that private respondent Rosalind Ybasco Lopez was a holder of
an Australian passport and had an alien certificate of registration are not acts constituting
an effective renunciation of citizenship and do not militate against her claim of Filipino
citizenship. For renunciation to effectively result in the loss of citizenship, the same must be
express. As held by this Court in the aforecited case of Aznar, an application for an alien
certificate of registration does not amount to an express renunciation or repudiation of one’s
citizenship. The application of the herein private respondent for an alien certificate of
registration, and her holding of an Australian passport, as in the case of Mercado v.
Manzano, were mere acts of assertion of her Australian citizenship before she effectively
renounced the same. Thus, at the most, private respondent had dual citizenship – she was
an Australian and a Filipino, as well.

Moreover, under Commonwealth Act 63, the fact that a child of Filipino parent/s was
born in another country has not been included as a ground for losing one’s Philippine
citizenship. Since private respondent did not lose or renounce her Philippine citizenship,
petitioner’s claim that respondent must go through the process of repatriation does not hold
water. (Valles v. COMELEC, 337 SCRA 543, Aug. 9, 2000, En Banc [Purisima])

6. What are the ways of acquiring citizenship? Discuss.

Held: There are two ways of acquiring citizenship: (1) by birth, and (2) by
naturalization. These ways of acquiring citizenship correspond to the two kinds of citizens:
the natural-born citizen, and the naturalized citizen. A person who at the time of his birth is
a citizen of a particular country, is a natural-born citizen thereof.

As defined in the x x x Constitution, natural-born citizens “are those citizens of the

Philippines from birth without having to perform any act to acquire or perfect his Philippine
citizenship.”

On the other hand, naturalized citizens are those who have become Filipino citizens
through naturalization, generally under Commonwealth Act No. 473, otherwise known as the
Revised Naturalization Law, which repealed the former Naturalization Law (Act No. 2927),
and by Republic Act No. 530. (Antonio Bengson III v. HRET, G.R. No. 142840, May 7,
2001, En Banc [Kapunan])

7. To be naturalized, what must an applicant prove? When and what are the conditions
before the decision granting Philippine citizenship becomes executory?

Held: To be naturalized, an applicant has to prove that he possesses all the

qualifications and none of the disqualifications provided by law to become a Filipino citizen.
The decision granting Philippine citizenship becomes executory only after two (2) years from
its promulgation when the court is satisfied that during the intervening period, the applicant
has (1) not left the Philippines; (2) has dedicated himself to a lawful calling or profession; (3)
has not been convicted of any offense or violation of government promulgated rules; or (4)
committed any act prejudicial to the interest of the nation or contrary to any government
announced policies (Section 1, R.A. 530). (Antonio Bengson III v. HRET, G.R. No.
142840, May 7, 2001, En Banc [Kapunan])

8. What qualifications must be possessed by an applicant for naturalization?

Held: Section 2, Act 473 provides the following qualifications:

(a) He must be not less than 21 years of age on the day of the hearing of the
petition;
(b) He must have resided in the Philippines for a continuous period of not less than
ten years;

19
 (c) He must be of good moral character and believes in the principles underlying the
Philippine Constitution, and must have conducted himself in a proper and
irreproachable manner during the entire period of his residence in the Philippines
in his relation with the constituted government as well as with the community in
which he is living;
(d) He must own real estate in the Philippines worth not less than five thousand
pesos, Philippine currency, or must have some known lucrative trade, profession,
or lawful occupation;
(e) He must be able to speak and write English or Spanish and any of the principal
languages; and
(f) He must have enrolled his minor children of school age, in any of the public
schools or private schools recognized by the Bureau of Private Schools of the
Philippines where Philippine history, government and civic are taught or
prescribed as part of the school curriculum, during the entire period of the
residence in the Philippines required of him prior to the hearing of his petition for
naturalization as Philippine citizen.
(Antonio Bengson III v. HRET, G.R. No. 142840, May 7, 2001, En Banc [Kapunan])

9. What are the disqualifications under Section 4, Act 473, in an application for
naturalization?

Held: Section 4, Act 473, provides the following disqualifications:

(a) He must not be opposed to organized government or affiliated with any

association or group of persons who uphold and teach doctrines opposing all
organized governments;
(b) He must not be defending or teaching the necessity or propriety of violence,
personal assault, or assassination for the success and predominance of their
ideas;
(c) He must not be a polygamist or believer in the practice of polygamy;
(d) He must not have been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude;
(e) He must not be suffering from mental alienation or incurable contagious
diseases;
(f) He must have, during the period of his residence in the Philippines (or not less
than six months before filing his application), mingled socially with the Filipinos,
or who have not evinced a sincere desire to learn and embrace the customs,
traditions and ideals of the Filipinos;
(g) He must not be a citizen or subject of a nation with whom the Philippines is at
war, during the period of such war;
(h) He must not be a citizen or subject of a foreign country whose laws do not grant
Filipinos the right to become naturalized citizens or subjects thereof.
(Antonio Bengson III v. HRET, G.R. No. 142840, May 7, 2001, En Banc [Kapunan])

10. Distinguish naturalization from repatriation, and discuss the applicable laws in each.

Held: Naturalization is a mode for both acquisition and reacquisition of Philippine

citizenship. As a mode of initially acquiring Philippine citizenship, naturalization is governed
by Commonwealth Act No. 473, as amended. On the other hand, naturalization as a mode
for reacquiring Philippine citizenship is governed by Commonwealth Act No. 63 (An Act
Providing for the Ways in Which Philippine Citizenship May Be Lost or Reacquired [1936]).
Under this law, a former Filipino citizen who wishes to reacquire Philippine citizenship must
possess certain qualifications and none of the disqualifications mentioned in Section 4 of
C.A. 473.

Repatriation, on the other hand, may be had under various statutes by those who lost
their citizenship due to: (1) desertion of the armed forces (Section 4, C.A. No. 63); (2) service
in the armed forces of the allied forces in World War II (Section 1, Republic Act No. 965
[1953]); (3) service in the Armed Forces of the United States at any other time (Sec. 1,
Republic Act No. 2630 [1960]); (4) marriage of a Filipino woman to an alien (Sec. 1, Republic
Act No. 8171 [1995]); and (5) political and economic necessity (Ibid).

As distinguished from the lengthy process of naturalization, repatriation simply

consists of the taking of an oath of allegiance to the Republic of the Philippines and
registering said oath in the Local Civil Registry of the place where the person concerned
resides or last resided.

Xxx

20
 Moreover, repatriation results in the recovery of the original nationality. This means
that a naturalized Filipino who lost his citizenship will be restored to his prior status as a
naturalized Filipino citizen. On the other hand, if he was originally a natural-born citizen
before he lost his Philippine citizenship, he will be restored to his former status as a natural-
born Filipino. (Antonio Bengson III v. HRET, G.R. No. 142840, May 7, 2001, En Banc
[Kapunan])

11. How may Filipino citizens who lost their citizenship reacquire the same?

Answer: Filipino citizens who have lost their citizenship may x x x reacquire the
same in the manner provided by law. Commonwealth Act No. 63 enumerates the three
modes by which Philippine citizenship may be reacquired by a former citizen: (1) by
naturalization, (2) by repatriation, and (3) by direct act of Congress. (Frivaldo v.
COMELEC, 257 SCRA 727, June 28, 1996, En Banc [Panganiban]; Antonio Bengson
III v. HRET, G.R. No. 142840, May 7, 2001, En Banc [Kapunan])

12. Who may validly avail of repatriation under R.A. No. 8171?

Held: R.A. No. 8171, which has lapsed into law on October 23, 1995, is an act
providing for the repatriation (a) of Filipino women who have lost their Philippine citizenship
by marriage to aliens and (b) of natural-born Filipinos who have lost their Philippine
citizenship on account of political or economic necessity. (Gerardo Angat v. Republic,
G.R. No. 132244, Sept. 14, 1999 [Vitug])

13. Before what agency should application for repatriation under R.A 8171 be filed?

Held: Under Section 1 of P.D. No. 725, dated June 5, 1975, amending C.A. No. 63, an
application for repatriation could be filed with the Special Committee on Naturalization
chaired by the Solicitor General with the Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs and the Director
of the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency as the other members. Although the
agency was deactivated by virtue of President Corazon C. Aquino’s Memorandum of March
27, 1987, it was not, however, abrogated. The Committee was reactivated on June 8, 1995.
Hence, the application should be filed with said Agency, not with the Regional Trial Court.
(Gerardo Angat v. Republic, G.R. No. 132244, Sept. 14, 1999 [Vitug])

14. May a natural-born Filipino who became an American citizen still be considered a
natural-born Filipino upon his reacquisition of Philippine citizenship and, therefore,
qualified to run for Congressman?

Held: Repatriation results in the recovery of the original nationality. This means
that a naturalized Filipino who lost his citizenship will be restored to his prior status as a
naturalized Filipino citizen. On the other hand, if he was originally a natural-born citizen
before he lost his Philippine citizenship, he will be restored to his former status as a natural-
born Filipino.

In respondent Cruz’s case, he lost his Filipino citizenship when he rendered service in
the Armed Forces of the United States. However, he subsequently reacquired Philippine
citizenship under R.A. No. 2630 x x x.

Having thus taken the required oath of allegiance to the Republic and having
registered the same in the Civil Registry of Mangatarem, Pangasinan in accordance with the
aforecited provision, respondent Cruz is deemed to have recovered his original status as a
natural-born citizen, a status which he acquired at birth as the son of a Filipino father. It
bears stressing that the act of repatriation allows him to recover, or return to, his original
status before he lost his Philippine citizenship.

Petitioner’s contention that respondent Cruz is no longer a natural-born citizen since

he had to perform an act to regain his citizenship is untenable. [T]he term “natural-born
citizen” was first defined in Article III, Section 4 of the 1973 Constitution as follows:

Section 4. A natural-born citizen is one who is a citizen of the Philippines from

birth without having to perform any act to acquire or perfect his Philippine
citizenship.

Two requisites must concur for a person to be considered as such: (1) a person must
be a Filipino citizen from birth and (2) he does not have to perform any act to obtain or
perfect his Philippine citizenship.

21
 Under the 1973 Constitution definition, there were two categories of Filipino citizens
which were not considered natural-born: (1) those who were naturalized and (2) those born
before January 17, 1973 (the date of effectivity of the 1973 Constitution), of Filipino mothers
who, upon reaching the age of majority, elected Philippine citizenship. Those “naturalized
citizens” were not considered natural-born obviously because they were not Filipinos at birth
and had to perform an act to acquire Philippine citizenship. Those born of Filipino mothers
before the effectivity of the 1973 Constitution were likewise not considered natural-born
because they also had to perform an act to perfect their Philippine citizenship.

The present Constitution, however, now considers those born of Filipino mothers
before the effectivity of the 1973 Constitution and who elected Philippine citizenship upon
reaching the majority age as natural-born. After defining who are natural-born citizens,
Section 2 of Article IV adds a sentence: “Those who elect Philippine citizenship in accordance
with paragraph (3), Section 1 hereof shall be deemed natural-born citizens.” Consequently,
only naturalized Filipinos are considered not natural-born citizens. It is apparent from the
enumeration of who are citizens under the present Constitution that there are only two
classes of citizens: (1) those who are natural-born and (2) those who are naturalized in
accordance with law. A citizen who is not a naturalized Filipino, i.e., did not have to undergo
the process of naturalization to obtain Philippine citizenship, necessarily is a natural-born
Filipino. Noteworthy is the absence in the said enumeration of a separate category for
persons who, after losing Philippine citizenship, subsequently reacquire it. The reason
therefore is clear: as to such persons, they would either be natural-born or naturalized
depending on the reasons for the loss of their citizenship and the mode prescribed by the
applicable law for the reacquisition thereof. As respondent Cruz was not required by law to
go through naturalization proceedings in order to reacquire his citizenship, he is perforce a
natural-born Filipino. As such, he possessed all the necessary qualifications to be elected as
member of the House of Representatives. (Antonio Bengson III v. HRET, G.R. No.
142840, May 7, 2001, En Banc [Kapunan])

15. Distinguish Dual Citizenship from Dual Allegiance.

Held: Dual citizenship arises when, as a result of the concurrent application of the
different laws of two or more states, a person is simultaneously considered a national by the
said states. For instance, such a situation may arise when a person whose parents are
citizens of a state which adheres to the principle of jus sanguinis is born in a state which
follows the doctrine of jus soli. Such a person, ipso facto and without any voluntary act on
his part, is concurrently considered a citizen of both states.

Dual allegiance, on the other hand, refers to a situation in which a person

simultaneously owes, by some positive act, loyalty to two or more states. While dual
citizenship is involuntary, dual allegiance is the result of an individual’s volition. (Mercado
v. Manzano, 307 SCRA 630, May 26, 1999, En Banc [Mendoza])

16. What is the main concern of Section 5, Article IV, 1987 Constitution, on citizenship?
Consequently, are persons with mere dual citizenship disqualified to run for elective local
positions under Section 40(d) of the Local Government Code?

Held: In including Section 5 in Article IV on citizenship, the concern of the

Constitutional Commission was not with dual citizens per se but with naturalized citizens
who maintain their allegiance to their countries of origin even after their naturalization.
Hence, the phrase “dual citizenship” in R.A. No. 7160, Section 40(d) (Local Government
Code) must be understood as referring to “dual allegiance.” Consequently, persons with
mere dual citizenship do not fall under this disqualification. Unlike those with dual
allegiance, who must x x x be subject to strict process with respect to the termination of
their status, for candidates with dual citizenship, it should suffice if, upon the filing of their
certificate of candidacy, they elect Philippine citizenship to terminate their status as persons
with dual citizenship considering that their condition is the unavoidable consequence of
conflicting laws of different states.

By electing Philippine citizenship, such candidates at the same time forswear

allegiance to the other country of which they are also citizens and thereby terminate their
status as dual citizens. It may be that, from the point of view of the foreign state and of its
laws, such an individual has not effectively renounced his foreign citizenship. That is of no
moment. (Mercado v. Manzano, G.R. No. 135083, 307 SCRA 630, May 26, 1999
[Mendoza])

17. Cite instances when a citizen of the Philippines may possess dual citizenship considering
the citizenship clause (Article IV) of the Constitution.

22
 Held:

1) Those born of Filipino fathers and/or mothers in foreign countries which follow the
principle of jus soli;
2) Those born in the Philippines of Filipino mothers and alien fathers if by the laws of
their father’s country such children are citizens of that country;
3) Those who marry aliens if by the laws of the latter’s country the former are
considered citizens, unless by their act or omission they are deemed to have
renounced Philippine citizenship.
(Mercado v. Manzano, G.R. No. 135083, 307 SCRA 630, May 26, 1999 [Mendoza])

18. The general rule is that res “judicata does” not apply in cases hinging on the issue of
citizenship? What is the exception to this rule? Discuss.

Held: Petitioner maintains further that when citizenship is raised as an issue in

judicial or administrative proceedings, the resolution or decision thereon is generally not
considered res judicata in any subsequent proceeding challenging the same; citing the case
of Moy Ya Lim Yao v. Commissioner of Immigration (41 SCRA 292 [1971]). He insists that
the same issue of citizenship may be threshed out anew.

Petitioner is correct insofar as the general rule is concerned, i.e., the principle of res
judicata generally does not apply in cases hinging on the issue of citizenship. However, in
the case of Burca v. Republic (51 SCRA 248 [1973]), an exception to this general rule was
recognized. The Court ruled in that case that in order that the doctrine of res judicata may
be applied in cases of citizenship, the following must be present:

1) a person’s citizenship be raised as a material issue in a controversy where said

person is a party;
2) the Solicitor General or his authorized representative took active part in the
resolution thereof, and
3) the finding on citizenship is affirmed by this Court.

Although the general rule was set forth in the case of Moy Ya Lim Yao, the case did
not foreclose the weight of prior rulings on citizenship. It elucidated that reliance may
somehow be placed on these antecedent official findings, though not really binding, to make
the effort easier or simpler. (Valles v. COMELEC, 337 SCRA 543, Aug. 9, 2000, En
Banc [Purisima])

Civilian Supremacy Clause

19. The President issued Letter of Instruction (LOI) ordering the deployment of members of
the Philippine Marines in the metropolis to conduct joint visibility patrols with members
of the Philippine National Police in various shopping malls. Will this not violate the
civilian supremacy clause under Section 3, Article II of the Constitution? Will this not
amount to an "insidious incursion" of the military in the task of law enforcement in
violation of Section 5(4), Article XVI of the Constitution?

Held: The deployment of the Marines does not constitute a breach of the civilian
supremacy clause. The calling of the marines in this case constitutes permissible use of
military assets for civilian law enforcement. x x x. The limited participation of the Marines is
evident in the provisions of the LOI itself, which sufficiently provides the metes and bounds
of the Marines' authority. It is noteworthy that the local police forces are the ones in charge
of the visibility patrols at all times, the real authority belonging to the PNP. In fact, the
Metro Manila Police Chief is the overall leader of the PNP-Philippine Marines joint visibility
patrols. Under the LOI, the police forces are tasked to brief or orient the soldiers on police
patrol procedures. It is their responsibility to direct and manage the deployment of the
Marines. It is, likewise, their duty to provide the necessary equipment to the Marines and
render logistical support to these soldiers. In view of the foregoing, it cannot be properly
argued that military authority is supreme over civilian authority.

Moreover, the deployment of the Marines to assist the PNP does not unmake the
civilian character of the police force. Neither does it amount to an “insidious incursion” of
the military in the task of law enforcement in violation of Section 5[4], Article XVI of the
Constitution.

In this regard, it is not correct to say that General Angelo Reyes, Chief of Staff of the
AFP, by his alleged involvement in civilian law enforcement, has been virtually appointed to
a civilian post in derogation of the aforecited provision. The real authority in these

23
operations, as stated in the LOI, is lodged with the head of a civilian institution, the PNP, and
not with the military. Such being the case, it does not matter whether the AFP Chief actually
participates in the Task Force Tulungan since he does not exercise any authority or control
over the same. Since none of the Marines was incorporated or enlisted as members of the
PNP, there can be no appointment to a civilian position to speak of. Hence, the deployment
of the Marines in the joint visibility patrols does not destroy the civilian character of the PNP.

Considering the above circumstances, the Marines render nothing more than
assistance required in conducting the patrols. As such, there can be no “insidious incursion”
of the military in civilian affairs nor can there be a violation of the civilian supremacy clause
in the Constitution.

It is worth mentioning that military assistance to civilian authorities in various forms

persists in Philippine jurisdiction. The Philippine experience reveals that it is not averse to
requesting the assistance of the military in the implementation and execution of certain
traditionally “civil” functions. x x x [S]ome of the multifarious activities wherein military aid
has been rendered, exemplifying the activities that bring both the civilian and the military
together in a relationship of cooperation, are:

1. Elections;
2. Administration of the Philippine National Red Cross;
3. Relief and rescue operations during calamities and disasters;
4. Amateur sports promotion and development;
5. Development of the culture and the arts;
6. Conservation of natural resources;
7. Implementation of the agrarian reform program;
8. Enforcement of customs laws;
9. Composite civilian-military law enforcement activities;
10. Conduct of licensure examinations;
11. Conduct of nationwide tests for elementary and high school students;
12. Anti-drug enforcement activities;
13. Sanitary inspections;
14. Conduct of census work;
15. Administration of the Civil Aeronautics Board;
16. Assistance in installation of weather forecasting devices;
17. Peace and order policy formulation in local government units.

This unquestionably constitutes a gloss on executive power resulting from a

systematic, unbroken, executive practice, long pursued to the knowledge of Congress and,
yet, never before questioned. What we have here is mutual support and cooperation
between the military and civilian authorities, not derogation of civilian supremacy. (IBP v.
Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No. 141284, Aug. 15, 2000, En Banc [Kapunan])

The Right to a Balanced and Healthful Ecology

20. Is the right to a balanced and healthful ecology any less important than any of the civil
and political rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights? Explain.

Held: While the right to a balanced and healthful ecology is to be found under the
Declaration of Principles and State Policies and not under the Bill of Rights, it does not follow
that it is less important than any of the civil and political rights enumerated in the latter.
Such a right belongs to a different category of rights altogether for it concerns nothing less
than self-preservation and self-perpetuation, the advancement of which may even be said to
predate all governments and constitutions. As a matter of fact, these basic rights need not
even be written in the Constitution for they are assumed to exist from the inception of
humankind. If they are now explicitly mentioned in the fundamental charter, it is because of
the well-founded fear of its framers that unless the rights to a balanced and healthful
ecology and to health are mandated as state policies by the Constitution itself x x x the day
would not be too far when all else would be lost not only for the present generation, but also
for those to come – generations which stand to inherit nothing but parched earth incapable
of sustaining life. (Oposa v. Factoran, Jr., 224 SCRA 792 [1993][Davide])

21. The Province of Palawan and the City of Puerto Princesa enacted ordinances prohibiting
the catching and/or exportation of live tropical fishes, and imposing penalties for
violations thereof, in order to stop the illegal practice of cyanide fishing which destroys
the corals and other marine resources. Several fishermen apprehended for violating the
ordinances in question challenged their constitutionality contending that the ordinances
violated their preferential right as subsistence and marginal fishermen to the use of our

24
 communal marine resources guaranteed by the Constitution, under Section 7, Article
XIII. Will you sustain the challenge?

Held: The “preferential right” of subsistence or marginal fishermen to the use of

marine resources is not absolute. In accordance with the Regalian Doctrine, marine
resources belong to the State, and, pursuant to the first paragraph of Section 2, Article XII of
the Constitution, their “exploration, development and utilization x x x shall be under the full
control and supervision of the State.” Moreover, their mandated protection, development
and conservation x x x imply certain restrictions on whatever right of enjoyment there may
be in favor of anyone. What must be borne in mind is the State policy enshrined in the
Constitution regarding the duty of the State to protect and advance the right of the people
to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature
(Section 16, Article II). The ordinances in question are meant precisely to protect and
conserve our marine resources to the end that their enjoyment may be guaranteed not only
for the present generation, but also for the generations to come. The right to a balanced
and healthful ecology carries with it a correlative duty to refrain from impairing the
environment. (Tano v. Gov. Salvador P. Socrates, G.R. No. 110249, Aug. 21, 1997)

Academic Freedom

22. How should the State’s power to regulate educational institutions be exercised?

Held: Section 4[1], Article XIV of the Constitution recognizes the State’s power to
regulate educational institutions:

The State recognizes the complementary roles of public and private

institutions in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable supervision and
regulation of all educational institutions.

As may be gleaned from the above provision, such power to regulate is subject to the
requirement of reasonableness. Moreover, the Constitution allows merely the regulation
and supervision of educational institutions, not the deprivation of their rights. (Miriam
College Foundation, Inc. v. Court of Appeals, 348 SCRA 265, 288, Dec. 15, 2000,
1st Div. [Kapunan])

23. Define and discuss the academic freedom of institutions of higher learning.

Held: Academic freedom of educational institutions has been defined as the right of
the school or college to decide for itself, its aims and objectives, and how best to attain
them - free from outside coercion or interference save possibly when the overriding public
welfare calls for some restraint. It has a wide sphere of autonomy certainly extending to the
choice of students. Said constitutional provision is not to be construed in a niggardly
manner or in a grudging fashion. That would be to frustrate its purpose and nullify its intent.

While it is true that an institution of learning has a contractual obligation to afford its
students a fair opportunity to complete the course they seek to pursue, since a contract
creates reciprocal rights and obligations, the obligation of the school to educate a student
would imply a corresponding obligation on the part of the student to study and obey the
rules and regulations of the school. When a student commits a serious breach of discipline
or failed to maintain the required academic standard, he forfeits his contractual right. In this
connection, this Court recognizes the expertise of educational institutions in the various
fields of learning. Thus, they are afforded ample discretion to formulate reasonable rules
and regulations in the admission of students, including setting of academic standards.
Within the parameters thereof, they are competent to determine who are entitled to
admission and re-admission. (University of San Agustin, Inc. v. Court of Appeals, 230
SCRA 761, 774-775, March 7, 1994 [Nocon])

24. What are the essential freedoms subsumed in the term “academic freedom”?

Held: 1. In Ateneo de Manila University v. Capulong (G.R. No. 99327, 27 May 1993),
this Court cited with approval the formulation made by Justice Felix Frankfurter of the
essential freedoms subsumed in the term “academic freedom” encompassing not only “the
freedom to determine x x x on academic grounds who may teach, what may be taught (and)
how it shall be taught,” but likewise “who may be admitted to study.” We have thus
sanctioned its invocation by a school in rejecting students who are academically delinquent,
or a laywoman seeking admission to a seminary, or students violating “School Rules on
Discipline.” (Isabelo, Jr. v. Perpetual Help College of Rizal, Inc., 227 SCRA 595-597,
Nov. 8, 1993, En Banc [Vitug])

25
 2. The essential freedoms subsumed in the term “academic freedom” encompass
the freedom to determine for itself on academic grounds:

(1) Who may teach,

(2) What may be taught,
(3) How it shall be taught, and
(4) Who may be admitted to study.

The right of the school to discipline its students is at once apparent in the third
freedom, i.e., “how it shall be taught.” A school certainly cannot function in an atmosphere
of anarchy.

Thus, there can be no doubt that the establishment of an educational

institution requires rules and regulations necessary for the maintenance of an orderly
educational program and the creation of an educational environment conducive to
learning. Such rules and regulations are equally necessary for the protection of the
students, faculty, and property (Angeles v. Sison, 112 SCRA 26, 37 [1982]).

Moreover, the school has an interest in teaching the student discipline, a necessary,
if not indispensable, value in any field of learning. By instilling discipline, the school teaches
discipline. Accordingly, the right to discipline the student likewise finds basis in the freedom
“what to teach.”

Incidentally, the school not only has the right but the duty to develop discipline in its
students. The Constitution no less imposes such duty.

[All educational institutions] shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of
humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the
historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of citizenship,
strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and personal
discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden scientific and
technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency (Section 3[2], Article XIV,
Constitution).

In Angeles v. Sison, we also said that discipline was a means for the school to carry out its
responsibility to help its students “grow and develop into mature, responsible, effective and
worthy citizens of the community.”

Finally, nowhere in the above formulation is the right to discipline more evident than
in “who may be admitted to study.” If a school has the freedom to determine whom to
admit, logic dictates that it also has the right to determine whom to exclude or expel, as well
as upon whom to impose lesser sanctions such as suspension and the withholding of
graduation privileges.

Thus, in Ateneo de Manila v. Capulong (222 SCRA 643 [1993]), the Court upheld the
expulsion of students found guilty of hazing by petitioner therein, holding that:

No one can be so myopic as to doubt that the immediate reinstatement of

respondent students who have been investigated and found guilty by the Disciplinary
Board to have violated petitioner university’s disciplinary rules and standards will
certainly undermine the authority of the administration of the school. This we would
be most loathe to do.

More importantly, it will seriously impair petitioner university’s academic

freedom which has been enshrined in the 1935, 1973 and the present 1987
Constitution.
(Miriam College Foundation, Inc. v. Court of Appeals, 348 SCRA 265, Dec. 15,
2000, 1st Div. [Kapunan])

25. May a university validly revoke a degree or honor it has conferred to a student after the
graduation of the latter after finding that such degree or honor was obtained through
fraud?

Held: In Garcia v. Faculty Admission Committee, Loyola School of Theology (68

SCRA 277 [1975]), the SC pointed out that academic freedom of institutions of higher
learning is a freedom granted to “institutions of higher learning” which is thus given a “wide
sphere of authority certainly extending to the choice of students.” If such institution of
higher learning can decide who can and who cannot study in it, it certainly can also
determine on whom it can confer the honor and distinction of being its graduates.

26
 Where it is shown that the conferment of an honor or distinction was obtained
through fraud, a university has the right to revoke or withdraw the honor or distinction it has
thus conferred. This freedom of a university does not terminate upon the “graduation” of a
student, for it is precisely the “graduation” of such a student that is in question. (UP Board
of Regents v. Hon. Court of Appeals and Arokiaswamy William Margaret Celine,
G.R. No. 134625, Aug. 31, 1999, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

Economic Policy

26. Does the Constitutional policy of a “self-reliant and independent national economy” rule
out foreign competition?

Held: The constitutional policy of a “self-reliant and independent national economy”

does not necessarily rule out the entry of foreign investments, goods and services. It
contemplates neither “economic seclusion” nor “mendicancy in the international
community.”

Aside from envisioning a trade policy based on “equality and reciprocity,” the
fundamental law encourages industries that are “competitive in both domestic and foreign
markets,” thereby demonstrating a clear policy against a sheltered domestic trade
environment, but one in favor of the gradual development of robust industries that can
compete with the best in the foreign markets. (Tanada v. Angara, 272 SCRA 18 [1997])

27. Is PHILSECO (Philippine Shipyard and Engineering Corporation), as a shipyard, a public

utility and, hence, could be operated only by a corporation at least 60% of whose capital
is owned by Filipino citizens in accordance with Article XII, Section 10 of the
Constitution?

Held: Petitioner asserts that a shipyard is a public utility pursuant to Section 13 (b)
of Commonwealth Act No. 146. Respondents, on the other hand, contend that shipyards are
no longer public utilities by express provision of Presidential Decree No. 666, which provided
incentives to the shipbuilding and ship repair industry.

Indeed, P.D. No. 666 dated March 5, 1975 explicitly stated that a “shipyard” was not
a “public utility.” x x x

However, Section 1 of P.D. No. 666 was expressly repealed by Section 20 of Batas
Pambansa Blg. 391, the Investment Incentive Policy Act of 1983. Subsequently, Executive
Order No. 226, the Omnibus Investments Code of 1987, was issued and Section 85 thereof
expressly repealed B.P. Blg. 391.

The express repeal of B.P. Blg. 391 by E.O. No. 226 did not revive Section 1 of P.D.
No. 666, declassifying the shipbuilding and ship repair industry as a public utility, as said
executive order did not provide otherwise. When a law which expressly repeals a prior law
is itself repealed, the law first repealed shall not be thereby revived unless expressly so
provided (Administrative Code of 1987, Book I, Chapter 5, Section 21). Consequently, when
the APT [Asset Privatization Trust] drafted the ASBR [Asset Specific Bidding Rules] sometime
in 1993, P.D. No. 666 no longer existed in our statute books. While it is true that the repeal
of a statute does not operate to impair rights that have become vested or accrued while the
statute was in force, there are no vested rights of the parties that should be protected in the
case at bar. The reason is simple: said decree was already inexistent when the ASBR was
issued.

A shipyard such as PHILSECO being a public utility as provided by law, the following
provision of the Article XII of the Constitution applies:

“Sec. 11. No franchise, certificate, or any other form of authorization for the
operation of a public utility shall be granted except to citizens of the Philippines or to
corporations or associations organized under the laws of the Philippines at least sixty
per centum of whose capital is owned by such citizens, nor shall such franchise,
certificate, or authorization be exclusive in character or for a longer period than fifty
years. Neither shall any such franchise or right be granted except under the
condition that it shall be subject to amendment, alteration, or repeal by the Congress
when the common good so requires. The State shall encourage equity participation
in public utilities by the general public. The participation of foreign investors in the
governing body of any public utility enterprise shall be limited to their proportionate
share in its capital, and all the executive and managing officers of such corporation
or association shall be citizens of the Philippines.”

27
 The progenitor of this constitutional provision, Article XIV, Section 5 of the 1973
Constitution, required the same proportion of 60%-40% capitalization. The JVA [Joint
Venture Agreement] between NIDC [National Investment and Development Corporation] and
Kawasaki [Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd. of Kobe, Japan] entered into on January 27, 1977
manifests the intention of the parties to abide by the constitutional mandate on
capitalization of public utilities. x x x

A joint venture is an association of persons or companies jointly undertaking some

commercial enterprise with all of them generally contributing assets and sharing risks. x x
x. Considered more of a partnership, a joint venture is governed by the laws on contracts
and on partnership. The joint venture created between NIDC and Kawasaki falls within the
purview of an “association” pursuant to Section 5 of Article XIV of the 1973 Constitution and
Section 11 of Article XII of the 1987 Constitution. Consequently, a joint venture that would
engage in the business of operating a public utility, such as a shipyard, must observe the
proportion of 60%-40% Filipino-foreign capitalization. (JG Summit Holdings, Inc. v. Court
of Appeals, 345 SCRA 143, Nov. 20, 2000, 1 st Div. [Ynares-Santiago])

The Rights of Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples

28. Enumerate the Constitutional provisions recognizing and protecting the rights and
interests of the indigenous peoples.

Held: The framers of the 1987 Constitution, looking back to the long destitution of
our less fortunate brothers, fittingly saw the historic opportunity to actualize the ideals of
people empowerment and social justice, and to reach out particularly to the marginalized
sectors of society, including the indigenous peoples. They incorporated in the fundamental
law several provisions recognizing and protecting the rights and interests of the indigenous
peoples, to wit:

Section 22. The State recognizes and promotes the rights of indigenous
peoples within the framework of national unity and development. (Article II of the
Constitution, entitled State Principles and Policies)

Section 5. The State, subject to the provisions of the Constitution and national
development policies and programs, shall protect the rights of indigenous cultural
communities to their ancestral lands to ensure their economic, social, and cultural
well-being.

The Congress may provide for the applicability of customary laws governing
property rights and relations in determining the ownership and extent of ancestral
domains. (Article XII of the Constitution, entitled National Economy and Patrimony)

Section 1. The Congress shall give the highest priority to the enactment of
measures that protect and enhance the right of all the people to human dignity,
reduce social, economic and political inequalities, and remove cultural inequalities by
equitably diffusing wealth and political power for the common good.

To this end, the State shall regulate the acquisition, ownership, use and
disposition of property and its increments. (Article XIII of the Constitution, entitled
Social Justice and Human Rights)

Section 6. The State shall apply the principles of agrarian reform or

stewardship, whenever applicable in accordance with law, in the disposition and
utilization of other natural resources, including lands of the public domain under
lease or concession, subject to prior rights, homestead rights of small settlers, and
the rights of indigenous communities to their ancestral lands. (Ibid.)

Section 17. The State shall recognize, respect, and protect the rights of
cultural communities to preserve and develop their cultures, traditions, and
institutions. It shall consider these rights in the formulation of national plans and
policies. (Article XIV of the Constitution, entitled Education, Science, Technology,
Arts, Culture, and Sports)

Section 12. The Congress may create a consultative body to advise the
President on policies affecting indigenous cultural communities, the majority of the
members of which shall come from such communities. (Article XVI of the
Constitution, entitled General Provisions)

28
(Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of Environment and
Natural Resources, et al., G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

29. Discuss the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (R.A. No. 8371).

Held: Republic Act No. 8371 is entitled "An Act to Recognize, Protect and Promote
the Rights of Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples, Creating a National
Commission on Indigenous Peoples, Establishing Implementing Mechanisms, Appropriating
Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes." It is simply known as "The Indigenous Peoples
Rights Act of 1997" or the IPRA.

The IPRA recognizes the existence of the indigenous cultural communities or

indigenous peoples (ICCs/IPs) as a distinct sector in Philippine society. It grants these
people the ownership and possession of their ancestral domains and ancestral lands, and
defines the extent of these lands and domains. The ownership given is the indigenous
concept of ownership under customary law which traces its origin to native title.

Xxx
Within their ancestral domains and ancestral lands, the ICCs/IPs are given the right to
self-governance and empowerment (Sections 13 to 20), social justice and human rights
(Sections 21 to 28), the right to preserve and protect their culture, traditions, institutions
and community intellectual rights, and the right to develop their own sciences and
technologies (Sections 29 to 37). (Separate Opinion, Puno, J., in Isagani Cruz v.
Secretary of DENR, et al., G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

30. Define "indigenous peoples/indigenous cultural communities."

Held: 1. Drawing inspiration from both our fundamental law and international law,
IPRA now employs the politically-correct conjunctive term “indigenous peoples/indigenous
cultural communities” as follows:

Section 3. Definition of Terms. - For purposes of this Act, the following terms
shall mean:

(i) Indigenous peoples/Indigenous cultural communities. - refer to a group of people or

homogenous societies identified by self-ascription and ascription by others, who have
continuously lived as organized community on communally bounded and defined
territory, and who have, under claims of ownership since time immemorial, occupied,
possessed and utilized such territories, sharing common bonds of language, customs,
traditions, and other distinctive cultural traits, or who have, through resistance to
political, social and cultural inroads of colonization, non-indigenous religions and cultures,
became historically differentiated from the majority of Filipinos. Indigenous peoples shall
likewise include peoples who are regarded as indigenous on account of their descent from
the populations which inhabited the country at the time of conquest or colonization, or at
the time of inroads of non-indigenous religions and cultures, or the establishment of
present State boundaries, who retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural
and political institutions, but who may have been displaced from their traditional domains
or who may have resettled outside their ancestral domains x x x.
(Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of Environment
and Natural Resources, et al., G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

2. The IPRA is a law dealing with a specific group of people, i.e., the Indigenous
Cultural Communities (ICCs) or the Indigenous Peoples (IPs). The term “ICCs” is used in the
1987 Constitution while that of “IPs” is the contemporary international language in the
International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention 169 and the United Nations (UN) Draft
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.

Indigenous Cultural Communities or Indigenous Peoples refer to a group of people or

homogeneous societies who have continuously lived as an organized community on
communally bounded and defined territory. These groups of people have actually occupied,
possessed and utilized their territories under claim of ownership since time immemorial.
They share common bonds of language, customs, traditions and other distinctive cultural
traits, or, they, by their resistance to political, social and cultural inroads of colonization,
non-indigenous religions and cultures, became historically differentiated from the Filipino
majority. ICCs/IPs also include descendants of ICCs/IPs who inhabited the country at the
time of conquest or colonization, who retain some or all of their own social, economic,
cultural and political institutions but who may have been displaced from their traditional
territories or who may have resettled outside their ancestral domains. (Separate Opinion,

29
Puno, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of DENR, et al., G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6,
2000, En Banc)

31. Define “ancestral domains” and “ancestral lands.” Do they constitute part of the land of
the public domain?

Held: Ancestral domains and ancestral lands are the private property of indigenous
peoples and do not constitute part of the land of the public domain.

The IPRA grants to ICCs/IPs a distinct kind of ownership over ancestral domains and
ancestral lands. Ancestral lands are not the same as ancestral domains. These are defined
in Section 3(a) and (b) of the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act x x x.

Ancestral domains are all areas belonging to ICCs/IPs held under a claim of
ownership, occupied or possessed by ICCs/IPs by themselves or through their ancestors,
communally or individually since time immemorial, continuously until the present, except
when interrupted by war, force majeure or displacement by force, deceit, stealth or as a
consequence of government projects or any other voluntary dealings with government
and/or private individuals or corporations. Ancestral domains comprise lands, inland waters,
coastal areas, and natural resources therein and includes ancestral lands, forests, pasture,
residential, agricultural, and other lands individually owned whether alienable or not,
hunting grounds, burial grounds, worship areas, bodies of water, mineral and other natural
resources. They also include lands which may no longer be exclusively occupied by ICCs/IPs
but from which they traditionally had access to for their subsistence and traditional
activities, particularly the home ranges of ICCs/IPs who are still nomadic and/or shifting
cultivators (Section 3[a], IPRA).

Ancestral lands are lands held by the ICCs/IPs under the same conditions as ancestral
domains except that these are limited to lands and that these lands are not merely occupied
and possessed but are also utilized by the ICCs/IPs under claims of individual or traditional
group ownership. These lands include but are not limited to residential lots, rice terraces or
paddies, private forests, swidden farms and tree lots (Section 3[b], IPRA). (Separate
Opinion, Puno, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of DENR, et al., G.R. No. 135385,
Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

32. How may ICCs/IPs acquire rights to their ancestral domains and ancestral lands?

Held: The rights of the ICCs/IPs to their ancestral domains and ancestral lands may
be acquired in two modes: (1) by native title over both ancestral lands and domains; or (2)
by torrens title under the Public Land Act and the Land Registration Act with respect to
ancestral lands only. (Separate Opinion, Puno, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of
DENR, et al., G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

33. What is the concept of “native title?” What is a Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title
(CADT)?

Held: Native title refers to ICCs/IPs preconquest rights to lands and domains held
under a claim of private ownership as far back as memory reaches. These lands are
deemed never to have been public lands and are indisputably presumed to have been held
that way since before the Spanish Conquest. The rights of ICCs/IPs to their ancestral
domains (which also include ancestral lands) by virtue of native title shall be recognized and
respected (Section 11, IPRA). Formal recognition, when solicited by ICCs/IPs concerned,
shall be embodied in a Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT), which shall recognize
the title of the concerned ICCs/IPs over the territories identified and delineated.

Like a torrens title, a CADT is evidence of private ownership of land by native title.
Native title, however, is a right of private ownership peculiarly granted to ICCs/IPs over their
ancestral lands and domains. The IPRA categorically declares ancestral lands and domains
held by native title as never to have been public land. Domains and lands held under native
title are, therefore, indisputably presumed to have never been public lands and are private.

The concept of native title in the IPRA was taken from the 1909 case of Carino v.
Insular Government (41 Phil. 935 [1909], 212 U.S. 449, 53 L. Ed. 594). Carino firmly
established a concept of private land title that existed irrespective of any royal grant from
the State. (Separate Opinion, Puno, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of DENR, et al.,
G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

34. Distinguish ownership of land under native title and ownership by acquisitive
prescription against the State.

30
 Held: Ownership by virtue of native title presupposes that the land has been held by
its possessor and his predecessor-in-interest in the concept of an owner since time
immemorial. The land is not acquired from the State, that is, Spain or its successor-in-
interest, the United States and the Philippine Government. There has been no transfer of
title from the State as the land has been regarded as private in character as far back as
memory goes. In contrast, ownership of land by acquisitive prescription against the State
involves a conversion of the character of the property from alienable public land to private
land, which presupposes a transfer of title from the State to a private person. (Separate
Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of DENR, G.R. No. 135385, Dec.
6, 2000, En Banc)

35. Discuss the concept of “jura regalia” and how it evolved in the Philippines. Does it
negate native title to lands held in private ownership since time immemorial?

Held: Generally, under the concept of jura regalia, private title to land must be
traced to some grant, express or implied, from the Spanish Crown or its successors, the
American Colonial government, and thereafter, the Philippine Republic. The belief that the
Spanish Crown is the origin of all land titles in the Philippines has persisted because title to
land must emanate from some source for it cannot issue forth from nowhere.

In its broad sense, the term “jura regalia” refers to royal grants, or those rights which
the King has by virtue of his prerogatives. In Spanish law, it refers to a right which the
sovereign has over anything in which a subject has a right of property or propriedad. These
were rights enjoyed during feudal times by the king as the sovereign.

The theory of the feudal system was that title to all lands was originally held by the
King, and while the use of lands was granted out to others who were permitted to hold them
under certain conditions, the King theoretically retained the title. By fiction of law, the King
was regarded as the original proprietor of all lands, and the true and only source of title, and
from him all lands were held. The theory of jura regalia was therefore nothing more than a
natural fruit of conquest.

The Regalian theory, however, does not negate native title to lands held in private
ownership since time immemorial. In the landmark case of Carino v. Insular Government
(41 Phil. 935, 212 U.S. 449, 53 L. Ed. 594 [1909]), the United States Supreme Court,
reversing the decision of the pre-war Philippine Supreme Court, made the following
pronouncement:

x x x Every presumption is and ought to be taken against the Government in

a case like the present. It might, perhaps, be proper and sufficient to say that when, as far
back as testimony or memory goes, the land has been held by individuals under a claim of
private ownership, it will be presumed to have been held in the same way from before the
Spanish conquest, and never to have been public land. x x x (Carino v. Insular Government,
supra note 75, at 941)

The above ruling institutionalized the recognition of the existence of native title to
land, or ownership of land by Filipinos by virtue of possession under a claim of ownership
since time immemorial and independent of any grant from the Spanish Crown, as an
exception to the theory of jura regalia.

Xxx

Carino was decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1909, at a time when decisions of
the U.S. Court were binding as precedent in our jurisdiction (Section 10, Philippine Bill of
1902). We applied the Carino doctrine in the 1946 case of Oh Cho v. Director of Lands (75
Phil. 890 [1946]), where we stated that “[a]ll lands that were not acquired from the
Government either by purchase or by grant, belong to the public domain, but [a]n exception
to the rule would be any land that should have been in the possession of an occupant and of
his predecessors in interest since time immemorial, for such possession would justify the
presumption that the land had never been part of the public domain or that it had been
private property even before the Spanish conquest. (Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in
Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of DENR, G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

36. Does R.A. 8371, otherwise known as “the Indigenous People’s Rights Act” infringe upon
the State’s ownership over the natural resources within the ancestral domains?

Held: Petitioners posit that IPRA deprives the State of its ownership over mineral
lands of the public domain and other natural resources, as well as the State’s full control and

31
supervision over the exploration, development and utilization of natural resources.
Specifically, petitioners and the Solicitor General assail Sections 3[a], 5, and 7 of IPRA as
violative of Section 2, Article XII of the Constitution which states, in part, that “[a]ll lands of
the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of
potential energy, fisheries, forests or timber, wildlife, flora and fauna, and other natural
resources are owned by the State.” (Section 2, Article XII, Constitution) They would have
the Court declare as unconstitutional Section 3[a] of IPRA because the inclusion of natural
resources in the definition of ancestral domains purportedly results in the abdication of State
ownership over these resources.

Xxx

Section 3[a] merely defines the coverage of ancestral domains, and describes the
extent, limit and composition of ancestral domains by setting forth the standards and
guidelines in determining whether a particular area is to be considered as part of and within
the ancestral domains. In other words, Section 3[a] serves only as a yardstick which points
out what properties are within the ancestral domains. It does not confer or recognize any
right of ownership over the natural resources to the indigenous peoples. Its purpose is
definitional and not declarative of a right or title.

The specification of what areas belong to the ancestral domains is x x x important to

ensure that no unnecessary encroachment on private properties outside the ancestral
domains will result during the delineation process. The mere fact that Section 3[a] defines
ancestral domains to include the natural resources found therein does not ipso facto convert
the character of such natural resources as private property of the indigenous peoples.
Similarly, Section 5 in relation to Section 3[a] cannot be construed as a source of ownership
rights of indigenous peoples over the natural resources simply because it recognizes
ancestral domains as their “private but community property.”

The phrase “private but community property” is merely descriptive of the indigenous
peoples’ concept of ownership as distinguished from that provided in the Civil Code. x x x.
In contrast, the indigenous peoples’ concept of ownership emphasizes the importance of
communal or group ownership. By virtue of the communal character of ownership, the
property held in common “cannot be sold, disposed or destroyed” because it was meant to
benefit the whole indigenous community and not merely the individual member.

That IPRA is not intended to bestow ownership over natural resources to the
indigenous peoples is also clear from the deliberations of the bicameral conference
committee on Section 7 which recites the rights of indigenous peoples over their ancestral
domains x x x.

Further, Section 7 makes no mention of any right of ownership of the indigenous

peoples over the natural resources. In fact, Section 7[a] merely recognizes the “right to
claim ownership over lands, bodies of water traditionally and actually occupied by
indigenous peoples, sacred places, traditional hunting and fishing grounds, and all
improvements made by them at any time within the domains.” Neither does Section 7[b],
which enumerates certain rights of the indigenous peoples over the natural resources found
within their ancestral domains, contain any recognition of ownership vis-à-vis the natural
resources.

What is evident is that the IPRA protects the indigenous peoples’ rights and welfare
in relation to the natural resources found within their ancestral domains, including the
preservation of the ecological balance therein and the need to ensure that the indigenous
peoples will not be unduly displaced when the State-approved activities involving the natural
resources located therein are undertaken. (Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Cruz v.
Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources, 347 SCRA 128, 284-293, Dec. 6,
2000, En Banc [Per Curiam])

37. Has the concept of native title to natural resources, like native title to land, been
recognized in the Philippines?

Held: The concept of native title to natural resources, unlike native title to land, has
not been recognized in the Philippines. NCIP and Flavier, et al. invoke the case of Reavies v.
Fianza (40 Phil. 1017 [1909], 215 US 16, 54 L Ed 72) in support of their thesis that native
title to natural resources has been upheld in this jurisdiction. X x x. However, a judicious
examination of Reavies reveals that, contrary to the position of NCIP and Flavier, et al., the
Court did not recognize native title to natural resources. Rather, it merely upheld the right of
the indigenous peoples to claim ownership of minerals under the Philippine Bill of 1902.

32
 While x x x native title to land or private ownership by Filipinos of land by virtue of
time immemorial possession in the concept of an owner was acknowledged and recognized
as far back during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, there was no similar favorable
treatment as regards natural resources. (Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Cruz v.
Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources, 347 SCRA 128, 284-293, Dec. 6,
2000, En Banc [Per Curiam])

38. What is the underlying reason for the State’s consistent assertion of ownership and
control over natural resources from the Spanish regime up to the present?

Held: The unique value of natural resources has been acknowledged by the State
and is the underlying reason for its consistent assertion of ownership and control over said
natural resources from the Spanish regime up to the present. Natural resources, especially
minerals, were considered by Spain as an abundant source of revenue to finance its battle in
wars against other nations. Hence, Spain, by asserting its ownership over minerals
wherever these may be found, whether in public or private lands, recognized the
separability of title over lands and that over minerals which may be found therein.

On the other hand, the United States viewed natural resources as a source of wealth
for its nationals. As the owner of natural resources over the Philippines after the latter’s
cession from Spain, the United States saw it fit to allow both Filipino and American citizens
to explore and exploit minerals in public lands, and to grant patents to private mineral lands.
x x x. Although the United States made a distinction between minerals found in public lands
and those found in private lands, title in these minerals was in all cases sourced from the
State. The framers of the 1935 Constitution found it necessary to maintain the State’s
ownership over natural resources to insure their conservation for future generations of
Filipinos, to prevent foreign control of the country through economic domination; and to
avoid situations whereby the Philippines would become a source of international conflicts,
thereby posing danger to its internal security and independence. (Separate Opinion,
Kapunan, J., in Cruz v. Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources, 347 SCRA
128, 284-293, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc [Per Curiam])

39. What was the basis for the early Spanish decrees embracing the theory of jura regalia?
Is this also the basis of the declaration in Section 2, Article XII of the 1987 Constitution
that all lands of the public domain are owned by the State? Consequently, did Spain
acquire title over all lands in the Philippines in the 16 th century?

Held: Dominium was the basis for the early Spanish decrees embracing the theory
of jura regalia. The declaration in Section 2, Article XII of the 1987 Constitution that all lands
of the public domain are owned by the State is likewise founded on dominium. If dominium,
not imperium, is the basis of the theory of jura regalia, then the lands which Spain acquired
in the 16th century were limited to non-private lands, because it could only acquire lands
which were not yet privately-owned or occupied by the Filipinos. Hence, Spain acquired title
only over lands which were unoccupied and unclaimed, i.e., public lands. (Separate
Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of DENR, G.R. No. 135385, Dec.
6, 2000, En Banc, See Footnote 86)

The Right of the State to Recover Properties Unlawfully Acquired by Public

Officials or Employees

40. Does the right of the State to recover properties unlawfully acquired by public officials or
employees which may not be barred by prescription, laches, or estoppel under Section
15, Article XI of the Constitution apply to criminal cases for the recovery of ill-gotten
wealth?

Held: Section 15, Article XI, 1987 Constitution provides that “[T]he right of the State
to recover properties unlawfully acquired by public officials or employees, from them or from
their nominees as transferees, shall not be barred by prescription, laches, or estoppel.”
From the proceedings of the Constitutional Commission of 1986, however, it was clear that
this provision applies only to civil actions for recovery of ill-gotten wealth, and not to
criminal cases. Thus, the prosecution of offenses arising from, relating or incident to, or
involving ill-gotten wealth contemplated in Section 15, Article XI of the Constitution may be
barred by prescription. (Presidential Ad Hoc Fact-Finding Committee on Behest
Loans, et al. v. Hon. Aniano A. Desierto, et al., G.R. No. 130140, Oct. 25, 1999, En
Banc [Davide, C.J.])

33
 STRUCTURE OF GOVERNMENT

The Doctrine of Separation of Powers

41. May the Government, through the PCGG, validly bind itself to cause the dismissal of all
cases against the Marcos heirs pending before the Sandiganbayan and other courts in a
Compromise Agreement entered into between the former and the latter?

Held: This is a direct encroachment on judicial power, particularly in regard to

criminal jurisdiction. Well-settled is the doctrine that once a case has been filed before a
court of competent jurisdiction, the matter of its dismissal or pursuance lies within the full
discretion and control of the judge. In a criminal case, the manner in which the prosecution
is handled, including the matter of whom to present as witnesses, may lie within the sound
discretion of the government prosecutor; but the court decides, based on the evidence
proffered, in what manner it will dispose of the case. Jurisdiction, once acquired by the trial
court, is not lost despite a resolution, even by the justice secretary, to withdraw the
information or to dismiss the complaint. The prosecution’s motion to withdraw or to dismiss
is not the least binding upon the court. On the contrary, decisional rules require the trial
court to make its own evaluation of the merits of the case, because granting such motion is
equivalent to effecting a disposition of the case itself.

Thus, the PCGG, as the government prosecutor of ill-gotten wealth cases, cannot
guarantee the dismissal of all such criminal cases against the Marcoses pending in the
courts, for said dismissal is not within its sole power and discretion. (Chavez v. PCGG, 299
SCRA 744, Dec. 9, 1998 [Panganiban])

Delegation of Powers

42. What are the tests of a valid delegation of power?

Held: [I]n every case of permissible delegation, there must be a showing that the
delegation itself is valid. It is valid only if the law (a) is complete in itself, setting forth
therein the policy to be executed, carried out, or implemented by the delegate; and (b) fixes
a standard – the limits of which are sufficiently determinate and determinable – to which the
delegate must conform in the performance of his functions. A sufficient standard is one
which defines legislative policy, marks its limits, maps out its boundaries and specifies the
public agency to apply it. It indicates the circumstances under which the legislative
command is to be effected. (Santiago v. COMELEC, 270 SCRA 106, March 19, 1997)

The Legislative Department

43. Discuss the nature of the Party-List system. Is it, without any qualification, open to all?

Held: 1. The party-list system is a social justice tool designed not only to give more
law to the great masses of our people who have less in life, but also to enable them to
become veritable lawmakers themselves, empowered to participate directly in the
enactment of laws designed to benefit them. It intends to make the marginalized and the
underrepresented not merely passive recipients of the State’s benevolence, but active
participants in the mainstream of representative democracy. Thus, allowing all individuals
and groups, including those which now dominate district elections, to have the same
opportunity to participate in party-list elections would desecrate this lofty objective and
mongrelize the social justice mechanism into an atrocious veneer for traditional politics.
(Ang Bagong Bayani – OFW Labor Party v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 147589, June 26,
2001, En Banc [Panganiban])

2. Crucial to the resolution of this case is the fundamental social justice principle that
those who have less in life should have more in law. The party-list system is one such tool
intended to benefit those who have less in life. It gives the great masses of our people
genuine hope and genuine power. It is a message to the destitute and the prejudiced, and
even to those in the underground, that change is possible. It is an invitation for them to
come out of their limbo and seize the opportunity.

Clearly, therefore, the Court cannot accept the submissions x x x that the party-list
system is, without any qualification, open to all. Such position does not only weaken the
electoral chances of the marginalized and underrepresented; it also prejudices them. It
would gut the substance of the party-list system. Instead of generating hope, it would
create a mirage. Instead of enabling the marginalized, it would further weaken them and

34
aggravate their marginalization. (Ang Bagong Bayani – OFW Labor Party v. COMELEC,
G.R. No. 147589, June 26, 2001, En Banc [Panganiban])

44. Are political parties – even the major ones – prohibited from participating in the party-list
elections?

Held: Under the Constitution and RA 7941, private respondents cannot be

disqualified from the party-list elections, merely on the ground that they are political parties.
Section 5, Article VI of the Constitution, provides that members of the House of
Representatives may “be elected through a party-list system of registered national,
regional, and sectoral parties or organizations.

Furthermore, under Sections 7 and 8, Article IX [C] of the Constitution, political

parties may be registered under the party-list system. X x x

During the deliberations in the Constitutional Commission, Comm. Christian S.

Monsod pointed out that the participants in the party-list system may “be a regional party, a
sectoral party, a national party, UNIDO, Magsasaka, or a regional party in Mindanao.” x x x.

Xxx

For its part, Section 2 of RA 7941 also provides for “a party-list system of registered
national, regional and sectoral parties or organizations or coalitions thereof, x x x.” Section
3 expressly states that a “party” is “either a political party or a sectoral party or a coalition
of parties.” More to the point, the law defines “political party” as “an organized group of
citizens advocating an ideology or platform, principles and policies for the general conduct
of government and which, as the most immediate means of securing their adoption,
regularly nominates and supports certain of its leaders and members as candidates for
public office.”

Furthermore, Section 11 of RA 7941 leaves no doubt as to the participation of

political parties in the party-list system. X x x

Indubitably, therefore, political parties – even the major ones – may participate in the
party-list elections.

That political parties may participate in the party-list elections does not mean,
however, that any political party – or any organization or group for that matter – may do so.
The requisite character of these parties or organizations must be consistent with the
purpose of the party-list system, as laid down in the Constitution and RA 7941. X x x (Ang
Bagong Bayani – OFW Labor Party v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 147589, June 26, 2001, En
Banc [Panganiban])

45. Is the enumeration of marginalized and underrepresented sectors to be represented

under the party-list system in RA 7941 exclusive? Will it be correct to assert that the
party-list system is not exclusive to the marginalized and underrepresented sectors, but
that even the super-rich and overrepresented can validly participate in party-list
elections?

Held: While the enumeration of marginalized and underrepresented sectors is not

exclusive, it demonstrates the clear intent of the law that not all sectors can be represented
under the party-list system. X x x

[W]e stress that the party-list system seeks to enable certain Filipino citizens –
specifically those belonging to marginalized and underrepresented sectors, organizations
and parties – to be elected to the House of Representatives. The assertion x x x that the
party-list system is not exclusive to the marginalized and underrepresented disregards the
clear statutory policy. Its claim that even the super-rich and overrepresented can
participate desecrates the spirit of the party-list system.

Indeed, the law crafted to address the peculiar disadvantage of Payatas hovel
dwellers cannot be appropriated by the mansion owners of Forbes Park. The interests of
these two sectors are manifestly disparate; hence, the x x x position to treat them similarly
defies reason and common sense. X x x

While the business moguls and the mega-rich are, numerically speaking, a tiny
minority, they are neither marginalized nor underrepresented, for the stark reality is that
their economic clout engenders political power more awesome than their numerical
limitation. Traditionally, political power does not necessarily emanate from the size of one’s

35
constituency; indeed, it is likely to arise more directly from the number and amount of one’s
bank accounts.

It is ironic, therefore, that the marginalized and underrepresented in our midst are
the majority who wallow in poverty, destitution and infirmity. It was for them that the party-
list system was enacted – to give them not only genuine hope, but genuine power; to give
them opportunity to be elected and to represent the specific concerns of their
constituencies; and simply to give them a direct vote in Congress and in the larger affairs of
the State. In its noblest sense, the party-list system truly empowers the masses and ushers
a new hope for genuine change. Verily, it invites those marginalized and underrepresented
in the past – the farm hands, the fisher folk, the urban poor, even those in the underground
movement – to come out and participate, as indeed many of them came out and
participated during the last elections. The State cannot now disappoint and frustrate them
by disabling the desecrating this social justice vehicle.

Because the marginalized and underrepresented had not been able to win in the
congressional district elections normally dominated by traditional politicians and vested
groups, 20 percent of the seats in the House of Representatives were set aside for the party-
list system. In arguing that even those sectors who normally controlled 80 percent of the
seats in the House could participate in the party-list elections for the remaining 20 percent,
the OSG and the Comelec disregard the fundamental difference between the congressional
district elections and the party-list elections.

As earlier noted, the purpose of the party-list provision was to open up the system, in
order to enhance the chance of sectoral groups and organizations to gain representation in
the House of Representatives through the simplest scheme possible. Logic shows that the
system has been opened to those who have never gotten a foothold within it – those who
cannot otherwise win in regular elections and who therefore need the “simplest scheme
possible” to do so. Conversely, it would be illogical to open the system to those who have
long been within it – those privileged sectors that have long dominated the congressional
district elections.

Xxx

Verily, allowing the non-marginalized and overrepresented to vie for the remaining
seats under the party-list system would not only dilute, but also prejudice the chance of the
marginalized and underrepresented, contrary to the intention of the law to enhance it. The
party-list system is a tool for the benefit of the underprivileged; the law could not have given
the same tool to others, to the prejudice of the intended beneficiaries. (Ang Bagong
Bayani – OFW Labor Party v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 147589, June 26, 2001, En Banc
[Panganiban])

46. Section 5(2), Article VI of the Constitution provides that “[t]he party-list representatives
shall constitute twenty per centum of the total number of representatives including
those under the party-list.” Does the Constitution require all such allocated seats to be
filled up all the time and under all circumstances?

Held: The Constitution simply states that “[t]he party-list representatives shall
constitute twenty per centum of the total number of representatives including those under
the party-list.”

Xxx

We rule that a simple reading of Section 5, Article VI of the Constitution, easily

conveys the equally simple message that Congress was vested with the broad power to
define and prescribe the mechanics of the party-list system of representation. The
Constitution explicitly sets down only the percentage of the total membership in the House
of Representatives reserved for party-list representatives.

In the exercise of its constitutional prerogative, Congress enacted RA 7941. As said

earlier, Congress declared therein a policy to promote “proportional representation” in the
election of party-list representatives in order to enable Filipinos belonging to the
marginalized and underrepresented sectors to contribute legislation that would benefit
them. It however deemed it necessary to require parties, organizations and coalitions
participating in the system to obtain at least two percent of the total votes cast for the
party-list system in order to be entitled to a party-list seat. Those garnering more than this
percentage could have “additional seats in proportion to their total number of votes.”
Furthermore, no winning party, organization or coalition can have more than three seats in
the House of Representatives. X x x

36
 Considering the foregoing statutory requirements, it will be shown x x x that Section
5(2), Article VI of the Constitution is not mandatory. It merely provides a ceiling for party-list
seats in Congress. (Veterans Federation Party v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 136781, Oct. 6,
2000, En Banc [Panganiban])

47. What are the inviolable parameters to determine the winners in a Philippine-style party-
list election?

Held: To determine the winners in a Philippine-style party-list election, the

Constitution and Republic Act No. 7941 mandate at least four inviolable parameters. These
are:

First, the twenty percent allocation - the combined number of all party-list
congressmen shall not exceed twenty percent of the total membership of the House of
Representatives, including those elected under the party list.

Second, the two percent threshold - only those garnering a minimum of two
percent of the total valid votes cast for the party-list system are "qualified" to have a seat in
the House of Representatives.

Third, the three seat limit - each qualified party, regardless of the number of votes
it actually obtained, is entitled to a maximum of three seats; that is, one "qualifying" and
two additional seats.

Fourth, proportional representation - the additional seats which a qualified party

is entitled to shall be computed "in proportion to their total number of votes." (Veterans
Federation Party v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 136781 and Companion Cases, Oct. 6,
2000, En Banc [Panganiban])

48. To determine the “total votes cast for the party-list system,” should the votes tallied for
the disqualified candidates be deducted?

Held: The instant Motions for proclamation contend that the disqualification of
many party-list organizations has reduced the “total number of votes cast for the party-list
elections.” Because of this reduction, the two-percent benchmark required by law has now
been allegedly attained by movants. Hence, they now pray for their proclamation as
winners in the last party-list elections.

Recall that under Section 11(b) of RA 7941 (the Party-List Act), only those parties
garnering a minimum of two percent of the total votes cast for the party-list system are
entitled to have a seat in the House of Representatives. The critical question now is this: To
determine the “total votes cast for the party-list system,” should the votes tallied for the
disqualified candidates be deducted? Otherwise stated, does the clause “total votes cast for
the party-list system” include only those ballots cast for qualified party-list candidates?

To answer this question, there is a need to review related jurisprudence on the

matter, especially Labo v. Comelec and Grego v. Comelec, which were mentioned in our
February 18, 2003 Resolution.

Labo and Grego Not Applicable

In Labo, the Court declared that “the ineligibility of a candidate receiving majority
votes does not entitle the eligible candidate receiving the next highest number of votes to
be declared elected. A minority or defeated candidate cannot be deemed elected to the
office.” In other words, the votes cast for an ineligible or disqualified candidate cannot be
considered “stray.”

However, “this rule would be different if the electorate, fully aware in fact and in law
of a candidate’s disqualification so as to bring such awareness within the realm of notoriety,
would nonetheless cast their votes in favor of the ineligible. In such case, the electorate
may be said to have waived the validity and efficacy of their votes by notoriously
misapplying their franchise or throwing away their votes, in which case, the eligible
candidate obtaining the next higher number of votes may be deemed elected.” In short, the
votes cast for a “notoriously disqualified” candidate may be considered “stray” and
excluded from the canvass.

The foregoing pronouncement was reiterated in Grego, which held that the exception
mentioned in Labo v. Comelec “is predicated on the concurrence of two assumptions,

37
namely: 1) the one who obtained the highest number of votes is disqualified; and 2) the
electorate is fully aware in fact and in law of a candidate’s disqualification so as to bring
such awareness within the realm of notoriety but would nonetheless cast their votes in favor
of the ineligible candidate.”

Note, however, that the foregoing pronouncements (1) referred to regular elections
for local offices and (2) involved the interpretation of Section 6 of RA 6646. They were not
meant to cover party-list elections, which are specifically governed by RA 7941. Section 10
of this latter law clearly provides that the votes cast for a party, a sectoral organization or a
coalition “not entitled to be voted for shall not be counted”:

Xxx
The language of the law is clear; hence, there is room, not for interpretation, but
merely for application. Likewise, no recourse to extrinsic aids is warranted when the
language of the law is plain and unambiguous.

Another reason for not applying Labo and Grego is that these cases involve single
elective posts, while the present controversy pertains to the acquisition of a number of
congressional seats depending on the total election results – such that even those garnering
second, third, fourth or lesser places could be proclaimed winners depending on their
compliance with other requirements.

RA 7941 is a special statute governing the election of party-list representatives and is

the controlling law in matters pertaining thereto. Since Labo and Section 6 of RA 6646 came
into being prior to the enactment of RA 7941, the latter is a qualification of the former ruling
and law. On the other hand, Grego and other related cases that came after the enactment
of RA 7941 should be construed as inapplicable to the latter.

Subtracting the votes garnered by these disqualified party-list groups from the total
votes cast under the party-list system will reduce the base figure to 6,523,185. This means
that the two-percent threshold can be more easily attained by the qualified marginalized
and under-represented groups. Hence, disregarding the votes of disqualified party-list
participants will increase and broaden the number of representatives from these sectors.
Doing so will further concretize and give flesh to the policy declaration in RA 7941 x x x.
(Ang Bagong Bayani – OFW Labor Party v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 147589, June 25,
2003, En Banc [Panganiban])

49. State the guidelines for screening Party-List Participants.

Held: In this light, the Court finds it appropriate to lay down the following guidelines,
culled from the law and the Constitution, to assist the Comelec in its work.

First, the political party, sector, organization or coalition must represent the
marginalized and underrepresented groups identified in Section 5 of RA 7941. In other
words, it must show – through its constitution, articles of incorporation, bylaws, history,
platform of government and track record – that it represents and seeks to uplift
marginalized and underrepresented sectors. Verily, majority of its membership should
belong to the marginalized and underrepresented. And it must demonstrate that in a
conflict of interest, it has chosen or is likely to choose the interest of such sectors.

Second, while even major political parties are expressly allowed by RA 7941 and the
Constitution to participate in the party-list system, they must comply with the declared
statutory policy of enabling “Filipino citizens belonging to marginalized and
underrepresented sectors x x x to be elected to the House of Representatives.” In other
words, while they are not disqualified merely on the ground that they are political parties,
they must show, however, that they represent the interests of the marginalized and
underrepresented. X x x

Third, in view of the objections directed against the registration of Ang Buhay
Hayaang Yumabong, which is allegedly a religious group, the Court notes the express
constitutional provision that the religious sector may not be represented in the party-list
system. x x x

Furthermore, the Constitution provides that “religious denominations and sects shall
not be registered.” (Sec. 2 [5], Article IX [C]) The prohibition was explained by a member of
the Constitutional Commission in this wise: “[T]he prohibition is on any religious
organization registering as a political party. I do not see any prohibition here against a
priest running as a candidate. That is not prohibited here; it is the registration of a religious
sect as a political party.”

38
 Fourth, a party or an organization must not be disqualified under Section 6 of RA
7941, which enumerates the grounds for disqualification as follows:

1) It is a religious sect or denomination, organization or association organized for

religious purposes;
2) It advocates violence or unlawful means to seek its goal;
3) It is a foreign party or organization;
4) It is receiving support from any foreign government, foreign political party,
foundation, organization, whether directly or through any of its officers or
members or indirectly through third parties for partisan election purposes;
5) It violates or fails to comply with laws, rules or regulations relating to elections;
6) It declares untruthful statements in its petition;
7) It has ceased to exist for at least one (1) year; or
8) It fails to participate in the last two (2) preceding elections or fails to obtain at
least two per centum (2%) of the votes cast under the party-list system in the two
(2) preceding elections for the constituency in which it had registered.”

Note should be taken of paragraph 5, which disqualifies a party or group for violation
of or failure to comply with election laws and regulations. These laws include Section 2 of
RA 7941, which states that the party-list system seeks to “enable Filipino citizens belonging
to marginalized and underrepresented sectors, organizations and parties x x x to become
members of the House of Representatives.” A party or organization, therefore, that does not
comply with this policy must be disqualified.

Fifth, the party or organization must not be an adjunct of, or a project organized or an
entity funded or assisted by, the government. By the very nature of the party-list system,
the party or organization must be a group of citizens, organized by citizens and operated by
citizens. It must be independent of the government. The participation of the government or
its officials in the affairs of a party-list candidate is not only illegal and unfair to other
parties, but also deleterious to the objective of the law: to enable citizens belonging to
marginalized and underrepresented sectors and organization to be elected to the House of
Representatives.

Sixth, the party must not only comply with the requirements of the law; its nominees
must likewise do so. x x x

Seventh, not only the candidate party or organization must represent marginalized
and underrepresented sectors; so also must its nominees. To repeat, under Section 2 of RA
7941, the nominees must be Filipino citizens “who belong to marginalized and
underrepresented sectors, organizations and parties.” Surely, the interests of the youth
cannot be fully represented by a retiree; neither can those of the urban poor or the working
class, by an industrialist. To allow otherwise is to betray the State policy to give genuine
representation to the marginalized and underrepresented.

Eighth, x x x while lacking a well-defined political constituency, the nominee must

likewise be able to contribute to the formulation and enactment of appropriate legislation
that will benefit the nation as a whole. (Ang Bagong Bayani – OFW Labor Party v.
COMELEC, G.R. No. 147589, June 26, 2001, En Banc [Panganiban])

50. Discuss the history of the constitutional provision granting immunity from arrest or
detention of Members of Congress, and how should it be construed?

Held: The immunity from arrest or detention of Senators and members of the House
of Representatives x x x arises from a provision of the Constitution. The history of the
provision shows that the privilege has always been granted in a restrictive sense. The
provision granting an exemption as a special privilege cannot be extended beyond the
ordinary meaning of its terms. It may not be extended by intendment, implication or
equitable considerations.

The 1935 Constitution provided in its Article VI on the Legislative Department:

Sec. 15. The Senators and Members of the House of Representatives shall in
all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
during their attendance at the sessions of Congress, and in going to and returning
from the same; x x x.

Because of the broad coverage of felony and breach of the peace, the exemption
applied only to civil arrests. A congressman like the accused-appellant, convicted under

39
Title Eleven of the Revised Penal Code could not claim parliamentary immunity from arrest.
He was subject to the same general laws governing all persons still to be tried or whose
convictions were pending appeal.

The 1973 Constitution broadened the privilege of immunity as follows:

Article VIII, Sec. 9. A Member of the Batasang Pambansa shall, in all offenses
punishable by not more than six years imprisonment, be privileged from arrest
during his attendance at its sessions and in going to and returning from the same.

For offenses punishable by more than six years imprisonment, there was no
immunity from arrest. The restrictive interpretation of immunity and the intent to confine it
within carefully defined parameters is illustrated by the concluding portion of the provision,
to wit:

X x x but the Batasang Pambansa shall surrender the member involved to the
custody of the law within twenty four hours after its adjournment for a recess or for
its next session, otherwise such privilege shall cease upon its failure to do so.

The present Constitution adheres to the same restrictive rule minus the obligation of
Congress to surrender the subject Congressman to the custody of the law. The requirement
that he should be attending sessions or committee meetings has also been removed. For
relatively minor offenses, it is enough that Congress is in session. (People v. Jalosjos, 324
SCRA 689, Feb. 3, 2000, En Banc [Ynares-Santiago])

51. Accused-appellant Congressman Romeo G. Jalosjos filed a motion before the Court
asking that he be allowed to fully discharge the duties of a Congressman, including
attendance at legislative sessions and committee meetings despite his having been
convicted in the first instance of a non-bailable offense. He contended that his
reelection being an expression of popular will cannot be rendered inutile by any ruling,
giving priority to any right or interest – not even the police power of the State. Resolve.

Held: The accused-appellant argues that a member of Congress’ function to attend

sessions is underscored by Section 16(2), Article VI of the Constitution which states that –

(2) A majority of each House shall constitute a quorum to do business, but a

smaller number may adjourn from day to day and may compel the attendance of
absent Members in such manner, and under such penalties, as such House may
provide.

However, the accused-appellant has not given any reason why he should be
exempted from the operation of Section 11, Article VI of the Constitution. The members of
Congress cannot compel absent members to attend sessions if the reason for the absence is
a legitimate one. The confinement of a Congressman charged with a crime punishable by
imprisonment of more than six years is not merely authorized by law, it has constitutional
foundations.

Accused-appellant’s reliance on the ruling in Aguinaldo v. Santos (212 SCRA 768, at

773 [1992]), which states, inter alia, that –

The Court should never remove a public officer for acts done prior to his
present term of office. To do otherwise would be to deprive the people of their right
to elect their officers. When the people have elected a man to office, it must be
assumed that they did this with the knowledge of his life and character, and that they
disregarded or forgave his fault or misconduct, if he had been guilty of any. It is not
for the Court, by reason of such fault or misconduct, to practically overrule the will of
the people.

will not extricate him from his predicament. It can be readily seen x x x that the Aguinaldo
case involves the administrative removal of a public officer for acts done prior to his present
term of office. It does not apply to imprisonment arising from the enforcement of criminal
law. Moreover, in the same way that preventive suspension is not removal, confinement
pending appeal is not removal. He remains a Congressman unless expelled by Congress or,
otherwise, disqualified.

One rationale behind confinement, whether pending appeal or after final conviction,
is public self-defense. Society must protect itself. It also serves as an example and warning
to others.

40
 A person charged with crime is taken into custody for purposes of the administration
of justice. As stated in United States v. Gustilo (19 Phil. 208, 212), it is the injury to the
public which State action in criminal law seeks to redress. It is not the injury to the
complainant. After conviction in the Regional Trial Court, the accused may be denied bail
and thus subjected to incarceration if there is risk of his absconding.

The accused-appellant states that the plea of the electorate which voted him into
office cannot be supplanted by unfounded fears that he might escape eventual punishment
if permitted to perform congressional duties outside his regular place of confinement.

It will be recalled that when a warrant for accused-appellant’s arrest was issued, he
fled and evaded capture despite a call from his colleagues in the House of Representatives
for him to attend the sessions ands to surrender voluntarily to the authorities. Ironically, it is
now the same body whose call he initially spurned which accused-appellant is invoking to
justify his present motion. This can not be countenanced because x x x aside from its being
contrary to well-defined Constitutional restraint, it would be a mockery of the aims of the
State’s penal system.

Accused-appellant argues that on several occasions, the Regional Trial Court of

Makati granted several motions to temporarily leave his cell at the Makati City Jail, for official
or medical reasons x x x.

He also calls attention to various instances, after his transfer at the New Bilibid Prison
in Muntinlupa City, when he was likewise allowed/permitted to leave the prison premises x x
x.

There is no showing that the above privileges are peculiar to him or to a member of
Congress. Emergency or compelling temporary leaves from imprisonment are allowed to all
prisoners, at the discretion of the authorities or upon court orders.

What the accused-appellant seeks is not of an emergency nature. Allowing accused-

appellant to attend congressional sessions and committee meetings for five (5) days or
more in a week will virtually make him a free man with all the privileges appurtenant to his
position. Such an aberrant situation not only elevates accused-appellant’s status to that of a
special class, it also would be a mockery of the purposes of the correction system. X x x

The accused-appellant avers that his constituents in the First District of Zamboanga
del Norte want their voices to be heard and that since he is treated as bona fide member of
the House of Representatives, the latter urges a co-equal branch of government to respect
his mandate. He also claims that the concept of temporary detention does not necessarily
curtail his duty to discharge his mandate and that he has always complied with the
conditions/restrictions when he is allowed to leave jail.

We remain unpersuaded.

Xxx

When the voters of his district elected the accused-appellant to Congress, they did so
with full awareness of the limitations on his freedom of action. They did so with the
knowledge that he could achieve only such legislative results which he could accomplish
within the confines of prison. To give a more drastic illustration, if voters elect a person with
full knowledge that he is suffering from a terminal illness, they do so knowing that at any
time, he may no longer serve his full term in office. (People v. Jalosjos, 324 SCRA 689,
Feb. 3, 2000, En Banc [Ynares-Santiago])

52. May the Supreme Court properly inquire into the motives of the lawmakers in conducting
legislative investigations? Can it enjoin the Congress or any of its regular and special
committees from making inquiries in aid of legislation?

Held: The “allocation of constitutional boundaries” is a task that this Court must
perform under the Constitution. Moreover, as held in a recent case (Neptali A. Gonzales, et
al. v. Hon. Catalino Macaraig, Jr., et al., G.R. No. 87636, 19 November 1990, 191 SCRA 452,
463), “[t]he political question doctrine neither interposes an obstacle to judicial
determination of the rival claims. The jurisdiction to delimit constitutional boundaries has
been given to this Court. It cannot abdicate that obligation mandated by the 1987
Constitution, although said provision by no means does away with the applicability of the
principle in appropriate cases.” (Section 1, Article VIII of the 1987 Constitution)

41
 The Court is thus of the considered view that it has jurisdiction over the present
controversy for the purpose of determining the scope and extent of the power of the
Senate Blue Ribbon Committee to conduct inquires into private affairs in purported aid
of legislation. (Bengzon, Jr. v. Senate Blue Ribbon Committee, 203 SCRA 767,
Nov. 20, 1991, En Banc [Padilla])

53. Is the power of both houses of Congress to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation absolute
or unlimited?

Held: The 1987 Constitution expressly recognizes the power of both houses of
Congress to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation (In Arnault v. Nazareno, 87 Phil. 29, this
Court held that although there was no express provision in the 1935 Constitution giving
such power to both houses of Congress, it was so incidental to the legislative function as to
be implied.). Thus, Section 21, Article VI provides x x x.

The power of both houses of Congress to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation is not,
therefore, absolute or unlimited. Its exercise is circumscribed by the afore-quoted provision
of the Constitution. Thus, as provided therein, the investigation must be “in aid of
legislation in accordance with its duly published rules of procedure” and that “the rights of
persons appearing in or affected by such inquiries shall be respected.” It follows then that
the rights of persons under the Bill of Rights must be respected, including the right to due
process and the right not to be compelled to testify against one’s self.

The power to conduct formal inquiries or investigations is specifically provided for in

Sec. 1 of the Senate Rules of Procedure Governing Inquiries in Aid of Legislation. Such
inquiries may refer to the implementation or re-examination of any law or in connection with
any proposed legislation or the formulation of future legislation. They may also extend to
any and all matters vested by the Constitution in Congress and/or in the Senate alone.

As held in Jean L. Arnault v. Leon Nazareno, et al, (No. L-3820, July 18, 1950, 87 Phil.
29), the inquiry, to be within the jurisdiction of the legislative body making it, must be
material or necessary to the exercise of a power in it vested by the Constitution, such as to
legislate or to expel a member.

Under Sec. 4 of the aforementioned Rules, the Senate may refer to any committee or
committees any speech or resolution filed by any Senator which in its judgment
requires an appropriate inquiry in aid of legislation. In order therefore to ascertain the
character or nature of an inquiry, resort must be had to the speech or resolution under
which such an inquiry is proposed to be made. (Bengzon, Jr. v. Senate Blue Ribbon
Committee, 203 SCRA 767, Nov. 20, 1991, En Banc [Padilla])

54. On 13 September 1988, the Senate Minority Floor Leader, Hon. Juan Ponce Enrile
delivered a speech “on a matter of personal privilege” before the Senate on the alleged
“take-over of SOLOIL Incorporated, the flagship on the First Manila Management of
Companies (FMMC) by Ricardo Lopa” and called upon “the Senate to look into the
possible violation of the law in the case, particularly with regard to Republic Act No.
3019, the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act.”

On motion of Senator Orlando Mercado, the matter was referred by the Senate to the
Committee on Accountability of Public Officers (Blue Ribbon Committee). Thereafter, the
Senate Blue Ribbon Committee started its investigation on the matter. Petitioners and
Ricardo Lopa were subpoenaed by the Committee to appear before it and testify on
“what they know” regarding the “sale of the thirty-six (36) corporations belonging to
Benjamin ‘Kokoy’ Romualdez.”

At the hearing held on 23 May 1989, Ricardo Lopa declined to testify on the ground
that his testimony may “unduly prejudice” the defendants in Civil Case No. 0035 before
the Sandiganbayan. Petitioner Jose F.S. Bengzon, Jr. likewise refused to testify invoking
his constitutional right to due process, and averring that the publicity generated by
respondent Committee’s inquiry could adversely affect his rights as well as those of the
other petitioners who are his co-defendants in Civil Case No. 0035 before the
Sandiganbayan.

The Senate Blue Ribbon Committee, thereupon, suspended its inquiry and directed
the petitioners to file their memorandum on the constitutional issues raised, after which,
it issued a resolution dated 5 June 1989 rejecting the petitioners’ plea to be excused
from testifying, and the Committee voted to pursue and continue its investigation of the
matter. X x x

42
 Claiming that the Senate Blue Ribbon Committee is poised to subpoena and require
their attendance and testimony in proceedings before the Committee, in excess of its
jurisdiction and legislative rights, and that there is no appeal nor any other plain, speedy
and adequate remedy in the ordinary course of law, the petitioners filed the present
petition for prohibition with a prayer for temporary restraining order and/or injunctive
relief.

Held: A perusal of the speech of Senator Enrile reveals that he (Senator Enrile)
made a statement which was published in various newspapers on 2 September 1988
accusing Mr. Ricardo “Baby” Lopa of “having taken over the FMMC Group of Companies.” X
xx

Verily, the speech of Senator Enrile contained no suggestion of contemplated

legislation; he merely called upon the Senate to look into a possible violation of Sec. 5 of RA
No. 3019, otherwise known as “The Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act.” In other words,
the purpose of the inquiry to be conducted by respondent Blue Ribbon Committee was to
find out whether or not the relatives of President Aquino, particularly Mr. Ricardo Lopa, had
violated the law in connection with the alleged sale of the 36 or 39 corporations belonging to
Benjamin “Kokoy” Romualdez to the Lopa Group. There appears to be, therefore, no
intended legislation involved.

Xxx

It appears, therefore, that the contemplated inquiry by respondent Committee is not

really “in aid of legislation” because it is not related to a purpose within the jurisdiction of
Congress, since the aim of the investigation is to find out whether or not the relatives of the
President or Mr. Ricardo Lopa had violated Section 5 of RA No. 3019, the “Anti-Graft and
Corrupt Practices Act”, a matter that appears more within the province of the courts rather
than of the legislature. Besides, the Court may take judicial notice that Mr. Ricardo Lopa
died during the pendency of this case. In John T. Watkins v. United States, it was held:

“x x x. The power of Congress to conduct inquiries in aid of legislation is

inherent in the legislative process. That power is broad. It encompasses inquiries
concerning the administration of existing laws as well as proposed or possibly needed
statutes. It includes surveys of defects in our social, economic, or political system for
the purpose of enabling Congress to remedy them. It comprehends probes into
departments of the Federal Government to expose corruption, inefficiency or waste.
But broad as is this power of inquiry, it is not unlimited. There is no general authority
to expose the private affairs of individuals without justification in terms of the
functions of Congress. This was freely conceded by the Solicitor General in his
arguments in this case. Nor is the Congress a law enforcement or trial agency.
These are functions of the executive and judicial departments of government. No
inquiry is an end in itself; it must be related to and in furtherance of a legislative task
of Congress. Investigations conducted solely for the personal aggrandizement of the
investigators or to ‘punish’ those investigated are indefensible.” (italics supplied)

It cannot be overlooked that when respondent Committee decided to conduct its

investigation of the petitioners, the complaint in Civil Case No. 0035 had already been filed
with the Sandiganbayan. A perusal of that complaint shows that one of its principal causes
of action against herein petitioners, as defendants therein, is the alleged sale of the 36 (or
39) corporations belonging to Benjamin “Kokoy” Romualdez. Since the issues in said
complaint had long been joined by the filing of petitioners’ respective answers thereto, the
issue sought to be investigated by the respondent Committee is one over which jurisdiction
had been acquired by the Sandiganbayan. In short, the issue has been pre-empted by that
court. To allow the respondent Committee to conduct its own investigation of an issue
already before the Sandiganbayan would not only pose the possibility of conflicting
judgments between a legislative committee and a judicial tribunal, but if the Committee’s
judgment were to be reached before that of the Sandiganbayan, the possibility of its
influence being made to bear on the ultimate judgment of the Sandiganbayan can not be
discounted.

In fine, for the respondent Committee to probe and inquire into the same justiciable
controversy already before the Sandiganbayan, would be an encroachment into the
exclusive domain of judicial jurisdiction that had much earlier set in. (Bengzon, Jr. v.
Senate Blue Ribbon Committee, 203 SCRA 767, Nov. 20, 1991, En Banc [Padilla])

55. Petitioners’ contention is that Republic Act No. 7716 (The Expanded-VAT Law) did not
“originate exclusively” in the House of Representatives as required by Art. VI, Sec. 24 of
the Constitution, because it is in fact the result of the consolidation of two distinct bills,

43
 H. No. 11197 and S. No. 1630. In this connection, petitioners point out that although
Art. VI, Sec. 24 was adopted from the American Federal Constitution, it is notable in two
respects: the verb “shall originate” is qualified in the Philippine Constitution by the word
“exclusively” and the phrase “as on other bills” in the American version is omitted. This
means, according to them, that to be considered as having originated in the House,
Republic Act No. 7716 must retain the essence of H. No. 11197.

Held: This argument will not bear analysis. To begin with, it is not the law - but the
revenue bill - which is required by the Constitution to “originate exclusively” in the House of
Representatives. It is important to emphasize this, because a bill originating in the House
may undergo such extensive changes in the Senate that the result may be a rewriting of the
whole. The possibility of a third version by the conference committee will be discussed later.
At this point, what is important to note is that, as a result of the Senate action, a distinct bill
may be produced. To insist that a revenue statute - and not only the bill which initiated the
legislative process culminating in the enactment of the law - must substantially be the same
as the House bill would be to deny the Senate's power not only to “concur with
amendments” but also to “propose amendments.” It would be to violate the coequality of
legislative power of the two houses of Congress and in fact make the House superior to the
Senate.

The contention that the constitutional design is to limit the Senate's power in respect
of revenue bills in order to compensate for the grant to the Senate of the treaty-ratifying
power and thereby equalize its powers and those of the House overlooks the fact that the
powers being compared are different. We are dealing here with the legislative power which
under the Constitution is vested not only in any particular chamber but in the Congress of
the Philippines, consisting of “a Senate and a House of Representatives.” The exercise of
the treaty-ratifying power is not the exercise of legislative power. It is the exercise of a
check on the executive power. There is, therefore, no justification for comparing the
legislative powers of the House and of the Senate on the basis of the possession of a similar
non-legislative power by the Senate. The possession of a similar power by the U.S. Senate
has never been thought of as giving it more legislative powers than the House of
Representatives.

X x x Given, then, the power of the Senate to propose amendments, the Senate can
propose its own version even with respect to bills which are required by the Constitution to
originate in the House.

It is insisted, however, that S. No. 1630 was passed not in substitution of H. No.
11197 but of another Senate bill (S. No. 1129) earlier filed and that what the Senate did was
merely to “take (H. No. 11197) into consideration” in enacting S. No. 1630. There is really
no difference between the Senate preserving H. No. 11197 up to the enacting clause and
then writing its own version following the enacting clause (which, it would seem, petitioners
admit is an amendment by substitution), and, on the other hand, separately presenting a bill
of its own on the same subject matter. In either case the result are two bills on the same
subject.

Indeed, what the Constitution simply means is that the initiative for filing revenue,
tariff, or tax bills, bills authorizing an increase of the public debt, private bills and bills of
local application must come from the House of Representatives on the theory that, elected
as they are from the districts, the members of the House can be expected to be more
sensitive to the local needs and problems. On the other hand, the senators, who are elected
at large, are expected to approach the same problems from the national perspective. Both
views are thereby made to bear on the enactment of such laws.

Nor does the Constitution prohibit the filing in the Senate of a substitute bill in
anticipation of its receipt of the bill from the House, so long as action by the Senate as a
body is withheld pending receipt of the House bill. The Court cannot, therefore, understand
the alarm expressed over the fact that on March 1, 1993, eight months before the House
passed H. No. 11197, S. No. 1129 had been filed in the Senate. After all it does not appear
that the Senate ever considered it. It was only after the Senate had received H. No. 11197
on November 23, 1993 that the process of legislation in respect of it began with the referral
to the Senate Committee on Ways and Means of H. No. 11197 and the submission by the
Committee on February 7, 1994 of S. No. 1630. For that matter, if the question were simply
the priority in the time of filing of bills, the fact is that it was in the House that a bill (H. No.
253) to amend the VAT law was first filed on July 22, 1992. Several other bills had been filed
in the House before S. No. 1129 was filed in the Senate, and H. No. 11197 was only a
substitute of those earlier bills. (Tolentino v. Secretary of Finance, 235 SCRA 630,
661-663, Aug. 25, 1994, En Banc [Mendoza])

44
56. Discuss the objectives of Section 26(1), Article VI of the 1987 Constitution, that "[e]very
bill passed by the Congress shall embrace only one subject which shall be expressed in
the title thereof."

Held: The objectives of Section 26(1), Article VI of the 1987 Constitution are:

1) To prevent hodge-podge or log-rolling legislation;

2) To prevent surprise or fraud upon the legislature by means of provisions in bills of
which the titles gave no information, and which might therefore be overlooked
and carelessly and unintentionally adopted; and
3) To fairly apprise the people, through such publication of legislative proceedings
as is usually made, of the subjects of legislation that are being considered, in
order that they may have opportunity of being heard thereon by petition or
otherwise if they shall so desire.

Section 26(1) of Article VI of the 1987 Constitution is sufficiently complied with where x x x
the title is comprehensive enough to embrace the general objective it seeks to achieve, and
if all the parts of the statute are related and germane to the subject matter embodied in the
title or so long as the same are not inconsistent with or foreign to the general subject and
title. (Agripino A. De Guzman, Jr., et al. v. COMELEC, G.R. No. 129118, July 19,
2000, en Banc [Purisima])

57. Section 44 of R.A. No. 8189 (The Voter's Registration Act of 1996) which provides for
automatic transfer to a new station of any Election Officer who has already served for
more than four years in a particular city or municipality was assailed for being violative
of Section 26(1) of Article VI of the Constitution allegedly because it has an isolated and
different subject from that of RA 8189 and that the same is not expressed in the title of
the law. Should the challenge be sustained?

Held: Section 44 of RA 8189 is not isolated considering that it is related and

germane to the subject matter stated in the title of the law. The title of RA 8189 is "The
Voter's Registration Act of 1996" with a subject matter enunciated in the explanatory note
as "AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A GENERAL REGISTRATION OF VOTERS, ADOPTING A SYSTEM OF
CONTINUING REGISTRATION, PRESCRIBING THE PROCEDURES THEREOF AND AUTHORIZING
THE APPROPRIATION OF FUNDS THEREFOR." Section 44, which provides for the
reassignment of election officers, is relevant to the subject matter of registration as it seeks
to ensure the integrity of the registration process by providing guideline for the COMELEC to
follow in the reassignment of election officers. It is not an alien provision but one which is
related to the conduct and procedure of continuing registration of voters. In this regard, it
bears stressing that the Constitution does not require Congress to employ in the title of an
enactment, language of such precision as to mirror, fully index or catalogue, all the contents
and the minute details therein. (Agripino A. De Guzman, Jr., et al. v. COMELEC, G.R.
No. 129118, July 19, 2000, En Banc [Purisima])

58. Do courts have the power to inquire into allegations that, in enacting a law, a House of
Congress failed to comply with its own rules?

Held: The cases, both here and abroad, in varying forms of expression, all deny to
the courts the power to inquire into allegations that, in enacting a law, a House of Congress
failed to comply with its own rules, in the absence of showing that there was a violation of a
constitutional provision or the right of private individuals. In Osmena v. Pendatun, it was
held: “At any rate, courts have declared that ‘the rules adopted by deliberative bodies are
subject to revocation, modification or waiver at the pleasure of the body adopting them.’
And it has been said that ‘Parliamentary rules are merely procedural, and with their
observance, the courts have no concern. They may be waived or disregarded by the
legislative body.’ Consequently, ‘mere failure to conform to parliamentary usage will not
invalidate that action (taken by a deliberative body) when the requisite number of members
have agreed to a particular measure.’”

It must be realized that each of the three departments of our government has its
separate sphere which the others may not invade without upsetting the delicate balance on
which our constitutional order rests. Due regard for the working of our system of
government, more than mere comity, compels reluctance on the part of the courts to enter
upon an inquiry into an alleged violation of the rules of the House. Courts must accordingly
decline the invitation to exercise their power. (Arroyo v. De Venecia, 277 SCRA 268,
Aug. 14, 1997 [Mendoza])

59. What is the Bicameral Conference Committee? Discuss the nature of its function and its
jurisdiction.

45
 Held: While it is true that a conference committee is the mechanism for
compromising differences between the Senate and the House, it is not limited in its
jurisdiction to this question. Its broader function is described thus:

A conference committee may deal generally with the subject matter or it may be
limited to resolving the precise differences between the two houses. Even where the
conference committee is not by rule limited in its jurisdiction, legislative custom severely
limits the freedom with which new subject matter can be inserted into the conference bill.
But occasionally a conference committee produces unexpected results, results beyond its
mandate. These excursions occur even where the rules impose strict limitations on
conference committee jurisdiction. This is symptomatic of the authoritarian power of
conference committee. (Philippine Judges Association v. Prado, 227 SCRA 703, Nov.
11, 1993, En Banc [Cruz])

60. Discuss the Enrolled Bill Doctrine.

Held: Under the enrolled bill doctrine, the signing of H. Bill No. 7189 by the Speaker
of the House and the President of the Senate and the certification by the secretaries of both
Houses of Congress that it was passed on November 21, 1996 are conclusive of its due
enactment. x x x To be sure, there is no claim either here or in the decision in the EVAT
cases (Tolentino v. Secretary of Finance) that the enrolled bill embodies a conclusive
presumption. In one case (Astorga v. Villegas) we “went behind” an enrolled bill and
consulted the Journal to determine whether certain provisions of a statute had been
approved by the Senate.

But, where as here there is no evidence to the contrary, this Court will respect the
certification of the presiding officers of both Houses that a bill has been duly passed. Under
this rule, this Court has refused to determine claims that the three-fourths vote needed to
pass a proposed amendment to the Constitution had not been obtained, because “a duly
authenticated bill or resolution imports absolute verity and is binding on the courts.” x x x

This Court has refused to even look into allegations that the enrolled bill sent to the
President contained provisions which had been “surreptitiously” inserted in the conference
committee x x x. (Tolentino v. Secretary of Finance)

It has refused to look into charges that an amendment was made upon the last
reading of a bill in violation of Art. VI, Sec. 26(2) of the Constitution that “upon the last
reading of a bill, no amendment shall be allowed.” (Philippine Judges Ass’n v. Prado)

In other cases, this Court has denied claims that the tenor of a bill was otherwise
than as certified by the presiding officers of both Houses of Congress.

The enrolled bill doctrine, as a rule of evidence, is well-established. It is cited with

approval by text writers here and abroad. The enrolled bill rule rests on the following
considerations:

X x x As the President has no authority to approve a bill not passed by

Congress, an enrolled Act in the custody of the Secretary of State, and having the
official attestations of the Speaker of the House of Representatives, of the President
of the Senate, and of the President of the United States, carries, on its face, a solemn
assurance by the legislative and executive departments of the government, charged,
respectively, with the duty of enacting and executing the laws, that it was passed by
Congress. The respect due to coequal and independent departments requires the
judicial department to act upon that assurance, and to accept, as having passed
Congress, all bills authenticated in the manner stated; leaving the court to
determine, when the question properly arises, whether the Act, so authenticated, is
in conformity with the Constitution. (Marshall Field & Co. v. Clark, 143 U.S. 649, 672,
36 L. Ed. 294, 303 [1891])

To overrule the doctrine now, x x x is to repudiate the massive teaching of our cases
and overthrow an established rule of evidence. (Arroyo v. De Venecia, 277 SCRA 268,
Aug. 14, 1997 [Mendoza])

61. When should the Legislative Journal be regarded as conclusive upon the courts, and
why?

Held: The Journal is regarded as conclusive with respect to matters that are
required by the Constitution to be recorded therein. With respect to other matters, in the

46
absence of evidence to the contrary, the Journals have also been accorded conclusive
effects. Thus, in United States v. Pons, this Court spoke of the imperatives of public policy
for regarding the Journals as “public memorials of the most permanent character,” thus:
“They should be public, because all are required to conform to them; they should be
permanent, that rights acquired today upon the faith of what has been declared to be law
shall not be destroyed tomorrow, or at some remote period of time, by facts resting only in
the memory of individuals.” (Arroyo v. De Venecia, 277 SCRA 268, 298-299, Aug. 14,
1997 [Mendoza])

62. What matters are required to be entered on the Journal?

Held:
1) The yeas and nays on the third and final reading of a bill (Art. VI, Sec. 26[2]);
2) The yeas and nays on any question, at the request of one-fifth of the members
present (Id., Sec. 16[4]);
3) The yeas and nays upon repassing a bill over the President’s veto (Id., Sec.
27[1]); and
4) The President’s objection to a bill he had vetoed (Id.).
(Arroyo v. De Venecia, 277 SCRA 268, 298, Aug. 14, 1997 [Mendoza])

63. What are the limitations on the veto power of the President?

Held: The act of the Executive in vetoing the particular provisions is an exercise of a
constitutionally vested power. But even as the Constitution grants the power, it also
provides limitations to its exercise. The veto power is not absolute.

Xxx
The OSG is correct when it states that the Executive must veto a bill in its entirety or
not at all. He or she cannot act like an editor crossing out specific lines, provisions, or
paragraphs in a bill that he or she dislikes. In the exercise of the veto power, it is generally
all or nothing. However, when it comes to appropriation, revenue or tariff bills, the
Administration needs the money to run the machinery of government and it can not veto the
entire bill even if it may contain objectionable features. The President is, therefore,
compelled to approve into law the entire bill, including its undesirable parts. It is for this
reason that the Constitution has wisely provided the “item veto power” to avoid inexpedient
riders being attached to an indispensable appropriation or revenue measure.

The Constitution provides that only a particular item or items may be vetoed. The
power to disapprove any item or items in an appropriate bill does not grant the authority to
veto a part of an item and to approve the remaining portion of the same item. (Bengzon v.
Drilon, 208 SCRA 133, 143-145, April 15, 1992, En Banc [Gutierrez])

64. Distinguish an “item” from a “provision” in relation to the veto power of the President.

Held: The terms item and provision in budgetary legislation and practice are
concededly different. An item in a bill refers to the particulars, the details, the distinct and
severable parts x x x of the bill. It is an indivisible sum of money dedicated to a stated
purpose. The United States Supreme Court, in the case of Bengzon v. Secretary of Justice
(299 U.S. 410, 414, 57 Ct 252, 81 L. Ed., 312) declared “that an item” of an appropriation
bill obviously means an item which in itself is a specific appropriation of money, not some
general provision of law, which happens to be put into an appropriation bill. (Bengzon v.
Drilon, 208 SCRA 133, 143-145, April 15, 1992, En Banc [Gutierrez])

65. May the President veto a law? May she veto a decision of the SC which has long become
final and executory?

Held: We need no lengthy justifications or citations of authorities to declare that no

President may veto the provisions of a law enacted thirty-five (35) years before his or her
term of office. Neither may the President set aside or reverse a final and executory
judgment of this Court through the exercise of the veto power. (Bengzon v. Drilon, 208
SCRA 133, 143-145, April 15, 1992, En Banc [Gutierrez])

66. A disqualification case was filed against a candidate for Congressman before the election
with the COMELEC. The latter failed to resolve that disqualification case before the
election and that candidate won, although he was not yet proclaimed because of that
pending disqualification case. Is the COMELEC now ousted of jurisdiction to resolve the
pending disqualification case and, therefore, should dismiss the case, considering that
jurisdiction is now vested with the House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal (HRET)?

47
 Held: 1. [P]etitioner vigorously contends that after the May 8, 1995 elections, the
COMELEC lost its jurisdiction over the question of petitioner’s qualifications to run for
member of the House of Representatives. He claims that jurisdiction over the petition for
disqualification is exclusively lodged with the House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal
(HRET). Given the yet-unresolved question of jurisdiction, petitioner avers that the
COMELEC committed serious error and grave abuse of discretion in directing the suspension
of his proclamation as the winning candidate in the Second Congressional District of Makati
City. We disagree.

Petitioner conveniently confuses the distinction between an unproclaimed candidate

to the House of Representatives and a member of the same. Obtaining the highest number
of votes in an election does not automatically vest the position in the winning candidate.
Section 17 of Article VI of the 1987 Constitution reads:

The Senate and the House of Representatives shall have an Electoral Tribunal
which shall be the sole judge of all contests relating to the election, returns and
qualifications of their respective Members.

Under the above-stated provision, the electoral tribunal clearly assumes jurisdiction
over all contests relative to the election, returns and qualifications of candidates for either
the Senate or the House only when the latter become members of either the Senate or the
House of Representatives. A candidate who has not been proclaimed and who has not taken
his oath of office cannot be said to be a member of the House of Representatives subject to
Section 17 of Article VI of the Constitution. While the proclamation of a winning candidate in
an election is ministerial, B.P. Blg. 881 in conjunction with Sec. 6 of R.A. 6646 allows
suspension of proclamation under circumstances mentioned therein. Thus, petitioner’s
contention that “after the conduct of the election and (petitioner) has been established the
winner of the electoral exercise from the moment of election, the COMELEC is automatically
divested of authority to pass upon the question of qualification” finds no basis in law,
because even after the elections the COMELEC is empowered by Section 6 (in relation to
Section 7) of R.A. 6646 to continue to hear and decide questions relating to qualifications of
candidates. (Aquino v. COMELEC, 248 SCRA 400, 417-419, Sept. 18, 1995, En Banc
[Kapunan, J.])

2. As to the House of Representatives Electoral Tribunal’s supposed assumption of

jurisdiction over the issue of petitioner’s qualifications after the May 8, 1995 elections,
suffice it to say that HRET’s jurisdiction as the sole judge of all contests relating to the
elections, returns and qualifications of members of Congress begins only after a candidate
has become a member of the House of Representatives (Art. VI, Sec. 17, 1987 Constitution).
Petitioner not being a member of the House of Representatives, it is obvious that the HRET
at this point has no jurisdiction over the question. (Romualdez-Marcos v. COMELEC, 248
SCRA 300, 340-341, Sept. 18, 1995, En Banc [Kapunan, J.])

67. Will the rule be the same if that candidate wins and was proclaimed winner and already
assumed office as Congressman?

Held: While the COMELEC is vested with the power to declare valid or invalid a
certificate of candidacy, its refusal to exercise that power following the proclamation and
assumption of the position by Farinas is a recognition of the jurisdictional boundaries
separating the COMELEC and the Electoral Tribunal of the House of Representatives (HRET).
Under Article VI, Section 17 of the Constitution, the HRET has sole and exclusive jurisdiction
over all contests relative to the election, returns, and qualifications of members of the House
of Representatives. Thus, once a winning candidate has been proclaimed, taken his oath,
and assumed office as a member of the House of Representatives, COMELEC’s jurisdiction
over election contests relating to his election, returns, and qualifications ends, and the
HRET’s own jurisdiction begins. Thus, the COMELEC’s decision to discontinue exercising
jurisdiction over the case is justifiable, in deference to the HRET’s own jurisdiction and
functions. (Guerrero v. COMELEC, 336 SCRA 458, July 26, 2000, En Banc
[Quisumbing])

68. Petitioner further argues that the HRET assumes jurisdiction only if there is a valid
proclamation of the winning candidate. He contends that if a candidate fails to satisfy
the statutory requirements to qualify him as a candidate, his subsequent proclamation is
void ab initio. Where the proclamation is null and void, there is no proclamation at all
and the mere assumption of office by the proclaimed candidate does not deprive the
COMELEC at all of its power to declare such nullity, according to petitioner.

Held: But x x x in an electoral contest where the validity of the proclamation of a

winning candidate who has taken his oath of office and assumed his post as congressman is

48
raised, that issue is best addressed to the HRET. The reason for this ruling is self-evident,
for it avoids duplicity of proceedings and a clash of jurisdiction between constitutional
bodies, with due regard to the people’s mandate. (Guerrero v. COMELEC, 336 SCRA
458, July 26, 2000, En Banc [Quisumbing])

69. Is there an appeal from a decision of the Senate or House of Representatives Electoral
Tribunal? What then is the remedy, if any?

Held: The Constitution mandates that the House of Representatives Electoral

Tribunal and the Senate Electoral Tribunal shall each, respectively, be the sole judge of all
contests relating to the election, returns and qualifications of their respective members.

The Court has stressed that “x x x so long as the Constitution grants the HRET the
power to be the sole judge of all contests relating to the election, returns and qualifications
of members of the House of Representatives, any final action taken by the HRET on a matter
within its jurisdiction shall, as a rule, not be reviewed by this Court. The power granted to
the Electoral Tribunal x x x excludes the exercise of any authority on the part of this Court
that would in any wise restrict it or curtail it or even affect the same.”

The Court did recognize, of course, its power of judicial review in exceptional cases.
In Robles v. HRET, the Court has explained that while the judgments of the Tribunal are
beyond judicial interference, the Court may do so, however, but only “in the exercise of this
Court’s so-called extraordinary jurisdiction x x x upon a determination that the Tribunal’s
decision or resolution was rendered without or in excess of its jurisdiction, or with grave
abuse of discretion or paraphrasing Morrero v. Bocar (66 Phil. 429), upon a clear showing of
such arbitrary and improvident use by the Tribunal of its power as constitutes a denial of
due process of law, or upon a demonstration of a very clear unmitigated error, manifestly
constituting such grave abuse of discretion that there has to be a remedy for such abuse.”

The Court does not x x x venture into the perilous area of correcting perceived errors
of independent branches of the Government; it comes in only when it has to vindicate a
denial of due process or correct an abuse of discretion so grave or glaring that no less than
the Constitution itself calls for remedial action. (Libanan v. HRET, 283 SCRA 520, Dec.
22, 1997 [Vitug])

The Executive Department

70. Did former President Estrada resign as President or should be considered resigned as of
January 20, 2001 when President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo took her oath as the 14 th
President of the Republic?

Held: Resignation x x x is a factual question and its elements are beyond quibble:
there must be an intent to resign and the intent must be coupled by acts of relinquishment.
The validity of a resignation is not governed by any formal requirement as to form. It can be
oral. It can be written. It can be express. It can be implied. As long as the resignation is
clear, it must be given legal effect.

In the cases at bar, the facts show that petitioner did not write any formal letter of
resignation before he evacuated Malacanang Palace in the afternoon of January 20, 2001
after the oath-taking of respondent Arroyo. Consequently, whether or not petitioner
resigned has to be determined from his acts and omissions before, during and after January
20, 2001 or by the totality of prior, contemporaneous and posterior facts and circumstantial
evidence bearing a material relevance on the issue.

Using this totality test, we hold that petitioner resigned as President.

Xxx

In sum, we hold that the resignation of the petitioner cannot be doubted. It was
confirmed by his leaving Malacanang. In the press release containing his final statement,
(1) he acknowledged the oath-taking of the respondent as President of the Republic albeit
with reservation about its legality; (2) he emphasized he was leaving the Palace, the seat of
the presidency, for the sake of peace and in order to begin the healing process of our nation.
He did not say he was leaving the Palace due to any kind of inability and that he was going
to re-assume the presidency as soon as the disability disappears; (3) he expressed his
gratitude to the people for the opportunity to serve them. Without doubt, he was referring
to the past opportunity given him to serve the people as President; (4) he assured that he
will not shirk from any future challenge that may come ahead on the same service of our

49
country. Petitioner’s reference is to a future challenge after occupying the office of the
president which he has given up; and (5) he called on his supporters to join him in the
promotion of a constructive national spirit of reconciliation and solidarity. Certainly, the
national spirit of reconciliation and solidarity could not be attained if he did not give up the
presidency. The press release was petitioner’s valedictory, his final act of farewell. His
presidency is now in the past tense. (Estrada v. Desierto, G.R. Nos. 146710-15, March
2, 2001, En Banc [Puno])

71. Discuss our legal history on executive immunity.

Held: The doctrine of executive immunity in this jurisdiction emerged as a case law.
In the 1910 case of Forbes, etc. v. Chuoco Tiaco and Crossfield, the respondent Tiaco, a
Chinese citizen, sued petitioner W. Cameron Forbes, Governor-General of the Philippine
Islands, J.E. Harding and C.R. Trowbridge, Chief of Police and Chief of the Secret Service of
the City of Manila, respectively, for damages for allegedly conspiring to deport him to China.
In granting a writ of prohibition, this Court, speaking thru Mr. Justice Johnson, held:

“The principle of nonliability x x x does not mean that the judiciary has no
authority to touch the acts of the Governor-General; that he may, under cover of his office,
do what he will, unimpeded and unrestrained. Such a construction would mean that
tyranny, under the guise of the execution of the law, could walk defiantly abroad,
destroying rights of person and of property, wholly free from interference of courts or
legislatures. This does not mean, either, that a person injured by the executive authority
by an act unjustifiable under the law has no remedy, but must submit in silence. On the
contrary, it means, simply, that the Governor-General, like the judges of the courts and the
members of the Legislature, may not be personally mulcted in civil damages for the
consequences of an act executed in the performance of his official duties. The judiciary has
full power to, and will, when the matter is properly presented to it and the occasion justly
warrants it, declare an act of the Governor-General illegal and void and place as nearly as
possible in status quo any person who has been deprived his liberty or his property by such
act. This remedy is assured to every person, however humble or of whatever country,
when his personal or property rights have been invaded, even by the highest authority of
the state. The thing which the judiciary can not do is mulct the Governor-General
personally in damages which result from the performance of his official duty, any more than
it can a member of the Philippine Commission or the Philippine Assembly. Public policy
forbids it.

Neither does this principle of nonliability mean that the chief executive may
not be personally sued at all in relation to acts which he claims to perform as such official.
On the contrary, it clearly appears from the discussion heretofore had, particularly that
portion which touched the liability of judges and drew an analogy between such liability and
that of the Governor-General, that the latter is liable when he acts in a case so plainly
outside of his power and authority that he can not be said to have exercised discretion in
determining whether or not he had the right to act. What is held here is that he will be
protected from personal liability for damages not only when he acts within his authority, but
also when he is without authority, provided he actually used discretion and judgment, that
is, the judicial faculty, in determining whether he had authority to act or not. In other
words, he is entitled to protection in determining the question of his authority. If he decide
wrongly, he is still protected provided the question of his authority was one over which two
men, reasonably qualified for that position, might honestly differ; but he is not protected if
the lack of authority to act is so plain that two such men could not honestly differ over its
determination. In such case, he acts, not as Governor-General but as a private individual,
and, as such, must answer for the consequences of his act.”

Mr. Justice Johnson underscored the consequences if the Chief Executive was not granted
immunity from suit, viz: “x x x. Action upon important matters of state delayed; the time
and substance of the chief executive spent in wrangling litigation; disrespect engendered for
the person of one of the highest officials of the State and for the office he occupies; a
tendency to unrest and disorder; resulting in a way, in a distrust as to the integrity of
government itself.”

Our 1935 Constitution took effect but it did not contain any specific provision on
executive immunity. Then came the tumult of the martial law years under the late President
Ferdinand E. Marcos and the 1973 Constitution was born. In 1981, it was amended and one
of the amendments involved executive immunity. Section 17, Article VII stated:

“The President shall be immune from suit during his tenure. Thereafter, no
suit whatsoever shall lie for official acts done by him or by others pursuant to his
specific orders during his tenure.

50
 The immunities herein provided shall apply to the incumbent President
referred to in Article XVII of this Constitution.”

In his second Vicente G. Sinco Professorial Chair Lecture entitled, “Presidential Immunity
And All The King’s Men: The Law Of Privilege As A Defense To Actions For Damages,” (62
Phil. L.J. 113 [1987]) petitioner’s learned counsel, former Dean of the UP College of Law,
Atty. Pacifico Agabin, brightened the modifications effected by this constitutional
amendment on the existing law on executive privilege. To quote his disquisition:

“In the Philippines though, we sought to do the American one better by

enlarging and fortifying the absolute immunity concept. First, we extended it to shield the
President not only from civil claims but also from criminal cases and other claims. Second,
we enlarged its scope so that it would cover even acts of the President outside the scope of
official duties. And third, we broadened its coverage so as to include not only the President
but also other persons, be they government officials or private individuals, who acted upon
orders of the President. It can be said that at that point most of us were suffering from AIDS
(or absolute immunity defense syndrome).”

The Opposition in the then Batasang Pambansa sought the repeal of this Marcosian concept
of executive immunity in the 1973 Constitution. The move was led by then Member of
Parliament, now Secretary of Finance, Alberto Romulo, who argued that the after
incumbency immunity granted to President Marcos violated the principle that a public office
is a public trust. He denounced the immunity as a return to the anachronism “the king can
do no wrong.” The effort failed.

The 1973 Constitution ceased to exist when President Marcos was ousted from office
by the People Power revolution in 1986. When the 1987 Constitution was crafted, its
framers did not reenact the executive immunity provision of the 1973 Constitution. x x x
(Estrada v. Desierto, G.R. Nos. 146710-15, March 2, 2001, en Banc [Puno])

72. Can former President Estrada still be prosecuted criminally considering that he was not
convicted in the impeachment proceedings against him?

Held: We reject his argument that he cannot be prosecuted for the reason that he
must first be convicted in the impeachment proceedings. The impeachment trial of
petitioner Estrada was aborted by the walkout of the prosecutors and by the events that led
to his loss of the presidency. Indeed, on February 7, 2001, the Senate passed Senate
Resolution No. 83 “Recognizing that the Impeachment Court is Functus Officio.” Since the
Impeachment Court is now functus officio, it is untenable for petitioner to demand that he
should first be impeached and then convicted before he can be prosecuted. The plea if
granted, would put a perpetual bar against his prosecution. Such a submission has nothing
to commend itself for it will place him in a better situation than a non-sitting President who
has not been subjected to impeachment proceedings and yet can be the object of a criminal
prosecution. To be sure, the debates in the Constitutional Commission make it clear that
when impeachment proceedings have become moot due to the resignation of the President,
the proper criminal and civil cases may already be filed against him x x x.

This is in accord with our ruling in In Re: Saturnino Bermudez that “incumbent
Presidents are immune from suit or from being brought to court during the period of their
incumbency and tenure” but not beyond. Considering the peculiar circumstance that the
impeachment process against the petitioner has been aborted and thereafter he lost the
presidency, petitioner Estrada cannot demand as a condition sine qua non to his criminal
prosecution before the Ombudsman that he be convicted in the impeachment proceedings.
(Estrada v. Desierto, G.R. Nos. 146710-15, Mar. 2, 2001, En Banc [Puno])

73. Is Section 18.5 of R.A. No. 9189 in relation to Section 4 of the same Act in contravention
of Section 4, Article VII of the Constitution?

Held: Section 4 of R.A. No. 9189 provides that the overseas absentee voter may
vote for president, vice-president, senators and party-list representatives.

Xxx
Petitioner claims that the provision of Section 18.5 of R.A. No. 9189 empowering the
COMELEC to order the proclamation of winning candidates insofar as it affects the canvass
of votes and proclamation of winning candidates for president and vice-president, is
unconstitutional because it violates the following provisions of paragraph 4, Section 4 of
Article VII of the Constitution x x x which gives to Congress the duty to canvass the votes
and proclaim the winning candidates for president and vice-president.

51
 Xxx
Indeed, the phrase, proclamation of winning candidates, in Section 18.5 of R.A. No.
9189 is far too sweeping that it necessarily includes the proclamation of the winning
candidates for the presidency and the vice-presidency.

Section 18.5 of R.A. No. 9189 appears to be repugnant to Section 4, Article VIII of the
Constitution only insofar as said Section totally disregarded the authority given to Congress
by the Constitution to proclaim the winning candidates for the positions of president and
vice-president.

In addition, the Court notes that Section 18.4 of the law x x x clashes with paragraph
4, Section 4, Article VII of the Constitution which provides that the returns of every election
for President and Vice-President shall be certified by the board of canvassers to Congress.

Congress should not have allowed the COMELEC to usurp a power that
constitutionally belongs to it or x x x to encroach “on the power of Congress to canvass the
votes for president and vice-president and the power to proclaim the winners for the said
positions.” The provisions of the Constitution as the fundamental law of the land should be
read as part of The Overseas Absentee Voting Act of 2003 and hence, the canvassing of the
votes and the proclamation of the winning candidates for president and vice-president for
the entire nation must remain in the hands of Congress. (Makalintal v. COMELEC, G.R.
No. 157013, July 10, 2003, En Banc [Austria-Martinez])

74. Discuss the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to hear and decide cases involving the
election, returns and qualifications of the President and Vice-President.

Held: Petitioners Tecson, et al. x x x and Velez x x x invoke the provisions of Article
VII, Section 4, paragraph 7, of the 1987 Constitution in assailing the jurisdiction of the
COMELEC when it took cognizance of SPA No. 04-003 and in urging the Supreme Court to
instead take on the petitions they directly instituted before it. X x x

Xxx

Ordinary usage would characterize a “contest” in reference to a post-election

scenario. Election contests consist of either an election protest or a quo warranto which,
although two distinct remedies, would have one objective in view, i.e., to dislodge the
winning candidate from office. A perusal of the phraseology in Rule 12, Rule 13, and Rule 14
of the “Rules of the Presidential Electoral Tribunal,” promulgated by the Supreme Court en
banc on 18 April 1992, would support this premise x x x.

The rules categorically speak of the jurisdiction of the tribunal over contests relating
to the election, returns and qualifications of the “President” or “Vice-President” of the
Philippines, and not of “candidates” for President or Vice-President. A quo warranto
proceeding is generally defined as being an action against a person who usurps, intrudes
into, or unlawfully holds or exercises a public office. In such context, the election contest
can only contemplate a post-election scenario. In Rule 14, only a registered candidate who
would have received either the second or third highest number of votes could file an election
protest. This rule again presupposes a post-election scenario.

It is fair to conclude that the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, defined by Section 4,
paragraph 7, of the 1987 Constitution, would not include cases directly brought before it
questioning the qualifications of a candidate for the presidency or vice-presidency before
the elections are held.

Accordingly, G.R. No. 161434 x x x and G.R. No. 161634 x x x would have to be
dismissed for want of jurisdiction. (Maria Jeanette Tecson, et al. v. COMELEC, G.R. No.
161434, March 3, 2004, En Banc [Vitug])

75. State the reason why not all appointments made by the President under the 1987
Constitution will require confirmation by the Commission on Appointments.

Held: The aforecited provision (Section 16, Article VII) of the Constitution has been
the subject of several cases on the issue of the restrictive function of the Commission on
Appointments with respect to the appointing power of the President. This Court touched
upon the historical antecedent of the said provision in the case of Sarmiento III v. Mison in
which it was ratiocinated upon that Section 16 of Article VII of the 1987 Constitution
requiring confirmation by the Commission on Appointments of certain appointments issued
by the President contemplates a system of checks and balances between the executive and

52
legislative branches of government. Experience showed that when almost all presidential
appointments required the consent of the Commission on Appointments, as was the case
under the 1935 Constitution, the commission became a venue of “horse trading” and similar
malpractices. On the other hand, placing absolute power to make appointments in the
President with hardly any check by the legislature, as what happened under the 1973
Constitution, leads to abuse of such power. Thus was perceived the need to establish a
“middle ground” between the 1935 and 1973 Constitutions. The framers of the 1987
Constitution deemed it imperative to subject certain high positions in the government to the
power of confirmation of the Commission on Appointments and to allow other positions
within the exclusive appointing power of the President. (Manalo v. Sistoza, 312 SCRA
239, Aug. 11, 1999, En Banc [Purisima])

76. Who are the officers to be appointed by the President under Section 16, Article VII of the
1987 Constitution whose appointments shall require confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments, and those whose appointments shall no longer require such confirmation?

Held: Conformably, as consistently interpreted and ruled in the leading case of

Sarmiento III v. Mison, and in the subsequent cases of Bautista v. Salonga, Quintos-Deles v.
Constitutional Commission, and Calderon v. Carale, under Section 16, Article VII, of the
Constitution, there are four groups of officers of the government to be appointed by the
President:

First, the heads of the executive departments, ambassadors, other public

ministers and consuls, officers of the armed forces from the rank of colonel or naval captain,
and other officers whose appointments are vested in him in this Constitution;

Second, all other officers of the Government whose appointments are not
otherwise provided for by law;

Third, those whom the President may be authorized by law to appoint;

Fourth, officers lower in rank whose appointments the Congress may by law vest in
the President alone.

It is well-settled that only presidential appointees belonging to the first group require
the confirmation by the Commission on Appointments. (Manalo v. Sistoza, 312 SCRA
239, Aug. 11, 1999, En Banc [Purisima])

77. Under Republic Act 6975 (the DILG Act of 1990), the Director General, Deputy Director
General, and other top officials of the Philippine National Police (PNP) shall be appointed
by the President and their appointments shall require confirmation by the Commission
on Appointments. Respondent Sistoza was appointed Director General of the PNP but he
refused to submit his appointment papers to the Commission on Appointments for
confirmation contending that his appointment shall no longer require confirmation
despite the express provision of the law requiring such confirmation. Should his
contention be upheld?

Held: It is well-settled that only presidential appointees belonging to the first group
(enumerated under the first sentence of Section 16, Article VII of the 1987 Constitution)
require the confirmation by the Commission on Appointments. The appointments of
respondent officers who are not within the first category, need not be confirmed by the
Commission on Appointments. As held in the case of Tarrosa v. Singson, Congress cannot
by law expand the power of confirmation of the Commission on Appointments and require
confirmation of appointments of other government officials not mentioned in the first
sentence of Section 16 of Article VII of the 1987 Constitution.

Consequently, unconstitutional are Sections 26 and 31 of Republic Act 6975 which

empower the Commission on Appointments to confirm the appointments of public officials
whose appointments are not required by the Constitution to be confirmed. (Manalo v.
Sistoza, 312 SCRA 239, Aug. 11, 1999, En Banc [Purisima])

78. Will it be correct to argue that since the Philippine National Police is akin to the Armed
Forces of the Philippines, therefore, the appointments of police officers whose rank is
equal to that of colonel or naval captain will require confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments?

Held: This contention is x x x untenable. The Philippine National Police is separate

and distinct from the Armed Forces of the Philippines. The Constitution, no less, sets forth
the distinction. Under Section 4 of Article XVI of the 1987 Constitution,

53
 “The Armed Forces of the Philippines shall be composed of a citizen armed
force which shall undergo military training and service, as may be provided by
law. It shall keep a regular force necessary for the security of the State.”

On the other hand, Section 6 of the same Article of the Constitution ordains that:

“The State shall establish and maintain one police force, which shall be
national in scope and civilian in character to be administered and controlled by a
national police commission. The authority of local executives over the police
units in their jurisdiction shall be provided by law.”

To so distinguish the police force from the armed forces, Congress enacted Republic
Act 6975 x x x.

Thereunder, the police force is different from and independent of the armed forces
and the ranks in the military are not similar to those in the Philippine National Police. Thus,
directors and chief superintendents of the PNP x x x do not fall under the first category of
presidential appointees requiring confirmation by the Commission on Appointments.
(Manalo v. Sistoza, 312 SCRA 239, Aug. 11, 1999, En Banc [Purisima])

79. Discuss the nature of an ad-interim appointment. Is it temporary and, therefore, can be
withdrawn or revoked by the President at her pleasure?

Held: An ad interim appointment is a permanent appointment because it takes

effect immediately and can no longer be withdrawn by the President once the appointee has
qualified into office. The fact that it is subject to confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments does not alter its permanent character. The Constitution itself makes an ad
interim appointment permanent in character by making it effective until disapproved by the
Commission on Appointments or until the next adjournment of Congress. The second
paragraph of Section 16, Article VII of the Constitution provides as follows:

“The President shall have the power to make appointments during the recess of the
Congress, whether voluntary or compulsory, but such appointments shall be effective
only until disapproval by the Commission on Appointments or until the next
adjournment of the Congress.”

Thus, the ad interim appointment remains effective until such disapproval or next
adjournment, signifying that it can no longer be withdrawn or revoked by the President. The
fear that the President can withdraw or revoke at any time and for any reason an ad interim
appointment is utterly without basis.

More than half a century ago, this Court had already ruled that an ad interim
appointment is permanent in character. In Summers v. Ozaeta, decided on October 25,
1948, we held that:

“x x x an ad interim appointment is one made in pursuance of paragraph (4), Section

10, Article VII of the Constitution, which provides that the ‘President shall have the power to
make appointments during the recess of the Congress, but such appointments shall be
effective only until disapproval by the Commission on Appointments or until the next
adjournment of the Congress.’ It is an appointment permanent in nature, and the
circumstance that it is subject to confirmation by the Commission on Appointments does not
alter its permanent character. An ad interim appointment is disapproved certainly for a
reason other than that its provisional period has expired. Said appointment is of course
distinguishable from an ‘acting’ appointment which is merely temporary, good until another
permanent appointment is issued.”

The Constitution imposes no condition on the effectivity of an ad interim

appointment, and thus an ad interim appointment takes effect immediately. The appointee
can at once assume office and exercise, as a de jure officer, all the powers pertaining to the
office. In Pacete v. Secretary of the Commission on Appointments, this Court elaborated on
the nature of an ad interim appointment as follows:

“A distinction is thus made between the exercise of such presidential prerogative

requiring confirmation by the Commission on Appointments when Congress is in session and
when it is in recess. In the former, the President nominates, and only upon the consent of
the Commission on Appointments may the person thus named assume office. It is not so
with reference to ad interim appointments. It takes effect at once. The individual chosen
may thus qualify and perform his function without loss of time. His title to such office is

54
complete. In the language of the Constitution, the appointment is effective ‘until
disapproval by the Commission on Appointments or until the next adjournment of the
Congress.’”

Petitioner cites Black’s Law Dictionary which defines the term “ad interim” to mean
“in the meantime” or “for the time being.” Hence, petitioner argues that an ad interim
appointment is undoubtedly temporary in character. This argument is not new and was
answered by this Court in Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila v. Intermediate Appellate
Court, where we explained that:

“x x x From the arguments, it is easy to see why the petitioner should experience difficulty
in understanding the situation. Private respondent had been extended several ‘ad interim’
appointments which petitioner mistakenly understands as appointments temporary in
nature. Perhaps, it is the literal translation of the word ‘ad interim’ which creates such
belief. The term is defined by Black to mean ‘in the meantime’ or ‘for the time being’.
Thus, an officer ad interim is one appointed to fill a vacancy, or to discharge the duties of
the office during the absence or temporary incapacity of its regular incumbent (Black’s Law
Dictionary, Revised Fourth Edition, 1978). But such is not the meaning nor the use
intended in the context of Philippine law. In referring to Dr. Esteban’s appointments, the
term is not descriptive of the nature of the appointments given to him. Rather, it is used to
denote the manner in which said appointments were made, that is, done by the President
of the Pamantasan in the meantime, while the Board of Regents, which is originally vested
by the University Charter with the power of appointment, is unable to act. X x x.”

Thus, the term “ad interim appointment”, as used in letters of appointment signed by
the President, means a permanent appointment made by the President in the meantime
that Congress is in recess. It does not mean a temporary appointment that can be
withdrawn or revoked at any time. The term, although not found in the text of the
Constitution, has acquired a definite legal meaning under Philippine jurisprudence. The
Court had again occasion to explain the nature of an ad interim appointment in the more
recent case of Marohombsar v. Court of Appeals, where the Court stated:

“We have already mentioned that an ad interim appointment is not descriptive of the
nature of the appointment, that is, it is not indicative of whether the appointment is
temporary or in an acting capacity, rather it denotes the manner in which the appointment
was made. In the instant case, the appointment extended to private respondent by then
MSU President Alonto, Jr. was issued without condition nor limitation as to tenure. The
permanent status of private respondent’s appointment as Executive Assistant II was
recognized and attested to by the Civil Service Commission Regional Office No. 12.
Petitioner’s submission that private respondent’s ad interim appointment is synonymous
with a temporary appointment which could be validly terminated at any time is clearly
untenable. Ad interim appointments are permanent appointment but their terms are only
until the Board disapproves them.”

An ad interim appointee who has qualified and assumed office becomes at that
moment a government employee and therefore part of the civil service. He enjoys the
constitutional protection that “[n]o officer or employee in the civil service shall be removed
or suspended except for cause provided by law.” (Section 2[3], Article IX-B of the
Constitution) Thus, an ad interim appointment becomes complete and irrevocable once the
appointee has qualified into office. The withdrawal or revocation of an ad interim
appointment is possible only if it is communicated to the appointee before the moment he
qualifies, and any withdrawal or revocation thereafter is tantamount to removal from office.
Once an appointee has qualified, he acquires a legal right to the office which is protected
not only by statute but also by the Constitution. He can only be removed for cause, after
notice and hearing, consistent with the requirements of due process. (Matibag v.
Benipayo, 380 SCRA 49, April 2, 2002, En Banc [Carpio])

80. How is an ad interim appointment terminated?

Held: An ad interim appointment can be terminated for two causes specified in the
Constitution. The first cause is the disapproval of his ad interim appointment by the
Commission on Appointments. The second cause is the adjournment of Congress without
the Commission on Appointments acting on his appointment. These two causes are
resolutory conditions expressly imposed by the Constitution on all ad interim appointments.
These resolutory conditions constitute, in effect, a Sword of Damocles over the heads of ad
interim appointees. No one, however, can complain because it is the Constitution itself that
places the Sword of Damocles over the heads of the ad interim appointees. (Matibag v.
Benipayo, 380 SCRA 49, April 2, 2002, En Banc [Carpio])

55
81. How is an ad interim appointment distinguished from an appointment or designation in
an acting or temporary capacity?

Held: While an ad interim appointment is permanent and irrevocable except as

provided by law, an appointment or designation in a temporary or acting capacity can be
withdrawn or revoked at the pleasure of the appointing power. A temporary or acting
appointee does not enjoy any security of tenure, no matter how briefly. (Matibag v.
Benipayo, 380 SCRA 49, April 2, 2002, En Banc [Carpio])

82. Benipayo, Tuason and Borra were appointed Chairman and Commissioners, respectively,
of the Commission on Elections, by the President when Congress was not in session. Did
their appointment violate the Sec. 1(2), Art. IX-C of the Constitution that substantially
provides that “No member of the Commission (on Elections) shall be appointed in an
acting or temporary capacity?

Held: In the instant case, the President did in fact appoint permanent
Commissioners to fill the vacancies in the COMELEC, subject only to confirmation by the
Commission on Appointments. Benipayo, Borra and Tuason were extended permanent
appointments during the recess of Congress. They were not appointed or designated in a
temporary or acting capacity, unlike Commissioner Haydee Yorac in Brillantes v. Yorac and
Solicitor General Felix Bautista in Nacionalista Party v. Bautista. The ad interim
appointments of Benipayo, Borra and Tuason are expressly allowed by the Constitution
which authorizes the President, during the recess of Congress, to make appointments that
take effect immediately.

While the Constitution mandates that the COMELEC “shall be independent,” this
provision should be harmonized with the President’s power to extend ad interim
appointments. To hold that the independence of the COMELEC requires the Commission on
Appointments to first confirm ad interim appointees before the appointees can assume
office will negate the President’s power to make ad interim appointments. This is contrary
to the rule on statutory construction to give meaning and effect to every provision of the
law. It will also run counter to the clear intent of the framers of the Constitution.

Xxx
The President’s power to extend ad interim appointments may indeed briefly put the
appointee at the mercy of both the appointing and confirming powers. This situation,
however, in only for a short period – from the time of issuance of the ad interim appointment
until the Commission on Appointments gives or withholds its consent. The Constitution itself
sanctions this situation, as a trade-off against the evil of disruptions in vital government
services. This is also part of the check-and-balance under the separation of powers, as a
trade-off against the evil of granting the President absolute and sole power to appoint. The
Constitution has wisely subjected the President’s appointing power to the checking power of
the legislature.

This situation, however, does not compromise the independence of the COMELEC as
a constitutional body. The vacancies in the COMELEC are precisely staggered to insure that
the majority of its members hold confirmed appointments, and no one President will appoint
all the COMELEC members. x x x The special constitutional safeguards that insure the
independence of the COMELEC remain in place (See Sections, 3, 4, 5 and 6, Article IX-A of
the Constitution).

In fine, we rule that the ad interim appointments extended by the President to

Benipayo, Borra and Tuason, as COMELEC Chairman and Commissioners, respectively, do
not constitute temporary or acting appointments prohibited by Section 1 (2), Article IX-C of
the Constitution. (Matibag v. Benipayo, 380 SCRA 49, April 2, 2002, En Banc
[Carpio])

83. Discuss the reason why the framers of the 1987 Constitution thought it wise to reinstate
the 1935 Constitution provision on ad interim appointments of the President.

Held: The original draft of Section 16, Article VII of the Constitution – on the
nomination of officers subject to confirmation by the Commission on Appointments – did not
provide for ad interim appointments. The original intention of the framers of the
Constitution was to do away with ad interim appointments because the plan was for
Congress to remain in session throughout the year except for a brief 30-day compulsory
recess. However, because of the need to avoid disruptions in essential government
services, the framers of the Constitution thought it wise to reinstate the provisions of the
1935 Constitution on ad interim appointments. X x x

56
 Xxx
Clearly, the reinstatement in the present Constitution of the ad interim appointing
power of the President was for the purpose of avoiding interruptions in vital government
services that otherwise would result from prolonged vacancies in government offices,
including the three constitutional commissions. In his concurring opinion in Guevarra v.
Inocentes, decided under the 1935 Constitution, Justice Roberto Concepcion, Jr. explained
the rationale behind ad interim appointments in this manner:

“Now, why is the lifetime of ad interim appointments so limited? Because, if they

expired before the session of Congress, the evil sought to be avoided – interruption in the
discharge of essential functions – may take place. Because the same evil would result if the
appointments ceased to be effective during the session of Congress and before its
adjournment. Upon the other hand, once Congress has adjourned, the evil aforementioned
may easily be conjured by the issuance of other ad interim appointments or
reappointments.”
(Matibag v. Benipayo, 380 SCRA 49, April 2, 2002, En Banc [Carpio])

84. The ad interim appointments of Benipayo, Borra and Tuason as Chairman and
Commissioners, respectively, of the COMELEC were by-passed by the Commission on
Appointments. However, they were subsequently reappointed by the President to the
same positions. Did their subsequent reappointment violate the prohibition against
reappointment under Section 1(2), Article IX-C of the 1987 Constitution?

Held: There is no dispute that an ad interim appointee disapproved by the

Commission on Appointments can no longer be extended a new appointment. The
disapproval is a final decision of the Commission on Appointments in the exercise of its
checking power on the appointing authority of the President. The disapproval is a decision
on the merits, being a refusal by the Commission on Appointments to give its consent after
deliberating on the qualifications of the appointee. Since the Constitution does not provide
for any appeal from such decision, the disapproval is final and binding on the appointee as
well as on the appointing power. In this instance, the President can no longer renew the
appointment not because of the constitutional prohibition on appointment, but because of a
final decision by the Commission on Appointments to withhold its consent to the
appointment.

An ad interim appointment that is by-passed because of lack of time or failure of the

Commission on Appointments to organize is another matter. A by-passed appointment is
one that has not been finally acted upon on the merits by the Commission on Appointments
at the close of the session of Congress. There is no final decision by the Commission on
Appointments to give or withhold its consent to the appointment as required by the
Constitution. Absent such decision, the President is free to renew the ad interim
appointment of a by-passed appointee. This is recognized in Section 17 of the Rules of the
Commission on Appointments x x x. Hence, under the Rules of the Commission on
Appointments, a by-passed appointment can be considered again if the President renews
the appointment.

It is well-settled in this jurisdiction that the President can renew the ad interim
appointments of by-passed appointees. Justice Roberto Concepcion, Jr. lucidly explained in
his concurring opinion in Guevarra v. Inocentes why by-passed ad interim appointees could
be extended new appointments, thus:

“In short, an ad interim appointment ceases to be effective upon disapproval by the

Commission, because the incumbent can not continue holding office over the positive
objection of the Commission. It ceases, also, upon “the next adjournment of the Congress”,
simply because the President may then issue new appointments – not because of implied
disapproval of the Commission deduced from its intention during the session of Congress,
for, under the Constitution, the Commission may affect adversely the interim appointments
only by action, never by omission. If the adjournment of Congress were an implied
disapproval of ad interim appointments made prior thereto, then the President could no
longer appoint those so by-passed by the Commission. But, the fact is that the President
may reappoint them, thus clearly indicating that the reason for said termination of the ad
interim appointments is not the disapproval thereof allegedly inferred from said omission of
the Commission, but the circumstance that upon said adjournment of the Congress, the
President is free to make ad interim appointments or reappointments.”

Guevarra was decided under the 1935 Constitution from where the second paragraph of
Section 16, Article VII of the present Constitution on ad interim appointments was lifted
verbatim. The jurisprudence under the 1935 Constitution governing ad interim

57
appointments by the President is doubtless applicable to the present Constitution. The
established practice under the present Constitution is that the President can renew the
appointments of by-passed ad interim appointees. This is a continuation of the well-
recognized practice under the 1935 Constitution, interrupted only by the 1973 Constitution
which did not provide for a Commission on Appointments but vested sole appointing power
in the President.

The prohibition on reappointment in Section 1 (2), Article IX-C of the Constitution

applies neither to disapproved nor by-passed ad interim appointments. A disapproved ad
interim appointment cannot be revived by another ad interim appointment because the
disapproval is final under Section 16, Article VII of the Constitution, and not because a
reappointment is prohibited under Section 1 (2), Article IX-C of the Constitution. A by-
passed ad interim appointment cannot be revived by a new ad interim appointment because
there is no final disapproval under Section 16, Article VII of the Constitution, and such new
appointment will not result in the appointee serving beyond the fixed term of seven years.

Xxx
The framers of the Constitution made it quite clear that any person who has served
any term of office as COMELEC member – whether for a full term of seven years, a truncated
term of five or three years, or even an unexpired term for any length of time – can no longer
be reappointed to the COMELEC. X x x

Xxx
In Visarra v. Miraflor, Justice Angelo Bautista, in his concurring opinion, quoted Nacionalista
v. De Vera that a [r]eappointment is not prohibited when a Commissioner has held, office
only for, say, three or six years, provided his term will not exceed nine years in all.” This
was the interpretation despite the express provision in the 1935 Constitution that a
COMELEC member “shall hold office for a term of nine years and may not be reappointed.”

To foreclose this interpretation, the phrase “without reappointment” appears twice in

Section 1 (2), Article IX-C of the present Constitution. The first phrase prohibits
reappointment of any person previously appointed for a term of seven years. The second
phrase prohibits reappointment of any person previously appointed for a term of five or
three years pursuant to the first set of appointees under the Constitution. In either case, it
does not matter if the person previously appointed completes his term of office for the
intention is to prohibit any reappointment of any kind.

However, an ad interim appointment that has lapsed by inaction of the Commission

on Appointments does not constitute a term of office. The period from the time the ad
interim appointment is made to the time it lapses is neither a fixed term nor an unexpired
term. To hold otherwise would mean that the President by his unilateral action could start
and complete the running of a term of office in the COMELEC without the consent of the
Commission on Appointments. This interpretation renders inutile the confirming power of
the Commission on Appointments.

The phrase “without reappointment” applies only to one who has been appointed by
the President and confirmed by the Commission on Appointments, whether or not such
person completes his term of office. There must be a confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments of the previous appointment before the prohibition on reappointment can
apply. To hold otherwise will lead to absurdities and negate the President’s power to make
ad interim appointments.

In the great majority of cases, the Commission on Appointments usually fails to act,
for lack of time, on the ad interim appointments first issued to appointees. If such ad
interim appointments can no longer be renewed, the President will certainly hesitate to
make ad interim appointments because most of her appointees will effectively be
disapproved by mere inaction of the Commission on Appointments. This will nullify the
constitutional power of the President to make ad interim appointments, a power intended to
avoid disruptions in vital government services. This Court cannot subscribe to a proposition
that will wreak havoc on vital government services.

The prohibition on reappointment is common to the three constitutional commissions.

The framers of the present Constitution prohibited reappointments for two reasons. The first
is to prevent a second appointment for those who have been previously appointed and
confirmed even if they served for less than seven years. The second is to insure that the
members of the three constitutional commissions do not serve beyond the fixed term of
seven years. x x x.

Xxx

58
Plainly, the prohibition on reappointment is intended to insure that there will be no
reappointment of any kind. On the other hand, the prohibition on temporary or acting
appointments is intended to prevent any circumvention of the prohibition on reappointment
that may result in an appointee’s total term of office exceeding seven years. The evils
sought to be avoided by the twin prohibitions are very specific – reappointment of any kind
and exceeding one’s term in office beyond the maximum period of seven years.

Not contented with these ironclad twin prohibitions, the framers of the Constitution
tightened even further the screws on those who might wish to extend their terms of office.
Thus, the word “designated” was inserted to plug any loophole that might be exploited by
violators of the Constitution x x x.

The ad interim appointments and subsequent renewals of appointments of Benipayo,

Borra and Tuason do not violate the prohibition on reappointments because there were no
previous appointments that were confirmed by the Commission on Appointments. A
reappointment presupposes a previous confirmed appointment. The same ad interim
appointments and renewal of appointments will also not breach the seven-year term limit
because all the appointments and renewals of appointments of Benipayo, Borra and Tuason
are for a fixed term expiring on February 2, 2008. Any delay in their confirmation will not
extend the expiry date of their terms of office. Consequently, there is no danger whatsoever
that the renewal of the ad interim appointments of these three respondents will result in any
of the evils intended to be exorcised by the twin prohibitions in the Constitution. The
continuing renewal of the ad interim appointment of these three respondents, for so long as
their terms of office expire on February 2, 2008, does not violate the prohibition on
reappointments in Section 1 (2), Article IX-C of the Constitution. (Matibag v. Benipayo,
380 SCRA 49, April 2, 2002, En Banc [Carpio])

85. What are the four situations where Section 1(2), Article IX-C of the 1987 Constitution
which provides that “[t]he Chairman and the Commissioners (of the COMELEC) shall be
appointed x x x for a term of seven years without reappointment” will apply?

Held: Section 1 (2), Article IX-C of the Constitution provides that “[t]he Chairman
and the Commissioners shall be appointed x x x for a term of seven years without
reappointment.” There are four situations where this provision will apply. The first situation
is where an ad interim appointee to the COMELEC, after confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments, serves his full seven-year term. Such person cannot be reappointed to the
COMELEC, whether as a member or as a chairman, because he will then be actually serving
more than seven years. The second situation is where the appointee, after confirmation,
serves a part of his term and then resigns before his seven-year term of office ends. Such
person cannot be reappointed, whether as a member or as a chair, to a vacancy arising from
retirement because a reappointment will result in the appointee also serving more than
seven years. The third situation is where the appointee is confirmed to serve the unexpired
term of someone who died or resigned, and the appointee completes the unexpired term.
Such person cannot be reappointed, whether as a member or chair, to a vacancy arising
from retirement because a reappointment will result in the appointee also serving more than
seven years.

The fourth situation is where the appointee has previously served a term of less than
seven years, and a vacancy arises from death or resignation. Even if it will not result in his
serving more than seven years, a reappointment of such person to serve an unexpired term
is also prohibited because his situation will be similar to those appointed under the second
sentence of Section 1 (2), Article IX-C of the Constitution. This provision refers to the first
appointees under the Constitution whose terms of office are less than seven years, but are
barred from ever being reappointed under any situation. (Matibag v. Benipayo, 380
SCRA 49, April 2, 2002, En Banc [Carpio])

86. To what types of appointments is Section 15, Article VII of the 1987 Constitution
(prohibiting the President from making appointments two months before the next
presidential elections and up to the end of his term) directed against?

Held: Section 15, Article VII is directed against two types of appointments: (1) those
made for buying votes and (2) those made for partisan considerations. The first refers to
those appointments made within two months preceding the Presidential election and are
similar to those which are declared election offenses in the Omnibus Election Code; while
the second consists of the so-called “midnight” appointments. The SC in In Re: Hon.
Mateo A. Valenzuela and Hon. Placido B. Vallarta, (298 SCRA 408, Nov. 9, 1998, En
Banc [Narvasa C.J.]) clarified this when it held:
“Section 15, Article VII has a broader scope than the Aytona ruling. It may not
unreasonably be deemed to contemplate not only “midnight” appointments – those made

59
obviously for partisan reasons as shown by their number and the time of their making – but
also appointments presumed made for the purpose of influencing the outcome of the
Presidential election.”

87. Ma. Evelyn S. Abeja was a municipal mayor. She ran for reelection but lost. Before she
vacated her office, though, she extended permanent appointments to fourteen new
employees of the municipal government. The incoming mayor, upon assuming office,
recalled said appointments contending that these were “midnight appointments” and,
therefore, prohibited under Sec. 15, Art. VII of the 1987 Constitution. Should the act of
the new mayor of recalling said appointments on the aforestated ground be sustained?

Held: The records reveal that when the petitioner brought the matter of recalling
the appointments of the fourteen (14) private respondents before the CSC, the only reason
he cited to justify his action was that these were “midnight appointments” that are
forbidden under Article VII, Section 15 of the Constitution. However, the CSC ruled, and
correctly so, that the said prohibition applies only to presidential appointments. In truth and
in fact, there is no law that prohibits local elective officials from making appointments during
the last days of his or her tenure. (De Rama v. Court of Appeals, 353 SCRA 94, Feb.
28, 2001, En Banc [Ynares-Santiago])

88. Distinguish the President’s power of general supervision over local governments from his
control power.

Held: On many occasions in the past, this Court has had the opportunity to
distinguish the power of supervision from the power of control. In Taule v. Santos, we held
that the Chief Executive wielded no more authority than that of checking whether a local
government or the officers thereof perform their duties as provided by statutory
enactments. He cannot interfere with local governments provided that the same or its
officers act within the scope of their authority. Supervisory power, when contrasted with
control, is the power of mere oversight over an inferior body; it does not include any
restraining authority over such body. Officers in control lay down the rules in the doing of
an act. If they are not followed, it is discretionary on his part to order the act undone or
redone by his subordinate or he may even decide to do it himself. Supervision does not
cover such authority. Supervising officers merely see to it that the rules are followed, but he
himself does not lay down such rules, nor does he have the discretion to modify or replace
them. If the rules are not observed, he may order the work done or re-done to conform to
the prescribed rules. He cannot prescribe his own manner for the doing of the act. (Bito-
Onon v. Fernandez, 350 SCRA 732, Jan. 31, 2001, 3rd Div. [Gonzaga-Reyes])

89. Is the prior recommendation of the Secretary of Justice a mandatory requirement before
the President may validly appoint a provincial prosecutor?

Held: This question would x x x pivot on the proper understanding of the provision
of the Revised Administrative Code of 1987 (Book IV, Title III, Chapter II, Section 9) to the
effect that –

“All provincial and city prosecutors and their assistants shall be appointed by
the President upon the recommendation of the Secretary.”

Petitioners contend that an appointment of a provincial prosecutor mandatorily requires a

prior recommendation of the Secretary of Justice endorsing the intended appointment x x x.

When the Constitution or the law clothes the President with the power to appoint a
subordinate officer, such conferment must be understood as necessarily carrying with it an
ample discretion of whom to appoint. It should be here pertinent to state that the President
is the head of government whose authority includes the power of control over all “executive
departments, bureaus and offices.” Control means the authority of an empowered officer to
alter or modify, or even nullify or set aside, what a subordinate officer has done in the
performance of his duties, as well as to substitute the judgment of the latter, as and when
the former deems it to be appropriate. Expressed in another way, the President has the
power to assume directly the functions of an executive department, bureau and office. It
can accordingly be inferred therefrom that the President can interfere in the exercise of
discretion of officials under him or altogether ignore their recommendations.

It is the considered view of the Court x x x that the phrase “upon recommendation of
the Secretary,” found in Section 9, Chapter II, Title III, Book IV, of the Revised Administrative
Code, should be interpreted x x x to be a mere advise, exhortation or indorsement, which is
essentially persuasive in character and not binding or obligatory upon the party to whom it
is made. The recommendation is here nothing really more than advisory in nature. The

60
President, being the head of the Executive Department, could very well disregard or do
away with the action of the departments, bureaus or offices even in the exercise of
discretionary authority, and in so opting, he cannot be said as having acted beyond the
scope of his authority. (Bermudez v. Executive Secretary Ruben Torres, G.R. No.
131429, Aug. 4, 1999, 3rd Div. [Vitug])

90. Distinguish the President’s power to call out the armed forces as their Commander-in-
Chief in order to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion, from his
power to proclaim martial and suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus.
Explain why the former is not subject to judicial review while the latter two are.

Held: There is a clear textual commitment under the Constitution to bestow on the
President full discretionary power to call out the armed forces and to determine the
necessity for the exercise of such power. Section 18, Article VII of the Constitution, which
embodies the powers of the President as Commander-in-Chief, provides in part:

The President shall be the Commander-in-Chief of all armed forces of the

Philippines and whenever it becomes necessary, he may call out such armed forces
to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion. In case of invasion or
rebellion, when the public safety requires it, he may, for a period not exceeding sixty
days, suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, or place the Philippines or
any part thereof under martial law.

The full discretionary power of the President to determine the factual basis for the
exercise of the calling out power is also implied and further reinforced in the rest of Section
18, Article VII x x x.

Under the foregoing provisions, Congress may revoke such proclamations (of martial
law) or suspension (of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus) and the Court may review
the sufficiency of the factual basis thereof. However, there is no such equivalent provision
dealing with the revocation or review of the President's action to call out the armed forces.
The distinction places the calling out power in a different category from the power to declare
martial law and the power to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, otherwise,
the framers of the Constitution would have simply lumped together the three powers and
provided for their revocation and review without any qualification. Expressio unios est
exclusio alterius. X x x That the intent of the Constitution is exactly what its letter says, i.e.,
that the power to call is fully discretionary to the President, is extant in the deliberation of
the Constitutional Commission x x x.

The reason for the difference in the treatment of the aforementioned powers
highlights the intent to grant the President the widest leeway and broadest discretion in
using the power to call out because it is considered as the lesser and more benign power
compared to the power to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus and the power
to impose martial law, both of which involve the curtailment and suppression of certain basic
civil rights and individual freedoms, and thus necessitating safeguards by Congress and
review by this Court.

Moreover, under Section 18, Article VII of the Constitution, in the exercise of the
power to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus or to impose martial law, two
conditions must concur: (1) there must be an actual invasion or rebellion and, (2) public
safety must require it. These conditions are not required in the case of the power to call out
the armed forces. The only criterion is that “whenever it becomes necessary,” the President
may call the armed forces “to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion.”
The implication is that the President is given full discretion and wide latitude in the exercise
of the power to call as compared to the two other powers.

If the petitioner fails, by way of proof, to support the assertion that the President
acted without factual basis, then this Court cannot undertake an independent investigation
beyond the pleadings. The factual necessity of calling out the armed forces is not easily
quantifiable and cannot be objectively established since matters considered for satisfying
the same is a combination of several factors which are not always accessible to the courts.
Besides the absence of textual standards that the court may use to judge necessity,
information necessary to arrive at such judgment might also prove unmanageable for the
courts. Certain pertinent information might be difficult to verify, or wholly unavailable to the
courts. In many instances, the evidence upon which the President might decide that there is
a need to call out the armed forces may be of a nature not constituting technical proof.

On the other hand, the President as Commander-in-Chief has a vast intelligence

network to gather information, some of which may be classified as highly confidential or

61
affecting the security of the state. In the exercise of the power to call, on-the-spot decisions
may be imperatively necessary in emergency situations to avert great loss of human lives
and mass destruction of property. Indeed, the decision to call out the military to prevent or
suppress lawless violence must be done swiftly and decisively if it were to have any effect at
all. Such a scenario is not farfetched when we consider the present situation in Mindanao,
where the insurgency problem could spill over the other parts of the country. The
determination of the necessity for the calling out power if subjected to unfettered judicial
scrutiny could be a veritable prescription for disaster as such power may be unduly
straitjacketed by an injunction or a temporary restraining order every time it is exercised.

Thus, it is the unclouded intent of the Constitution to vest upon the President, as
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, full discretion to call forth the military when in his
judgment it is necessary to do so in order to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion
or rebellion. Unless the petitioner can show that the exercise of such discretion was gravely
abused, the President's exercise of judgment deserves to be accorded respect from this
Court. (Integrated Bar of the Philippines v. Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No.
141284, Aug. 15, 2000, En Banc [Kapunan])

91. By issuing a TRO on the date convicted rapist Leo Echegaray is to be executed by lethal
injection, the Supreme Court was criticized on the ground, among others, that it
encroached on the power of the President to grant reprieve under Section 19, Article VII,
1987 Constitution. Justify the SC's act.

Held: Section 19, Article VII of the 1987 Constitution is simply the source of power
of the President to grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons and remit fines and
forfeitures after conviction by final judgment. This provision, however, cannot be
interpreted as denying the power of courts to control the enforcement of their decisions
after the finality. In truth, an accused who has been convicted by final judgment still
possesses collateral rights and these rights can be claimed in the appropriate courts. For
instance, a death convict who becomes insane after his final conviction cannot be executed
while in a state of insanity (See Article 79 of the Revised Penal Code). The suspension of
such a death sentence is undisputably an exercise of judicial power. It is not usurpation of
the presidential power of reprieve though its effect is the same – the temporary suspension
of the execution of the death convict. In the same vein, it cannot be denied that Congress
can at any time amend R.A. No. 7659 by reducing the penalty of death to life imprisonment.
The effect of such an amendment is like that of commutation of sentence. But by no stretch
of the imagination can the exercise by Congress of its plenary power to amend laws be
considered as a violation of the President’s power to commute final sentences of conviction.
The powers of the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary to save the life of a death
convict do not exclude each other for the simple reason that there is no higher right than
the right to life. (Echegaray v. Secretary of Justice, 301 SCRA 96, Jan. 19, 1999, En
Banc [Puno])

92. Discuss the nature of a conditional pardon. Is its grant or revocation by the President
subject to judicial review?

Held: A conditional pardon is in the nature of a contract between the sovereign

power or the Chief Executive and the convicted criminal to the effect that the former will
release the latter subject to the condition that if he does not comply with the terms of the
pardon, he will be recommitted to prison to serve the unexpired portion of the sentence or
an additional one. By the pardonee’s consent to the terms stipulated in this contract, the
pardonee has thereby placed himself under the supervision of the Chief Executive or his
delegate who is duty-bound to see to it that the pardonee complies with the terms and
conditions of the pardon. Under Section 64(i) of the Revised Administrative Code, the Chief
Executive is authorized to order “the arrest and re-incarceration of any such person who, in
his judgment, shall fail to comply with the condition, or conditions of his pardon, parole, or
suspension of sentence.” It is now a well-entrenched rule in this jurisdiction that this
exercise of presidential judgment is beyond judicial scrutiny. The determination of the
violation of the conditional pardon rests exclusively in the sound judgment of the Chief
Executive, and the pardonee, having consented to place his liberty on conditional pardon
upon the judgment of the power that has granted it, cannot invoke the aid of the courts,
however erroneous the findings may be upon which his recommitment was ordered.

Xxx
Ultimately, solely vested in the Chief Executive, who in the first place was the
exclusive author of the conditional pardon and of its revocation, is the corollary prerogative
to reinstate the pardon if in his own judgment, the acquittal of the pardonee from the
subsequent charges filed against him, warrants the same. Courts have no authority to
interfere with the grant by the President of a pardon to a convicted criminal. It has been our

62
fortified ruling that a final judicial pronouncement as to the guilt of a pardonee is not a
requirement for the President to determine whether or not there has been a breach of the
terms of a conditional pardon. There is likewise nil a basis for the courts to effectuate the
reinstatement of a conditional pardon revoked by the President in the exercise of powers
undisputably solely and absolutely in his office. (In Re: Wilfredo Sumulong Torres, 251
SCRA 709, Dec. 29, 1995 [Hermosisima])

93. Who has the power to ratify a treaty?

Held: In our jurisdiction, the power to ratify is vested in the President and not, as
commonly believed, in the legislature. The role of the Senate is limited only to giving or
withholding its consent, or concurrence, to the ratification. (BAYAN [Bagong Alyansang
Makabayan] v. Executive Secretary Ronaldo Zamora, G.R. No. 138570, Oct. 10,
2000, En Banc [Buena])

94. Which provision of the Constitution applies with regard to the exercise by the Senate of
its constitutional power to concur with the Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA)?

Held: The 1987 Philippine Constitution contains two provisions requiring the
concurrence of the Senate on treaties or international agreements. Section 21, Article VII x
x x reads:

“No treaty or international agreement shall be valid and effective unless

concurred in by at least two-thirds of all the Members of the Senate.”

Section 25, Article XVIII, provides:

“After the expiration in 1991 of the Agreement between the Republic of the
Philippines and the United States of America concerning Military Bases, foreign military
bases, troops, or facilities shall not be allowed in the Philippines except under a treaty duly
concurred in by the Senate and, when the Congress so requires, ratified by a majority of the
votes cast by the people in a national referendum held for that purpose, and recognized as
a treaty by the other contracting State.”

Section 21, Article VII deals with treaties or international agreements in general, in
which case, the concurrence of at least two-thirds (2/3) of all the Members of the Senate is
required to make the subject treaty, or international agreement, valid and binding on the
part of the Philippines. This provision lays down the general rule on treaties or international
agreements and applies to any form of treaty with a wide variety of subject matter, such as,
but not limited to, extradition or tax treaties or those economic in nature. All treaties or
international agreements entered into by the Philippines, regardless of subject matter,
coverage, or particular designation or appellation, requires the concurrence of the Senate to
be valid and effective.

In contrast, Section 25, Article XVIII is a special provision that applies to treaties
which involve the presence of foreign military bases, troops or facilities in the Philippines.
Under this provision, the concurrence of the Senate is only one of the requisites to render
compliance with the constitutional requirements and to consider the agreement binding on
the Philippines. Section 25, Article XVIII further requires that “foreign military bases, troops,
or facilities” may be allowed in the Philippines only by virtue of a treaty duly concurred in by
the Senate, ratified by a majority of the votes cast in a national referendum held for that
purpose if so required by Congress, and recognized as such by the other contracting State.

It is our considered view that both constitutional provisions, far from contradicting
each other, actually share some common ground. These constitutional provisions both
embody phrases in the negative and thus, are deemed prohibitory in mandate and
character. In particular, Section 21 opens with the clause “No treaty x x x,” and Section 25
contains the phrase “shall not be allowed.” Additionally, in both instances, the concurrence
of the Senate is indispensable to render the treaty or international agreement valid and
effective.

To our mind, the fact that the President referred the VFA to the Senate under Section
21, Article VII, and that the Senate extended its concurrence under the same provision, is
immaterial. For in either case, whether under Section 21, Article VII or Section 25, Article
XVIII, the fundamental law is crystalline that the concurrence of the Senate is mandatory to
comply with the strict constitutional requirements.

On the whole, the VFA is an agreement which defines the treatment of United States
troops and personnel visiting the Philippines. It provides for the guidelines to govern such

63
visits of military personnel, and further defines the rights of the United States and the
Philippine government in the matter of criminal jurisdiction, movement of vessels and
aircraft, importation and exportation of equipment, materials and supplies.

Undoubtedly, Section 25, Article XVIII, which specifically deals with treaties involving
foreign military bases, troops, or facilities, should apply in the instant case. To a certain
extent and in a limited sense, however, the provisions of Section 21, Article VII will find
applicability with regard to the issue and for the sole purpose of determining the number of
votes required to obtain the valid concurrence of the Senate x x x.

It is a finely-imbedded principle in statutory construction that a special provision or

law prevails over a general one. Lex specialis derogat generali. (BAYAN [Bagong
Alyansang Makabayan] v. Executive Secretary Ronaldo Zamora, G.R. No. 138570
and Companion Cases, Oct. 10, 2000, 342 SCRA 449, 481-492, En Banc [Buena])

95. Should the contention that since the VFA merely involved the temporary visits of United
States personnel engaged in joint military exercises and not a basing agreement,
therefore, Sec. 25, Art. XVIII of the Constitution is inapplicable to the VFA, be upheld?

Held: It is specious to argue that Section 25, Article XVIII is inapplicable to mere
transient agreements for the reason that there is no permanent placing of structure for the
establishment of a military base. On this score, the Constitution makes no distinction
between “transient” and “permanent”. Certainly, we find nothing in Section 25, Article XVIII
that requires foreign troops or facilities to be stationed or placed permanently in the
Philippines.

It is a rudiment in legal hermeneutics that when no distinction is made by law, the

Court should not distinguish - Ubi lex non distinguit nec nos distinguire debemos. (BAYAN
[Bagong Alyansang Makabayan] v. Executive Secretary Ronaldo Zamora, G.R. No.
138570 and Companion Cases, Oct. 10, 2000, 342 SCRA 449, 481-492, En Banc
[Buena])

96. Will it be correct to argue that since no foreign military bases, but merely troops and
facilities, are involved in the VFA, therefore, Section 25, Article XVIII of the Constitution is
not controlling?

Held: In like manner, we do not subscribe to the argument that Section 25, Article
XVIII is not controlling since no foreign military bases, but merely foreign troops and
facilities, are involved in the VFA. Notably, a perusal of said constitutional provision reveals
that the proscription covers “foreign military bases, troops, or facilities.” Stated differently,
this prohibition is not limited to the entry of troops and facilities without any foreign bases
being established. The clause does not refer to “foreign military bases, troops, or facilities”
collectively but treats them as separate and independent subjects. The use of comma and
disjunctive word "or" clearly signifies disassociation and independence of one thing from the
others included in the enumeration, such that, the provision contemplates three different
situations - a military treaty the subject of which could be either (a) foreign bases (b) foreign
troops, or (c) foreign facilities - any of the three standing alone places it under the coverage
of Section 25, Article XVIII.

To this end, the intention of the framers of the Charter x x x is consistent with this
interpretation x x x.

Moreover, military bases established within the territory of another state is no longer
viable because of the alternatives offered by new means and weapons of warfare such as
nuclear weapons, guided missiles as well as huge sea vessels that can stay afloat in the sea
even for months and years without returning to their home country. These military warships
are actually used as substitutes for a land-home base not only of military aircraft but also of
military personnel and facilities. Besides, vessels are mobile as compared to a land-based
military headquarters. (BAYAN [Bagong Alyansang Makabayan] v. Executive
Secretary Ronaldo Zamora, G.R. No. 138570 and Companion Cases, Oct. 10, 2000,
342 SCRA 449, 481-492, En Banc [Buena])

97. Were the requirements of Sec. 25, Art. XVIII of the 1987 Constitution complied with when
the Senate gave its concurrence to the VFA?

Held: Section 25, Article XVIII disallows foreign military bases, troops, or facilities in
the country, unless the following conditions are sufficiently met, viz: (a) it must be under a
treaty; (b) the treaty must be duly concurred in by the Senate and, when so required by

64
Congress, ratified by a majority of the votes cast by the people in a national referendum;
and (c) recognized as a treaty by the other contracting state.

There is no dispute as to the presence of the first two requisites in the case of the
VFA. The concurrence handed by the Senate through Resolution No. 18 is in accordance
with the provisions of the Constitution, whether under the general requirement in Section
21, Article VII, or the specific mandate mentioned in Section 25, Article XVIII, the provision in
the latter article requiring ratification by a majority of the votes cast in a national
referendum being unnecessary since Congress has not required it.

As to the matter of voting, Section 21, Article VII particularly requires that a treaty or
international agreement, to be valid and effective, must be concurred in by at least two-
thirds of all the members of the Senate. On the other hand, Section 25, Article XVIII simply
provides that the treaty be “duly concurred in by the Senate.”

Applying the foregoing constitutional provisions, a two-thirds vote of all the members
of the Senate is clearly required so that the concurrence contemplated by law may be
validly obtained and deemed present. While it is true that Section 25, Article XVIII requires,
among other things, that the treaty - the VFA, in the instant case - be “duly concurred in by
the Senate,” it is very true however that said provision must be related and viewed in light
of the clear mandate embodied in Section 21, Article VII, which in more specific terms,
requires that the concurrence of a treaty, or international agreement, be made by a two-
thirds vote of all the members of the Senate. Indeed, Section 25, Article XVIII must not be
treated in isolation to Section 21, Article VII.

As noted, the “concurrence requirement” under Section 25, Article XVIII must be
construed in relation to the provisions of Section 21, Article VII. In a more particular
language, the concurrence of the Senate contemplated under Section 25, Article XVIII means
that at least two-thirds of all the members of the Senate favorably vote to concur with the
treaty - the VFA in the instant case.

xxx

Having resolved that the first two requisites prescribed in Section 25, Article XVIII are
present, we shall now pass upon and delve on the requirement that the VFA should be
recognized as a treaty by the United States of America.

xxx

This Court is of the firm view that the phrase “recognized as a treaty” means that the
other contracting party accepts or acknowledges the agreement as a treaty. To require the
other contracting state, The United States of America in this case, to submit the VFA to the
United States Senate for concurrence pursuant to its Constitution, is to accord strict
meaning to the phrase.

Well-entrenched is the principle that the words used in the Constitution are to be
given their ordinary meaning except where technical terms are employed, in which case the
significance thus attached to them prevails. Its language should be understood in the sense
they have in common use.

Moreover, it is inconsequential whether the United States treats the VFA only as an
executive agreement because, under international law, an executive agreement is as
binding as a treaty. To be sure, as long as the VFA possesses the elements of an agreement
under international law, the said agreement is to be taken equally as a treaty.

xxx

The records reveal that the United States Government, through Ambassador Thomas
C. Hubbard, has stated that the United States government has fully committed to living up
to the terms of the VFA. For as long as the United States of America accepts or
acknowledges the VFA as a treaty, and binds itself further to comply with its obligations
under the treaty, there is indeed marked compliance with the mandate of the Constitution.

Worth stressing too, is that the ratification, by the President, of the VFA and the
concurrence of the Senate should be taken as a clear and unequivocal expression of our
nation's consent to be bound by said treaty, with the concomitant duty to uphold the
obligations and responsibilities embodied thereunder.

xxx

65
 With the ratification of the VFA, which is equivalent to final acceptance, and with the
exchange of notes between the Philippines and the United States of America, it now
becomes obligatory and incumbent on our part, under the principles of international law, to
be bound by the terms of the agreement. (BAYAN [Bagong Alyansang Makabayan] v.
Executive Secretary Ronaldo Zamora, G.R. No. 138570 and Companion Cases, Oct.
10, 2000, 342 SCRA 449, 481-492, En Banc [Buena])

98. Are the “Balikatan” exercises covered by the Visiting Forces Agreement?

Held: The holding of “Balikatan 02-1” must be studied in the framework of

the treaty antecedents to which the Philippines bound itself. The first of these is the Mutual
Defense Treaty (MDT, for brevity). The MDT has been described as the “core” of the
defense relationship between the Philippines and its traditional ally, the United States. Its
aim is to enhance the strategic and technological capabilities of our armed forces through
joint training with its American counterparts; the “Balikatan” is the largest such training
exercise directly supporting the MDT’s objectives. It is this treaty to which the VFA adverts
and the obligations thereunder which it seeks to reaffirm.

The lapse of the US-Philippine Bases Agreement in 1992 and the decision not to
renew it created a vacuum in US-Philippine defense relations, that is, until it was replaced by
the Visiting Forces Agreement. It should be recalled that on October 10, 2000, by a vote of
eleven to three, this Court upheld the validity of the VFA (BAYAN, et. al. v. Zamora, et. al.,
342 SCRA 449 [2000]). The VFA provides the “regulatory mechanism” by which “United
States military and civilian personnel [may visit] temporarily in the Philippines in connection
with activities approved by the Philippine Government.” It contains provisions relative to
entry and departure of American personnel, driving and vehicle registration, criminal
jurisdiction, claims, importation and exportation, movement of vessels and aircraft, as well
as the duration of the agreement and its termination. It is the VFA which gives continued
relevance to the MDT despite the passage of years. Its primary goal is to facilitate the
promotion of optimal cooperation between American and Philippine military forces in the
event of an attack by a common foe.

The first question that should be addressed is whether “Balikatan 02-1” is covered by
the Visiting Forces Agreement. To resolve this, it is necessary to refer to the VFA itself. Not
much help can be had therefrom, unfortunately, since the terminology employed is itself the
source of the problem. The VFA permits United States personnel to engage, on an
impermanent basis, in “activities,” the exact meaning of which was left undefined. The
expression is ambiguous, permitting a wide scope of undertakings subject only to the
approval of the Philippine government. The sole encumbrance placed on its definition is
couched in the negative, in that United States personnel must “abstain from any activity
inconsistent with the spirit of this agreement, and in particular, from any political activity.”
All other activities, in other words, are fair game.

We are not completely unaided, however. The Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties, which contains provisos governing interpretations of international agreements,
state x x x.

It is clear from the foregoing that the cardinal rule of interpretation must involve an
examination of the text, which is presumed to verbalize the parties’ intentions. The
Convention likewise dictates what may be used as aids to deduce the meaning of terms,
which it refers to as the context of the treaty, as well as other elements may be taken into
account alongside the aforesaid context. X x x

The Terms of Reference rightly fall within the context of the VFA.

After studied reflection, it appeared farfetched that the ambiguity surrounding the
meaning of the word “activities” arose from accident. In our view, it was deliberately made
that way to give both parties a certain leeway in negotiation. In this manner, visiting US
forces may sojourn in Philippine territory for purposes other than military. As conceived, the
joint exercises may include training on new techniques of patrol and surveillance to protect
the nation’s marine resources, sea search-and-destroy operations to assist vessels in
distress, disaster relief operations, civic action projects such as the building of school
houses, medical and humanitarian missions, and the like.

Under these auspices, the VFA gives legitimacy to the current Balikatan exercises. It
is only logical to assume that “Balikatan 02-1,” a “mutual anti-terrorism advising, assisting
and training exercise,” falls under the umbrella of sanctioned or allowable activities in the
context of the agreement. Both the history and intent of the Mutual Defense Treaty and the

66
VFA support the conclusion that combat-related activities – as opposed to combat itself –
such as the one subject of the instant petition, are indeed authorized. (Arthur D. Lim and
Paulino R. Ersando v. Honorable Executive Secretary, G.R. No. 151445, April 11,
2002, En Banc [De Leon])

99. What is the power of impoundment of the President? What are its principal sources?

Held: Impoundment refers to the refusal of the President, for whatever reason, to
spend funds made available by Congress. It is the failure to spend or obligate budget
authority of any type.

Proponents of impoundment have invoked at least three principal sources of the

authority of the President. Foremost is the authority to impound given to him either
expressly or impliedly by Congress. Second is the executive power drawn from the
President’s role as Commander-in-Chief. Third is the Faithful Execution Clause.

The proponents insist that a faithful execution of the laws requires that the President
desist from implementing the law if doing so would prejudice public interest. An example
given is when through efficient and prudent management of a project, substantial savings
are made. In such a case, it is sheer folly to expect the President to spend the entire
amount budgeted in the law. (PHILCONSA v. Enriquez, 235 SCRA 506, Aug. 9, 1994
[Quiason])

The Judicial Department

100. What are the requisites before the Court can exercise the power of judicial review?

Held: 1. The time-tested standards for the exercise of judicial review are: (1) the
existence of an appropriate case; (2) an interest personal and substantial by the party
raising the constitutional question; (3) the plea that the function be exercised at the earliest
opportunity; and (4) the necessity that the constitutional question be passed upon in order
to decide the case (Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of
Environment and Natural Resources, et al., G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En
Banc)

2. When questions of constitutional significance are raised, the Court can exercise its
power of judicial review only if the following requisites are complied with, namely: (1) the
existence of an actual and appropriate case; (2) a personal and substantial interest of the
party raising the constitutional question; (3) the exercise of judicial review is pleaded at the
earliest opportunity; and (4) the constitutional question is the lis mota of the case.
(Integrated Bar of the Philippines v. Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No. 141284,
Aug. 15, 2000, En Banc [Kapunan])

101. What are the requisites for the proper exercise of the power of judicial review?
Illustrative case.

Held: Respondents assert that the petition fails to satisfy all the four requisites
before this Court may exercise its power of judicial review in constitutional cases. Out of
respect for the acts of the Executive department, which is co-equal with this Court,
respondents urge this Court to refrain from reviewing the constitutionality of the ad interim
appointments issued by the President to Benipayo, Borra and Tuason unless all the four
requisites are present. X x x

Respondents argue that the second, third and fourth requisites are absent in this
case. Respondents maintain that petitioner does not have a personal and substantial
interest in the case because she has not sustained a direct injury as a result of the ad
interim appointments of Benipayo, Borra and Tuason and their assumption of office.
Respondents point out that petitioner does not claim to be lawfully entitled to any of the
positions assumed by Benipayo, Borra or Tuason. Neither does petitioner claim to be
directly injured by the appointments of these three respondents.

Respondents also contend that petitioner failed to question the constitutionality of

the ad interim appointments at the earliest opportunity. Petitioner filed the petition only on
August 3, 2001 despite the fact that the ad interim appointments of Benipayo, Borra and
Tuason were issued as early as March 22, 2001. Moreover, the petition was filed after the
third time that these three respondents were issued ad interim appointments.

67
 Respondents insist that the real issue in this case is the legality of petitioner’s
reassignment from the EID to the Law Department. Consequently, the constitutionality of
the ad interim appointments is not the lis mota of this case.

We are not persuaded.

Benipayo reassigned petitioner from the EID, where she was Acting Director, to the
Law Department, where she was placed on detail. Respondents claim that the reassignment
was “pursuant to x x x Benipayo’s authority as Chairman of the Commission on Elections,
and as the Commission’s Chief Executive Officer.” Evidently, respondents’ anchor the
legality of petitioner’s reassignment on Benipayo’s authority as Chairman of the COMELEC.
The real issue then turns on whether or not Benipayo is the lawful Chairman of the
COMELEC. Even if petitioner is only an Acting director of the EID, her reassignment is
without legal basis if Benipayo is not the lawful COMELEC Chairman, an office created by the
Constitution.

On the other hand, if Benipayo is the lawful COMELEC Chairman because he assumed
office in accordance with the Constitution, then petitioner’s reassignment is legal and she
has no cause to complain provided the reassignment is in accordance with the Civil Service
Law. Clearly, petitioner has a personal and material stake in the resolution of the
constitutionality of Benipayo’s assumption of office. Petitioner’s personal and substantial
injury, if Benipayo is not the lawful COMELEC Chairman, clothes her with the requisite locus
standi to raise the constitutional issue in this petition.

Respondents harp on petitioner’s belated act of questioning the constitutionality of

the ad interim appointments of Benipayo, Borra and Tuason. Petitioner filed the instant
petition only on August 3, 2001, when the first ad interim appointments were issued as early
as March 22, 2001. However, it is not the date of filing of the petition that determines
whether the constitutional issue was raised at the earliest opportunity. The earliest
opportunity to raise a constitutional issue is to raise it in the pleadings before a competent
court that can resolve the same, such that, “if it is not raised in the pleadings, it cannot be
considered on appeal.” Petitioner questioned the constitutionality of the ad interim
appointments of Benipayo, Borra and Tuason when she filed her petition before this Court,
which is the earliest opportunity for pleading the constitutional issue before a competent
body. Furthermore, this Court may determine, in the exercise of sound discretion, the time
when a constitutional issue may be passed upon. There is no doubt petitioner raised the
constitutional issue on time.

Moreover, the legality of petitioner’s reassignment hinges on the constitutionality of

Benipayo’s ad interim appointment and assumption of office. Unless the constitutionality of
Benipayo’s ad interim appointment and assumption of office is resolved, the legality of
petitioner’s reassignment from the EID to the Law Department cannot be determined.
Clearly, the lis mota of this case is the very constitutional issue raised by petitioner.

In any event, the issue raised by petitioner is of paramount importance to the public.
The legality of the directives and decisions made by the COMELEC in the conduct of the May
14, 2001 national elections may be put in doubt if the constitutional issue raised by
petitioner is left unresolved. In keeping with this Court’s duty to determine whether other
agencies of government have remained within the limits of the Constitution and have not
abused the discretion given them, this Court may even brush aside technicalities of
procedure and resolve any constitutional issue raised. Here the petitioner has complied with
all the requisite technicalities. Moreover, public interest requires the resolution of the
constitutional issue raised by petitioner. (Matibag v. Benipayo, 380 SCRA 49, April 2,
2002, En Banc [Carpio])

102. What is an “actual case or controversy”?

Held: An “actual case or controversy” means an existing case or controversy which

is both ripe for resolution and susceptible of judicial determination, and that which is not
conjectural or anticipatory, or that which seeks to resolve hypothetical or feigned
constitutional problems. A petition raising a constitutional question does not present an
“actual controversy,” unless it alleges a legal right or power. Moreover, it must show that a
conflict of rights exists, for inherent in the term “controversy” is the presence of opposing
views or contentions. Otherwise, the Court will be forced to resolve issues which remain
unfocused because they lack such concreteness provided when a question emerges
precisely framed from a clash of adversary arguments exploring every aspect of a multi-
faceted situation embracing conflicting and demanding interests. The controversy must also
be justiciable; that is, it must be susceptible of judicial determination. (Integrated Bar of

68
the Philippines v. Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No. 141284, Aug. 15, 2000, En
Banc [Kapunan])

103. Petitioners Isagani Cruz and Cesar Europa brought a suit for prohibition and
mandamus as citizens and taxpayers, assailing the constitutionality of certain provisions
of Republic Act No. 8371, otherwise known as the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997
(IPRA), and its Implementing Rules and Regulations. A preliminary issue resolved by the
SC was whether the petition presents an actual controversy.

Held: Courts can only decide actual controversies, not hypothetical questions or
cases. The threshold issue, therefore, is whether an “appropriate case” exists for the
exercise of judicial review in the present case.

Xxx

In the case at bar, there exists a live controversy involving a clash of legal rights. A
law has been enacted, and the Implementing Rules and Regulations approved. Money has
been appropriated and the government agencies concerned have been directed to
implement the statute. It cannot be successfully maintained that we should await the
adverse consequences of the law in order to consider the controversy actual and ripe for
judicial resolution. It is precisely the contention of the petitioners that the law, on its face,
constitutes an unconstitutional abdication of State ownership over lands of the public
domain and other natural resources. Moreover, when the State machinery is set into motion
to implement an alleged unconstitutional statute, this Court possesses sufficient authority to
resolve and prevent imminent injury and violation of the constitutional process. (Separate
Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani Cruz v. Secretary of Environment and Natural
Resources, et al., G.R. No. 135385, Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

104. When is an action considered “moot”? May the court still resolve the case once it
has become moot and academic?

Held: 1. It is alleged by respondent that, with respect to the PCCR [Preparatory

Commission on Constitutional Reform], this case has become moot and academic. We
agree.

An action is considered “moot” when it no longer presents a justiciable controversy

because the issues involved have become academic or dead. Under E.O. No. 43, the PCCR
was instructed to complete its task on or before June 30, 1999. However, on February 19,
1999, the President issued Executive Order No. 70 (E.O. No. 70), which extended the time
frame for the completion of the commission’s work x x x. The PCCR submitted its
recommendations to the President on December 20, 1999 and was dissolved by the
President on the same day. It had likewise spent the funds allocated to it. Thus, the PCCR
has ceased to exist, having lost its raison d’ être. Subsequent events have overtaken the
petition and the Court has nothing left to resolve.

The staleness of the issue before us is made more manifest by the impossibility of
granting the relief prayed for by petitioner. Basically, petitioner asks this Court to enjoin the
PCCR from acting as such. Clearly, prohibition is an inappropriate remedy since the body
sought to be enjoined no longer exists. It is well-established that prohibition is a preventive
remedy and does not lie to restrain an act that is already fait accompli. At this point, any
ruling regarding the PCCR would simply be in the nature of an advisory opinion, which is
definitely beyond the permissible scope of judicial power. (Gonzales v. Narvasa, 337
SCRA 733, Aug. 14, 2000, En Banc [Gonzaga-Reyes])

2. The petition which was filed by private respondents before the trial court sought
the issuance of a writ of mandamus, to command petitioners to admit them for enrolment.
Taking into account the admission of private respondents that they have finished their
Nursing course at the Lanting College of Nursing even before the promulgation of the
questioned decision, this case has clearly been overtaken by events and should therefore be
dismissed. However, the case of Eastern Broadcasting Corporation (DYRE) v. Dans is the
authority for the view that “even if a case were moot and academic, a statement of the
governing principle is appropriate in the resolution of dismissal for the guidance not only of
the parties but of others similarly situated.” We shall adhere to this view and proceed to
dwell on the merits of this petition. (University of San Agustin, Inc. v. Court of
Appeals, 230 SCRA 761, 770, March 7, 1994 [Nocon])

105. Should the Court still resolve the case despite that the issue has already become
moot and academic? Exception.

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 Held: Neither do we agree that merely because a plebiscite had already been held
in the case of the proposed Barangay Napico, the petition of the Municipality of Cainta has
already been rendered moot and academic. The issue raised by the Municipality of Cainta in
its petition before the COMELEC against the holding of the plebiscite for the creation of
Barangay Napico are still pending determination before the Antipolo Regional Trial Court.

In Tan v. Commission on Elections, we struck down the moot and academic argument
as follows –

“Considering that the legality of the plebiscite itself is challenged for non-
compliance with constitutional requisites, the fact that such plebiscite had been held
and a new province proclaimed and its officials appointed, the case before Us cannot
truly be viewed as already moot and academic. Continuation of the existence of this
newly proclaimed province which petitioners strongly profess to have been illegally
born, deserves to be inquired into by this Tribunal so that, if indeed, illegality
attaches to its creation, the commission of that error should not provide the very
excuse for perpetration of such wrong. For this Court to yield to the respondents’
urging that, as there has been fait accompli, then this Court should passively accept
and accede to the prevailing situation is an unacceptable suggestion. Dismissal of
the instant petition, as respondents so propose is a proposition fraught with mischief.
Respondents’ submission will create a dangerous precedent. Should this Court
decline now to perform its duty of interpreting and indicating what the law is and
should be, this might tempt again those who strut about in the corridors of power to
recklessly and with ulterior motives, create, merge, divide and/or alter the
boundaries of political subdivisions, either brazenly or stealthily, confident that this
Court will abstain from entertaining future challenges to their acts if they manage to
bring about a fait accompli.”
(City of Pasig v. COMELEC, 314 SCRA 179, Sept. 10, 1999, En Banc [Ynares-
Santiago])

106. On May 1, 2001, President Macapagal-Arroyo, faced by an “angry and violent mob
armed with explosives, firearms, bladed weapons, clubs, stones and other deadly
weapons” assaulting and attempting to break into Malacanang, issued Proclamation No.
38 declaring that there was a state of rebellion in the National Capital Region. She
likewise issued General Order No. 1 directing the Armed Forces of the Philippines and
the Philippine National Police to suppress the rebellion in the National Capital Region.
Warrantless arrests of several alleged leaders and promoters of the “rebellion” were
thereafter effected. Hence, several petitions were filed before the SC assailing the
declaration of State of Rebellion by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo and the
warrantless arrests allegedly effected by virtue thereof.

Held: All the foregoing petitions assail the declaration of state of rebellion by
President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo and the warrantless arrests allegedly effected by virtue
thereof, as having no basis both in fact and in law. Significantly, on May 6, 2001, President
Macapagal-Arroyo ordered the lifting of the declaration of a “state of rebellion” in Metro
Manila. Accordingly, the instant petitions have been rendered moot and academic. As to
petitioners’ claim that the proclamation of a “state of rebellion” is being used by the
authorities to justify warrantless arrests, the Secretary of Justice denies that it has issued a
particular order to arrest specific persons in connection with the “rebellion.” He states that
what is extant are general instructions to law enforcement officers and military agencies to
implement Proclamation No. 38. x x x. With this declaration, petitioners’ apprehensions as
to warrantless arrests should be laid to rest. (Lacson v. Perez, 357 SCRA 756, May 10,
2001, En Banc [Melo])

107. In connection with the May 11, 1998 elections, the COMELEC issued a resolution
prohibiting the conduct of exit polls on the ground, among others, that it might cause
disorder and confusion considering the randomness of selecting interviewees, which
further makes the exit polls unreliable. The constitutionality of this resolution was
challenged by ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation as violative of freedom of expression.
The Solicitor General contends that the petition has been rendered moot and academic
because the May 11, 1998 election has already been held and done with and, therefore,
there is no longer any actual controversy to be resolved. Resolve.

Held: While the assailed Resolution referred specifically to the May 11, 1998
election, its implications on the people’s fundamental freedom of expression transcend the
past election. The holding of periodic elections is a basic feature of our democratic
government. By its very nature, exit polling is tied up with elections. To set aside the
resolution of the issue now will only postpone a task that could well crop up again in future
elections.

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 In any event, in Salonga v. Cruz Pano, the Court had occasion to reiterate that it “also
has the duty to formulate guiding and controlling constitutional principles, precepts,
doctrines, or rules. It has the symbolic function of educating bench and bar on the extent of
protection given by constitutional guarantees.” Since the fundamental freedoms of speech
and of the press are being invoked here, we have resolved to settle, for the guidance of
posterity, whether they likewise protect the holding of exit polls and the dissemination of
data derived therefrom. (ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation v. COMELEC, G.R. No.
133486, Jan. 28, 2000, En Banc [Panganiban])

108. What is the meaning of "legal standing" or locus standi?

Held: 1. “Legal standing” or locus standi has been defined as a personal and
substantial interest in the case such that the party has sustained or will sustain direct injury
as a result of the governmental act that is being challenged. The term “interest” means a
material interest, an interest in issue affected by the decree, as distinguished from mere
interest in the question involved, or a mere incidental interest. The gist of the question of
standing is whether a party alleges “such personal stake in the outcome of the controversy
as to assure that concrete adverseness which sharpens the presentation of issues upon
which the court depends for illumination of difficult constitutional questions.” (Integrated
Bar of the Philippines v. Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No. 141284, Aug. 15, 2000)

2. In addition to the existence of an actual case or controversy, a person who assails

the validity of a statute must have a personal and substantial interest in the case, such that,
he has sustained, or will sustain, a direct injury as a result of its enforcement . Evidently, the
rights asserted by petitioners as citizens and taxpayers are held in common by all the
citizens, the violation of which may result only in a “generalized grievance”. Yet, in a sense,
all citizen's and taxpayer's suits are efforts to air generalized grievances about the conduct
of government and the allocation of power. (Separate Opinion, Kapunan, J., in Isagani
Cruz v. Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources, et al., G.R. No. 135385,
Dec. 6, 2000, En Banc)

109. Asserting itself as the official organization of Filipino lawyers tasked with the
bounden duty to uphold the rule of law and the Constitution, the Integrated Bar of the
Philippines (IBP) filed a petition before the SC questioning the validity of the order of the
President commanding the deployment and utilization of the Philippine Marines to assist
the Philippine National Police (PNP) in law enforcement by joining the latter in visibility
patrols around the metropolis. The Solicitor General questioned the legal standing of the
IBP to file the petition? Resolve.

Held: In the case at bar, the IBP primarily anchors its standing on its alleged
responsibility to uphold the rule of law and the Constitution. Apart from this declaration,
however, the IBP asserts no other basis in support of its locus standi. The mere invocation
by the IBP of its duty to preserve the rule of law and nothing more, while undoubtedly true,
is not sufficient to clothe it with standing in this case. This is too general an interest which is
shared by other groups and the whole citizenry. Based on the standards above-stated, the
IBP has failed to present a specific and substantial interest in the resolution of the case. Its
fundamental purpose which, under Section 2, Rule 139-A of the Rules of Court, is to elevate
the standards of the law profession and to improve the administration of justice is alien to,
and cannot be affected by the deployment of the Marines. x x x Moreover, the IBP x x x has
not shown any specific injury which it has suffered or may suffer by virtue of the questioned
governmental act. Indeed, none of its members x x x has sustained any form of injury as a
result of the operation of the joint visibility patrols. Neither is it alleged that any of its
members has been arrested or that their civil liberties have been violated by the
deployment of the Marines. What the IBP projects as injurious is the supposed
“militarization” of law enforcement which might threaten Philippine democratic institutions
and may cause more harm than good in the long run. Not only is the presumed “injury” not
personal in character, it is likewise too vague, highly speculative and uncertain to satisfy the
requirement of standing. Since petitioner has not successfully established a direct and
personal injury as a consequence of the questioned act, it does not possess the personality
to assail the validity of the deployment of the Marines. (Integrated Bar of the
Philippines v. Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No. 141284, Aug. 15, 2000, En Banc
[Kapunan])

110. Considering the lack of requisite standing of the IBP to file the petition questioning
the validity of the order of the President to deploy and utilize the Philippine Marines to
assist the PNP in law enforcement, may the Court still properly take cognizance of the
case?

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 Held: Having stated the foregoing, it must be emphasized that this Court has the
discretion to take cognizance of a suit which does not satisfy the requirement of legal
standing when paramount interest is involved. In not a few cases, the Court has adopted a
liberal attitude on the locus standi of a petitioner where the petitioner is able to craft an
issue of transcendental significance to the people. Thus, when the issues raised are of
paramount importance to the public, the Court may brush aside technicalities of procedure.
In this case, a reading of the petition shows that the IBP has advanced constitutional issues
which deserve the attention of this Court in view of their seriousness, novelty and weight as
precedents. Moreover, because peace and order are under constant threat and lawless
violence occurs in increasing tempo, undoubtedly aggravated by the Mindanao insurgency
problem, the legal controversy raised in the petition almost certainly will not go away. It will
stare us in the face again. It, therefore, behooves the Court to relax the rules on standing
and to resolve the issue now, rather than later. (Integrated Bar of the Philippines v.
Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No. 141284, Aug. 15, 2000)

111. Discuss the nature of a taxpayer’s suit. When may it be allowed?

Held: 1. Petitioner and respondents agree that to constitute a taxpayer's suit, two
requisites must be met, namely, that public funds are disbursed by a political subdivision or
instrumentality and in doing so, a law is violated or some irregularity is committed, and that
the petitioner is directly affected by the alleged ultra vires act. The same pronouncement
was made in Kilosbayan, Inc. v. Guingona, Jr., where the Court also reiterated its liberal
stance in entertaining so-called taxpayer's suits, especially when important issues are
involved. A closer examination of the facts of this case would readily demonstrate that
petitioner's standing should not even be made an issue here, “since standing is a concept in
constitutional law and here no constitutional question is actually involved.”

In the case at bar, disbursement of public funds was only made in 1975 when the
Province bought the lands from Ortigas at P110.00 per square meter in line with the
objectives of P.D. 674. Petitioner never referred to such purchase as an illegal disbursement
of public funds but focused on the alleged fraudulent reconveyance of said property to
Ortigas because the price paid was lower than the prevailing market value of neighboring
lots. The first requirement, therefore, which would make this petition a taxpayer's suit is
absent. The only remaining justification for petitioner to be allowed to pursue this action is
whether it is, or would be, directly affected by the act complained of. As we stated in
Kilosbayan, Inc. v. Morato,

“Standing is a special concern in constitutional law because in some cases

suits are brought not by parties who have been personally injured by the operation of
a law or by official action taken, but by concerned citizens, taxpayers or voters who
actually sue in the public interest. Hence the question in standing is whether such
parties have 'alleged such a personal stake in the outcome of the controversy as to
assure that concrete adverseness which sharpens the presentation of issues upon
which the court so largely depends for illumination of difficult constitutional
questions.' (Citing Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 7 L. Ed. 2d 633 [1962])”

Undeniably, as a taxpayer, petitioner would somehow be adversely affected by an illegal use

of public money. When, however, no such unlawful spending has been shown x x x,
petitioner, even as a taxpayer, cannot question the transaction validly executed by and
between the Province and Ortigas for the simple reason that it is not privy to said contract.
In other words, petitioner has absolutely no cause of action, and consequently no locus
standi, in the instant case. (The Anti-Graft League of the Philippines, Inc. v. San
Juan, 260 SCRA 250, 253-255, Aug. 1, 1996, En Banc [Romero])

2. A taxpayer is deemed to have the standing to raise a constitutional issue when it

is established that public funds have been disbursed in alleged contravention of the law or
the Constitution. Thus, a taxpayer’s action is properly brought only when there is an
exercise by Congress of its taxing or spending power. This was our ruling in a recent case
wherein petitioners Telecommunications and Broadcast Attorneys of the Philippines
(TELEBAP) and GMA Network, Inc. questioned the validity of Section 92 of B.P. Blg. 881
(otherwise known as the “Omnibus Election Code”) requiring radio and television stations to
give free air time to the Commission on Elections during the campaign period
(Telecommunications and Broadcast Attorneys of the Philippines, Inc. v. Commission on
Elections, 289 SCRA 337 [1998]). The Court held that petitioner TELEBAP did not have any
interest as a taxpayer since the assailed law did not involve the taxing or spending power of
Congress.

Many other rulings have premised the grant or denial of standing to taxpayers upon
whether or not the case involved a disbursement of public funds by the legislature. In

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Sanidad v. Commission on Elections, the petitioners therein were allowed to bring a
taxpayer’s suit to question several presidential decrees promulgated by then President
Marcos in his legislative capacity calling for a national referendum, with the Court explaining
that –

X x x [i]t is now an ancient rule that the valid source of a statute – Presidential
Decrees are of such nature – may be contested by one who will sustain a direct injury
as a result of its enforcement. At the instance of taxpayers, laws providing for the
disbursement of public funds may be enjoined, upon the theory that the expenditure
of public funds by an officer of the State for the purpose of executing an
unconstitutional act constitutes a misapplication of such funds. The breadth of
Presidential Decree No. 991 carries an appropriation of Five Million Pesos for the
effective implementation of its purposes. Presidential Decree No. 1031 appropriates
the sum of Eight Million Pesos to carry out its provisions. The interest of the
aforenamed petitioners as taxpayers in the lawful expenditure of these amounts of
public money sufficiently clothes them with that personality to litigate the validity of
the Decrees appropriating said funds x x x.

In still another case, the Court held that petitioners – the Philippine Constitution Association,
Inc., a non-profit civic organization – had standing as taxpayers to question the
constitutionality of Republic Act No. 3836 insofar as it provides for retirement gratuity and
commutation of vacation and sick leaves to Senators and Representatives and to the
elective officials of both houses of Congress (Philippine Constitution Association, Inc. v.
Gimenez). And in Pascual v. Secretary of Public Works, the Court allowed petitioner to
maintain a taxpayer’s suit assailing the constitutional soundness of Republic Act No. 920
appropriating P85,000 for the construction, repair and improvement of feeder roads within
private property. All these cases involved the disbursement of public funds by means of a
law.

Meanwhile, in Bugnay Construction and Development Corporation v. Laron, the Court

declared that the trial court was wrong in allowing respondent Ravanzo to bring an action for
injunction in his capacity as a taxpayer in order to question the legality of the contract of
lease covering the public market entered into between the City of Dagupan and petitioner.
The Court declared that Ravanzo did not possess the requisite standing to bring such
taxpayer’s suit since “[o]n its face, and there is no evidence to the contrary, the lease
contract entered into between petitioner and the City shows that no public funds have been
or will be used in the construction of the market building.”

Coming now to the instant case, it is readily apparent that there is no exercise by
Congress of its taxing or spending power. The PCCR was created by the President by virtue
of E.O. No. 43, as amended by E.O. No. 70. Under Section 7 of E.O. No. 43, the amount of P3
million is “appropriated” for its operational expenses “to be sourced from the funds of the
Office of the President.” x x x The appropriations for the PCCR were authorized by the
President, not by Congress. In fact, there was no appropriation at all. “In a strict sense,
appropriation has been defied ‘as nothing more than the legislative authorization prescribed
by the Constitution that money may be paid out of the Treasury,’ while appropriation made
by law refers to ‘the act of the legislature setting apart or assigning to a particular use a
certain sum to be used in the payment of debt or dues from the State to its creditors.’” The
funds used for the PCCR were taken from funds intended for the Office of the President, in
the exercise of the Chief Executive’s power to transfer funds pursuant to Section 25 (5) of
Article VI of the Constitution.

In the final analysis, it must be stressed that the Court retains the power to decide
whether or not it will entertain a taxpayer’s suit. In the case at bar, there being no exercise
by Congress of its taxing or spending power, petitioner cannot be allowed to question the
creation of the PCCR in his capacity as a taxpayer, but rather, he must establish that he has
a “personal and substantial interest in the case and that he has sustained or will sustain
direct injury as a result of its enforcement.” In other words, petitioner must show that he is
a real party in interest – that he will stand to be benefited or injured by the judgment or that
he will be entitled to the avails of the suit. Nowhere in his pleadings does petitioner
presume to make such a representation. (Gonzales v. Narvasa, 337 SCRA 733, Aug. 14,
2000, En Banc [Gonzaga-Reyes])

112. What is the meaning of “justiciable controversy” as requisite for the proper exercise
of the power of judicial review? Illustrative case.

Held: From a reading of the records it appears to us that the petition was
prematurely filed. Under the undisputed facts there is as yet no justiciable controversy for

73
the court to resolve and the petition should have been dismissed by the appellate court on
this ground.

We gather from the allegations of the petition and that of the petitioner’s
memorandum that the alleged application for certificate of ancestral land claim (CALC) filed
by the heirs of Carantes under the assailed DENR special orders has not been granted nor
the CALC applied for, issued. The DENR is still processing the application of the heirs of
Carantes for a certificate of ancestral land claim, which the DENR may or may not grant. It
is evident that the adverse legal interests involved in this case are the competing claims of
the petitioners and that of the heirs of Carantes to possess a common portion of a piece of
land. As the undisputed facts stand there is no justiciable controversy between the
petitioners and the respondents as there is no actual or imminent violation of the
petitioners’ asserted right to possess the land by reason of the implementation of the
questioned administrative issuance.

A justiciable controversy has been defined as, “a definite and concrete dispute
touching on the legal relations of parties having adverse legal interests” which may be
resolved by a court of law through the application of a law. Courts have no judicial power to
review cases involving political questions and as a rule, will desist from taking cognizance of
speculative or hypothetical cases, advisory opinions and in cases that has become moot.
Subject to certain well-defined exceptions courts will not touch an issue involving the validity
of a law unless there has been a governmental act accomplished or performed that has a
direct adverse effect on the legal right of the person contesting its validity. In the case of
PACU v. Secretary of Education the petition contesting the validity of a regulation issued by
the Secretary of Education requiring private schools to secure a permit to operate was
dismissed on the ground that all the petitioners have permits and are actually operating
under the same. The petitioners questioned the regulation because of the possibility that
the permit might be denied them in the future. This Court held that there was no justiciable
controversy because the petitioners suffered no wrong by the implementation of the
questioned regulation and therefore, they are not entitled to relief. A mere apprehension
that the Secretary of Education will withdraw the permit does not amount to justiciable
controversy. The questioned regulation in the PACU case may be questioned by a private
school whose permit to operate has been revoked or one whose application therefore has
been denied.

This Court cannot rule on the basis of petitioners’ speculation that the DENR will
approve the application of the heirs of Carantes. There must be an actual governmental act
which directly causes or will imminently cause injury to the alleged legal right of the
petitioner to possess the land before the jurisdiction of this Court may be invoked. There is
no showing that the petitioners were being evicted from the land by the heirs of Carantes
under orders from the DENR. The petitioners’ allegation that certain documents from the
DENR were shown to them by the heirs of Carantes to justify eviction is vague, and it would
appear that the petitioners did not verify if indeed the respondent DENR or its officers
authorized the attempted eviction. Suffice it to say that by the petitioners’ own admission
that the respondents are still processing and have not approved the application of the heirs
of Carantes, the petitioners alleged right to possess the land is not violated nor is in
imminent danger of being violated, as the DENR may or may not approve Carantes’
application. Until such time, the petitioners are simply speculating that they might be
evicted from the premises at some future time. Borrowing from the pronouncements of this
Court in the PACU case, “They (the petitioners) have suffered no wrong under the terms of
the law – and, naturally need no relief in the form they now seek to obtain.” If indeed the
heirs of Carantes are trying to enter the land and disturbing the petitioners’ possession
thereof even without prior approval by the DENR of the claim of the heirs of Carantes, the
case is simply one of forcible entry. (Cutaran v. DENR, 350 SCRA 697, Jan. 31, 2001,
3rd Div. [Gonzaga-Reyes])

113. What is a justiciable controversy? What are political questions?

Held: As a general proposition, a controversy is justiciable if it refers to a matter

which is appropriate for court review. It pertains to issues which are inherently susceptible
of being decided on grounds recognized by law. Nevertheless, the Court does not
automatically assume jurisdiction over actual constitutional cases brought before it even in
instances that are ripe for resolution. One class of cases wherein the Court hesitates to rule
on are “political questions.” The reason is that political questions are concerned with issues
dependent upon the wisdom, not the legality, of a particular act or measure being assailed.
Moreover, the political question being a function of the separation of powers, the courts will
not normally interfere with the workings of another co-equal branch unless the case shows a
clear need for the courts to step in to uphold the law and the Constitution.

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 As Tanada v. Angara puts it, political questions refer “to those questions which, under
the Constitution, are to be decided by the people in their sovereign capacity, or in regard to
which full discretionary authority has been delegated to the legislative or executive branch
of government.” Thus, if an issue is clearly identified by the text of the Constitution as
matters for discretionary action by a particular branch of government or to the people
themselves then it is held to be a political question. In the classic formulation of Justice
Brennan in Baker v. Carr, “[p]rominent on the surface of any case held to involve a political
question is found a textually demonstrable constitutional commitment of the issue to a
coordinate political department; or a lack of judicially discoverable and manageable
standards for resolving it; or the impossibility of deciding without an initial policy
determination of a kind clearly for nonjudicial discretion; or the impossibility of a court's
undertaking independent resolution without expressing lack of the respect due coordinate
branches of government; or an unusual need for unquestioning adherence to a political
decision already made; or the potentiality of embarrassment from multifarious
pronouncements by various departments on the one question.”

The 1987 Constitution expands the concept of judicial review by providing that “[T]he
Judicial power shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be
established by law. Judicial power includes the duty of the courts of justice to settle actual
controversies involving rights which are legally demandable and enforceable, and to
determine whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or
excess of jurisdiction on the part of any branch or instrumentality of the Government.”
(Article VIII, Sec. 1 of the 1987 Constitution) Under this definition, the Court cannot agree x
x x that the issue involved is a political question beyond the jurisdiction of this Court to
review. When the grant of power is qualified, conditional or subject to limitations, the issue
of whether the prescribed qualifications or conditions have been met or the limitations
respected, is justiciable - the problem being one of legality or validity, not its wisdom.
Moreover, the jurisdiction to delimit constitutional boundaries has been given to this Court.
When political questions are involved, the Constitution limits the determination as to
whether or not there has been a grave abuse of discretion amounting to lack or excess of
jurisdiction on the part of the official whose action is being questioned.

By grave abuse of discretion is meant simply capricious or whimsical exercise of

judgment that is patent and gross as to amount to an evasion of positive duty or a virtual
refusal to perform a duty enjoined by law, or to act at all in contemplation of law, as where
the power is exercised in an arbitrary and despotic manner by reason of passion or hostility.
Under this definition, a court is without power to directly decide matters over which full
discretionary authority has been delegated. But while this Court has no power to substitute
its judgment for that of Congress or of the President, it may look into the question of
whether such exercise has been made in grave abuse of discretion. A showing that plenary
power is granted either department of government may not be an obstacle to judicial
inquiry, for the improvident exercise or abuse thereof may give rise to justiciable
controversy. (Integrated Bar of the Philippines v. Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No.
141284, Aug. 15, 2000, En Banc [Kapunan])

114. Is the legitimacy of the assumption to the Presidency of President Gloria Macapagal
Arroyo a political question and, therefore, not subject to judicial review? Distinguish
EDSA People Power I from EDSA People Power II.

Held: Respondents rely on the case of Lawyers League for a Better Philippines
and/or Oliver A. Lozano v. President Corazon C. Aquino, et al. and related cases to support
their thesis that since the cases at bar involve the legitimacy of the government of
respondent Arroyo, ergo, they present a political question. A more cerebral reading of the
cited cases will show that they are inapplicable. In the cited cases, we held that the
government of former President Aquino was the result of a successful revolution by the
sovereign people, albeit a peaceful one. No less than the Freedom Constitution declared
that the Aquino government was installed through a direct exercise of the power of the
Filipino people “in defiance of the provisions of the 1973 Constitution, as amended.” It is
familiar learning that the legitimacy of a government sired by a successful revolution by
people power is beyond judicial scrutiny for that government automatically orbits out of the
constitutional loop. In checkered contrast, the government of respondent Arroyo is not
revolutionary in character. The oath that she took at the EDSA Shrine is the oath under the
1987 Constitution. In her oath, she categorically swore to preserve and defend the 1987
Constitution. Indeed, she has stressed that she is discharging the powers of the presidency
under the authority of the 1987 Constitution.

In fine, the legal distinction between EDSA People Power I and EDSA People Power II
is clear. EDSA I involves the exercise of the people power of revolution which overthrows
the whole government. EDSA II is an exercise of people power of freedom of speech and

75
freedom of assembly to petition the government for redress of grievances which only
affected the office of the President. EDSA I is extra constitutional and the legitimacy of the
new government that resulted from it cannot be the subject of judicial review, but EDSA II is
intra constitutional and the resignation of the sitting President that it caused and the
succession of the Vice President as President are subject to judicial review. EDSA I
presented a political question; EDSA II involves legal questions. X x x

Needless to state, the cases at bar pose legal and not political questions. The
principal issues for resolution require the proper interpretation of certain provisions in the
1987 Constitution, notably Section 1 of Article II, and Section 8 of Article VII, and the
allocation of governmental powers under Section 11 of Article VII. The issues likewise call
for a ruling on the scope of presidential immunity from suit. They also involve the correct
calibration of the right of petitioner against prejudicial publicity. As early as the 1803 case
of Marbury v. Madison, the doctrine has been laid down that “it is emphatically the province
and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is x x x.” Thus, respondent’s
invocation of the doctrine of political question is but a foray in the dark. (Joseph E.
Estrada v. Aniano Desierto, G.R. Nos. 146710-15, March 2, 2001, En Banc [Puno])

115. Is the President’s power to call out the armed forces as their Commander-in-Chief in
order to prevent or suppress lawless violence, invasion or rebellion subject to judicial
review, or is it a political question? Clarify.

Held: When the President calls the armed forces to prevent or suppress lawless
violence, invasion or rebellion, he necessarily exercises a discretionary power solely vested
in his wisdom. This is clear from the intent of the framers and from the text of the
Constitution itself. The Court, thus, cannot be called upon to overrule the President's
wisdom or substitute its own. However, this does not prevent an examination of whether
such power was exercised within permissible constitutional limits or whether it was
exercised in a manner constituting grave abuse of discretion. In view of the constitutional
intent to give the President full discretionary power to determine the necessity of calling out
the armed forces, it is incumbent upon the petitioner to show that the President's decision is
totally bereft of factual basis. The present petition fails to discharge such heavy burden as
there is no evidence to support the assertion that there exists no justification for calling out
the armed forces. There is, likewise, no evidence to support the proposition that grave
abuse was committed because the power to call was exercised in such a manner as to
violate the constitutional provision on civilian supremacy over the military. In the
performance of this Court's duty of “purposeful hesitation” before declaring an act of
another branch as unconstitutional, only where such grave abuse of discretion is clearly
shown shall the Court interfere with the President's judgment. To doubt is to sustain.
(Integrated Bar of the Philippines v. Hon. Ronaldo B. Zamora, G.R. No. 141284,
Aug. 15, 2000, En Banc [Kapunan])

116. Do lower courts have jurisdiction to consider the constitutionality of a law? If so, how
should they act in the exercise of this jurisdiction?

Held: We stress at the outset that the lower court had jurisdiction to consider the
constitutionality of Section 187, this authority being embraced in the general definition of
the judicial power to determine what are the valid and binding laws by the criterion of their
conformity to the fundamental law. Specifically, BP 129 vests in the regional trial courts
jurisdiction over all civil cases in which the subject of the litigation is incapable of pecuniary
estimation, even as the accused in a criminal action has the right to question in his defense
the constitutionality of a law he is charged with violating and of the proceedings taken
against him, particularly as they contravene the Bill of Rights. Moreover, Article VIII, Section
5(2), of the Constitution vests in the Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction over final
judgments and orders of lower courts in all cases in which the constitutionality or validity of
any treaty, international or executive agreement, law, presidential decree, proclamation,
order, instruction, ordinance, or regulation is in question.

In the exercise of this jurisdiction, lower courts are advised to act with the utmost
circumspection, bearing in mind the consequences of a declaration of unconstitutionality
upon the stability of laws, no less than on the doctrine of separation of powers. As the
questioned act is usually the handiwork of the legislative or the executive departments, or
both, it will be prudent for such courts, if only out of a becoming modesty, to defer to the
higher judgment of this Court in the consideration of its validity, which is better determined
after a thorough deliberation by a collegiate body and with the concurrence of the majority
of those who participated in its discussion. (Drilon v. Lim, 235 SCRA 135, 139-140,
Aug. 4, 1994, En Banc [Cruz])

117. What cases are to be heard by the Supreme Court en banc?

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 Held: Under Supreme Court Circular No. 2-89, dated February 7, 1989, as amended
by the Resolution of November 18, 1993:

X x x [t]he following are considered en banc cases:

1) Cases in which the constitutionality or validity of any treaty, international or

executive agreement, law, executive order, or presidential decree, proclamation,
order, instruction, ordinance, or regulation is in question;
2) Criminal cases in which the appealed decision imposes the death penalty;
3) Cases raising novel questions of law;
4) Cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;
5) Cases involving decisions, resolutions or orders of the Civil Service Commission,
Commission on Elections, and Commission on Audit;
6) Cases where the penalty to be imposed is the dismissal of a judge, officer or
employee of the judiciary, disbarment of a lawyer, or either the suspension of any
of them for a period of more than one (1) year or a fine exceeding P10,000.00 or
both;
7) Cases where a doctrine or principle laid down by the court en banc or in division
may be modified or reversed;
8) Cases assigned to a division which in the opinion of at least three (3) members
thereof merit the attention of the court en banc and are acceptable to a majority
of the actual membership of the court en banc; and
9) All other cases as the court en banc by a majority of its actual membership may
deem of sufficient importance to merit its attention.
(Firestone Ceramics, Inc. v. Court of Appeals, 334 SCRA 465, 471-472, June 28,
2000, En Banc [Purisima])

118. What is fiscal autonomy? The fiscal autonomy clause?

Held: As envisioned in the Constitution, the fiscal autonomy enjoyed by the

Judiciary, the Civil Service Commission, the Commission on Audit, the Commission on
Elections, and the Office of the Ombudsman contemplates a guarantee of full flexibility to
allocate and utilize their resources with the wisdom and dispatch that their needs require. It
recognizes the power and authority to levy, assess and collect fees, fix rates of
compensation not exceeding the highest rates authorized by law for compensation and pay
plans of the government and allocate and disburse such sums as may be provided by law or
prescribed by them in the course of the discharge of their functions.

Fiscal autonomy means freedom from outside control. The Judiciary, the
Constitutional Commissions, and the Ombudsman must have the independence and
flexibility needed in the discharge of their constitutional duties. The imposition of
restrictions and constraints on the manner the independent constitutional offices allocate
and utilize the funds appropriated for their operations is anathema to fiscal autonomy and
violative not only of the express mandate of the Constitution but especially as regards the
Supreme Court, of the independence and separation of powers upon which the entire fabric
of our constitutional system is based. (Bengzon v. Drilon, 208 SCRA 133, April 15,
1992, En Banc [Gutierrez])

119. May the Ombudsman validly entertain criminal charges against a judge of the
regional trial court in connection with his handling of cases before the court.

Held: Petitioner criticizes the jurisprudence (Maceda v. Vasquez, 221 SCRA 464
[1993] and Dolalas v. Office of the Ombudsman-Mindanao, 265 SCRA 818 [1996]) cited by
the Office of the Ombudsman as erroneous and not applicable to his complaint. He insists
that since his complaint involved a criminal charge against a judge, it was within the
authority of the Ombudsman not the Supreme Court to resolve whether a crime was
committed and the judge prosecuted therefor.

The petition cannot succeed.

Xxx

We agree with the Solicitor General that the Ombudsman committed no grave abuse
of discretion warranting the writs prayed for. The issues have been settled in the case of In
Re: Joaquin Borromeo. There, we laid down the rule that before a civil or criminal action
against a judge for a violation of Arts. 204 and 205 (knowingly rendering an unjust judgment
or order) can be entertained, there must first be “a final and authoritative judicial

77
declaration” that the decision or order in question is indeed “unjust.” The pronouncement
may result from either:

(a) an action of certiorari or prohibition in a higher court impugning the validity of

the judgment; or
(b) an administrative proceeding in the Supreme Court against the judge precisely for
promulgating an unjust judgment or order.

Likewise, the determination of whether a judge has maliciously delayed the

disposition of the case is also an exclusive judicial function (In Re: Borromeo, supra, at 461).

“To repeat, no other entity or official of the government, not the prosecution
or investigation service of any other branch, not any functionary thereof, has
competence to review a judicial order or decision – whether final and executory or
not – and pronounce it erroneous so as to lay the basis for a criminal or
administrative complaint for rendering an unjust judgment or order. That prerogative
belongs to the courts alone.

This having been said, we find that the Ombudsman acted in accordance with law
and jurisprudence when he referred the cases against Judge Pelayo to the Supreme Court for
appropriate action. (De Vera v. Pelayo, 335 SCRA 281, July 6, 2000, 1st Div. [Pardo])

120. What is a Memorandum Decision?

Held: A Memorandum Decision is a “specie of succinctly written decisions by

appellate courts in accordance with the provisions of Section 40, B.P. Blg. 129 on the
grounds of expediency, practicality, convenience and docket status of our courts.”
(Francisco v. Permskul, 173 SCRA 324, 333 [1989])

121. Discuss the validity of “Memorandum Decisions.”

Held: 1. The constitutional mandate that no decision shall be rendered by any court
without expressing therein clearly and distinctly the facts and the law on which it is based
does not preclude the validity of “memorandum decisions” which adopt by reference the
findings of fact and conclusions of law contained in the decisions of inferior tribunals. X x x

Hence, even in this jurisdiction, incorporation by reference is allowed if only to avoid

the cumbersome reproduction of the decision of the lower courts, or portions thereof, in the
decisions of the higher court. This is particularly true when the decision sought to be
incorporated is a lengthy and thorough discussion of the facts and conclusions arrived at x x
x. (Oil and Natural Gas Commission v. Court of Appeals, 293 SCRA 26, July 23,
1998 [Martinez])

2. We have sustained decisions of lower courts as having substantially or sufficiently

complied with the constitutional injunction notwithstanding the laconic and terse manner in
which they were written and even if “there [was left] much to be desired in terms of [their]
clarity, coherence and comprehensibility” provided that they eventually set out the facts
and the law on which they were based, as when they stated the legal qualifications of the
offense constituted by the facts proved, the modifying circumstances, the participation of
the accused, the penalty imposed and the civil liability; or discussed the facts comprising
the elements of the offense that was charged in the information, and accordingly rendered a
verdict and imposed the corresponding penalty; or quoted the facts narrated in the
prosecution’s memorandum but made their own findings and assessment of evidence,
before finally agreeing with the prosecution’s evaluation of the case.

We have also sanctioned the use of memorandum decisions x x x. We have also

declared that memorandum decisions comply with the constitutional mandate.

In Francisco v. Permskul, however, we laid the conditions for the validity of

memorandum decisions, thus:

The memorandum decision, to be valid, cannot incorporate the findings of fact

and the conclusions of law of the lower court only by remote reference, which is to
say that the challenged decision is not easily and immediately available to the person
reading the memorandum decision. For the incorporation by reference to be allowed,
it must provide for direct access to the facts and the law being adopted, which must
be contained in a statement attached to the said decision. In other words, the
memorandum decision authorized under Section 40 of B.P. Blg. 129 should actually

78
 embody the findings of fact and conclusions of law of the lower court in an annex
attached to and made an indispensable part of the decision.

It is expected that this requirement will allay the suspicion that no study was
made of the decision of the lower court and that its decision was merely affirmed
without a prior examination of the facts and the law on which it is based. The
proximity at least of the annexed statement should suggest that such examination
has been undertaken. It is, of course, also understood that the decision being
adopted should, to begin with, comply with Article VIII, Section 14 as no amount of
incorporation or adoption will rectify its violation.

The Court finds necessary to emphasize that the memorandum decision

should be sparingly used lest it become an additive excuse for judicial sloth. It is an
additional condition for the validity of this kind of decision may be resorted to only in
cases where the facts are in the main accepted by both parties and easily
determinable by the judge and there are no doctrinal complications involved that will
require an extended discussion of the laws involved. The memorandum decision may
be employed in simple litigations only, such as ordinary collection cases, where the
appeal is obviously groundless and deserves no more than the time needed to
dismiss it.

Xxx

Henceforth, all memorandum decisions shall comply with the requirements

herein set forth as to the form prescribed and the occasions when they may be
rendered. Any deviation will summon the strict enforcement of Article VIII, Section
14 of the Constitution and strike down the flawed judgment as a lawless
disobedience.

Tested against these standards, we find that the RTC decision at bar miserably failed
to meet them and, therefore, fell short of the constitutional injunction. The RTC decision is
brief indeed, but it is starkly hallow, otiosely written, vacuous in its content and trite in its
form. It achieved nothing and attempted at nothing, not even at a simple summation of
facts which could easily be done. Its inadequacy speaks for itself.

We cannot even consider or affirm said RTC decision as a memorandum decision

because it failed to comply with the measures of validity laid down in Francisco v. Permskul.
It merely affirmed in toto the MeTC decision without saying more. A decision or resolution,
especially one resolving an appeal, should directly meet the issues for resolution; otherwise,
the appeal would be pointless

We therefore reiterate our admonition in Nicos Industrial Corporation v. Court of

Appeals, in that while we conceded that brevity in the writing of decisions is an admirable
trait, it should not and cannot be substituted for substance; and again in Francisco v.
Permskul, where we cautioned that expediency alone, no matter how compelling, cannot
excuse non-compliance with the constitutional requirements.

This is not to discourage the lower courts to write abbreviated and concise decisions,
but never at the expense of scholarly analysis, and more significantly, of justice and fair
play, lest the fears expressed by Justice Feria as the ponente in Romero v. Court of Appeals
come true, i.e., if an appellate court failed to provide the appeal the attention it rightfully
deserved, said court deprived the appellant of due process since he was accorded a fair
opportunity to be heard by a fair and responsible magistrate. This situation becomes more
ominous in criminal cases, as in this case, where not only property rights are at stake but
also the liberty if not the life of a human being.

Faithful adherence to the requirements of Section 14, Article VIII of the Constitution is
indisputably a paramount component of due process and fair play. It is likewise demanded
by the due process clause of the Constitution. The parties to a litigation should be informed
of how it was decided, with an explanation of the factual and legal reasons that led to the
conclusions of the court. The court cannot simply say that judgment is rendered in favor of
X and against Y and just leave it at that without any justification whatsoever for its action.
The losing party is entitled to know why he lost, so he may appeal to the higher court, if
permitted, should he believe that the decision should be reversed. A decision that does not
clearly and distinctly state the facts and the law on which it is based leaves the parties in
the dark as to how it was reached and is precisely prejudicial to the losing party, who is
unable to pinpoint the possible errors of the court for review by a higher tribunal. More than
that, the requirement is an assurance to the parties that, in reaching judgment, the judge
did so through the processes of legal reasoning. It is, thus, a safeguard against the

79
impetuosity of the judge, preventing him from deciding ipse dixit. Vouchsafed neither the
sword nor the purse by the Constitution but nonetheless vested with the sovereign
prerogative of passing judgment on the life, liberty or property of his fellowmen, the judge
must ultimately depend on the power of reason for sustained public confidence in the
justness of his decision.

Thus the Court has struck down as void, decisions of lower courts and even of the
Court of Appeals whose careless disregard of the constitutional behest exposed their
sometimes cavalier attitude not only to their magisterial responsibilities but likewise to their
avowed fealty to the Constitution.

Thus, we nullified or deemed to have failed to comply with Section 14, Article VIII of
the Constitution, a decision, resolution or order which: contained no analysis of the evidence
of the parties nor reference to any legal basis in reaching its conclusions; contained nothing
more than a summary of the testimonies of the witnesses of both parties; convicted the
accused of libel but failed to cite any legal authority or principle to support conclusions that
the letter in question was libelous; consisted merely of one (1) paragraph with mostly
sweeping generalizations and failed to support its conclusion of parricide; consisted of five
(5) pages, three (3) pages of which were quotations from the labor arbiter’s decision
including the dispositive portion and barely a page (two [2] short paragraphs of two [2]
sentences each) of its own discussion or reasonings; was merely based on the findings of
another court sans transcript of stenographic notes, or failed to explain the factual and legal
bases for the award of moral damages.

In the same vein do we strike down as a nullity the RTC decision in question. (Yao v.
Court of Appeals, 344 SCRA 202, Oct. 24, 2000, 1 st Div. [Davide])

122. What are the distinctive features and purpose of a memorandum decision?

Held: In Francisco v. Permskul (173 SCRA 324, 333 [1989], the Court described
“[t]he distinctive features of a memorandum decision are, first, it is rendered by an
appellate court, second, it incorporates by reference the findings of fact or the conclusions
of law contained in the decision, order, or ruling under review. Most likely, the purpose is to
affirm the decision, although it is not impossible that the approval of the findings of facts by
the lower court may lead to a different conclusion of law by the higher court. At any rate,
the reason for allowing the incorporation by reference is evidently to avoid the cumbersome
reproduction of the decision of the lower court, or portions thereof, in the decision of the
higher court. The idea is to avoid having to repeat in the body of the latter decision the
findings or conclusions of the lower court since they are being approved or adopted anyway.
(Yao v. Court of Appeals, 344 SCRA 202, Oct. 24, 2000, 1 st Div. [Davide])

123. Does the period for decision making under Section 15, Article VIII, 1987 Constitution,
apply to the Sandiganbayan? Explain.

Held: The above provision does not apply to the Sandiganbayan. The provision
refers to regular courts of lower collegiate level that in the present hierarchy applies only to
the Court of Appeals.

The Sandiganbayan is a special court of the same level as the Court of Appeals and
possessing all the inherent powers of a court of justice, with functions of a trial court.

Thus, the Sandiganbayan is not a regular court but a special one. (Re: Problem of
Delays in Cases Before the Sandiganbayan, A.M. No. 00-8-05-SC, Nov. 28, 2001,
En Banc [Pardo])

The Constitutional Commissions

124. Why does the Constitution prohibit the President from appointing in an acting or
temporary capacity the Chairman and Commissioners of the Constitutional
Commissions? Explain.

Held: [A] temporary or acting appointee does not enjoy security of tenure, no
matter how briefly.

This is the kind of appointment that the Constitution prohibits the President from
making to the three independent constitutional commissions, including the COMELEC. Thus,
in Brillantes v. Yorac, this Court struck down as unconstitutional the designation by then

80
President Corazon Aquino of Associate Commissioner Haydee Yorac as Acting Chairperson of
the COMELEC. This Court ruled that:

“A designation as Acting Chairman is by its very terms essentially temporary and

therefore revocable at will. No cause need be established to justify its revocation.
Assuming its validity, the designation of the respondent as Acting Chairman of the
Commission on Elections may be withdrawn by the President of the Philippines at any
time and for whatever reason she sees fit. It is doubtful if the respondent, having
accepted such designation, will not be estopped from challenging its withdrawal.

The Constitution provides for many safeguards to the independence of the

Commission on Elections, foremost among which is the security of tenure of its
members. That guarantee is not available to the respondent as Acting Chairman of
the Commission on Elections by designation of the President of the Philippines.”

Earlier, in Nacionalista Party v. Bautista, a case decided under the 1935 Constitution,
which did not have a provision prohibiting temporary or acting appointments to the
COMELEC, this Court nevertheless declared unconstitutional the designation of the Solicitor
General as acting member of the COMELEC. This Court ruled that the designation of an
acting Commissioner would undermine the independence of the COMELEC and hence violate
the Constitution. We declared then: “It would be more in keeping with the intent, purpose
and aim of the framers of the Constitution to appoint a permanent Commissioner than to
designate one to act temporarily.” (Matibag v. Benipayo, 380 SCRA 49, April 2, 2002,
En Banc [Carpio])

125. Is the constitutional power of the COA to examine and audit government banks and
agencies exclusive? Does it preclude a concurrent audit by a private external auditor?

Held: The resolution of the primordial issue of whether or not the COA has the sole
and exclusive power to examine and audit government banks involves an interpretation of
Section 2, Article IX-D of the 1987 Constitution. This Section provides as follows:

“Sec. 2. (1) The Commission on Audit shall have the power, authority, and
duty to examine, audit, and settle all accounts pertaining to the revenue and receipts
of, and expenditures or uses of funds and property, owned and held in trust by, or
pertaining to, the Government, or any of its subdivisions, agencies, or
instrumentalities, including government-owned or controlled corporations with
original charters, x x x.

“(2) The Commission shall have the exclusive authority, subject to the
limitations in this Article, to define the scope of its audit and examination, establish
the techniques and methods required therefore, and promulgate accounting and
auditing rules and regulations, including those for the prevention and disallowance of
irregular, unnecessary, excessive, extravagant, or unconscionable expenditures, or
uses of government funds and properties.” (Emphasis supplied)

The COA vigorously asserts that under the first paragraph of Section 2, the COA
enjoys the sole and exclusive power to examine and audit all government agencies,
including the DBP. The COA contends this is similar to its sole and exclusive authority,
under the same paragraph of the same section, to define the scope of its audit, promulgate
auditing rules and regulations, including rules on the disallowance of unnecessary
expenditures of government agencies. The bare language of Section 2, however, shows that
the COA’s power under the first paragraph is not declared exclusive, while its authority
under the second paragraph is expressly declared “exclusive.” There is a significant reason
for this marked difference in language.

During the deliberations of the Constitutional Commission, Commissioner Serafin

Guingona proposed the addition of the word “exclusive” in the first paragraph of Section 2,
thereby granting the COA the sole and exclusive power to examine and audit all government
agencies. However, the Constitutional Commission rejected the addition of the word
“exclusive” in the first paragraph of Section 2 and Guingona was forced to withdraw his
proposal. X x x

Xxx

In sharp contrast, the Constitutional Commission placed the word “exclusive” to

qualify the authority of the COA under the second paragraph of the same Section 2. This
word “exclusive” did not appear in the counterpart provisions of Section 2 in the 1935 and
1973 Constitutions. There is no dispute that the COA’s authority under the second

81
paragraph of Section 2 is exclusive as the language of the Constitution admits of no other
meaning. Thus, the COA has the exclusive authority to decide on disallowances of
unnecessary government expenditures. Other government agencies and their officials, as
well as private auditors engaged by them, cannot in any way intrude into this exclusive
function of the COA.

The qualifying word “exclusive” in the second paragraph of Section 2 cannot be

applied to the first paragraph which is another sub-section of Section 2. A qualifying word is
intended to refer only to the phrase to which it is immediately associated, and not to a
phrase distantly located in another paragraph or sub-section. Thus, the first paragraph of
Section 2 must be read the way it appears, without the word “exclusive,” signifying that
non-COA auditors can also examine and audit government agencies. Besides, the framers of
the Constitution intentionally omitted the word “exclusive” in the first paragraph of Section
2 precisely to allow concurrent audit by private external auditors.

The clear and unmistakable conclusion from a reading of the entire Section 2 is that
the COA’s power to examine and audit is non-exclusive. On the other hand, the COA’s
authority to define the scope of its audit, promulgate auditing rules and regulations, and
disallow unnecessary expenditures is exclusive.

Xxx

Manifestly, the express language of the Constitution, and the clear intent of its
framers, point to only one indubitable conclusion – the COA does not have the exclusive
power to examine and audit government agencies. The framers of the Constitution were
fully aware of the need to allow independent private audit of certain government agencies in
addition to the COA audit, as when there is a private investment in a government-controlled
corporation, or when a government corporation is privatized or publicly listed, or as in the
case at bar when the government borrows money from abroad.

In these instances the government enters the marketplace and competes with the
rest of the world in attracting investments or loans. To succeed, the government must abide
with the reasonable business practices of the marketplace. Otherwise no investor or
creditor will do business with the government, frustrating government efforts to attract
investments or secure loans that may be critical to stimulate moribund industries or
resuscitate a badly shattered national economy as in the case at bar. By design the
Constitution is flexible enough to meet these exigencies. Any attempt to nullify this
flexibility in the instances mentioned, or in similar instances, will be ultra vires, in the
absence of a statute limiting or removing such flexibility.

The deliberations of the Constitutional Commission reveal eloquently the intent of

Section 2, Article IX-D of the Constitution. As this Court has ruled repeatedly, the intent of
the law is the controlling factor in the interpretation of the law. If a law needs interpretation,
the most dominant influence is the intent of the law. The intent of the law is that which is
expressed in the words of the law, which should be discovered within its four corners aided,
if necessary, by its legislative history. In the case of Section 2, Article IX-D of the
Constitution, the intent of the framers of the Constitution is evident from the bare language
of Section 2 itself. The deliberations of the Constitutional Commission confirm expressly and
even elucidate further this intent beyond any doubt whatsoever.

There is another constitutional barrier to the COA’s insistence of exclusive power to

examine and audit all government agencies. The COA’s claim clashes directly with the
Central Bank’s constitutional power of “supervision” over banks under Section 20, Article XII
of the Constitution. X x x

Historically, the Central Bank has been conducting periodic and special examination
and audit of banks to determine the soundness of their operations and the safety of the
deposits of the public. Undeniably, the Central Bank’s power of “supervision” includes the
power to examine and audit banks, as the banking laws have always recognized this power
of the Central Bank. Hence, the COA’s power to examine and audit government banks must
be reconciled with the Central Bank’s power to supervise the same banks. The inevitable
conclusion is that the COA and the Central Bank have concurrent jurisdiction, under the
Constitution, to examine and audit government banks.

However, despite the Central Bank’s concurrent jurisdiction over government banks,
the COA’s audit still prevails over that of the Central Bank since the COA is the
constitutionally mandated auditor of government banks. And in matters falling under the
second paragraph of Section 2, Article IX-D of the Constitution, the COA’s jurisdiction is
exclusive. Thus, the Central Bank is devoid of authority to allow or disallow expenditures of

82
government banks since this function belongs exclusively to the COA. (Development
Bank of the Philippines v. Commission on Audit, 373 SCRA 356, January 16, 2002,
En Banc [Carpio])

126. Between the COA’s findings and conclusions and that of private auditors, which
should prevail?

Held: Moreover, as the constitutionally-mandated auditor of all government

agencies, the COA’s findings and conclusions necessarily prevail over those of private
auditors, at least insofar as government agencies and officials are concerned. The
superiority or preponderance of the COA audit over private audit can be gleaned from the
records of the Constitutional Commission x x x. The findings and conclusions of the private
auditor may guide private investors or creditors who require such private audit.
Government agencies and officials, however, remain bound by the findings and conclusions
of the COA, whether the matter falls under the first or second paragraph of Section 2, unless
of course such findings and conclusions are modified or reversed by the courts.

127. May the power of the COA to examine and audit government agencies be validly
taken away from it?

Held: The power of the COA to examine and audit government agencies, while non-
exclusive, cannot be taken away from the COA. Section 3, Article IX-C of the Constitution
mandates that:

“Sec. 3. No law shall be passed exempting any entity of the Government or

its subsidiary in any guise whatsoever, or any investment of public funds, from the
jurisdiction of the Commission on Audit.”

The mere fact that private auditors may audit government agencies does not divest the COA
of its power to examine and audit the same government agencies. (Development Bank of
the Philippines v. Commission on Audit, 373 SCRA 356, January 16, 2002, En Banc
[Carpio])

B. CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

128. What is the effect of declaration of unconstitutionality of a law? Illustrative case.

Held: Respondents are seeking a reconsideration of the Court’s 25 January 2000

decision, wherein we declared Section 8 of Republic Act No. 8551 (RA 8551) to be violative
of petitioners’ constitutionally mandated right to security of tenure. As a consequence of
our ruling, we held that petitioners’ removal as commissioners of the National Police
Commission (NAPOLCOM) and the appointment of new Commissioners in their stead were
nullities and ordered the reinstatement of petitioners and the payment of full backwages to
be computed from the date they were removed from office.

Xxx

An unconstitutional act is not a law; it confers no rights, imposes no duties, and

affords no protection. Therefore, the unavoidable consequence of the Court’s declaration
that Section 8 of RA 8551 violates the fundamental law is that all acts done pursuant to such
provision shall be null and void, including the removal of petitioners and Adiong from their
positions in the NAPOLCOM and the appointment of new commissioners in their stead.
When a regular government employee is illegally dismissed, his position does not become
vacant and the new appointment made in order to replace him is null and void ab initio.
Rudimentary is the precept that there can be no valid appointment to a non-vacant position .
Accordingly, Adiong’s appointment on 11 March 1998 for a term of two years, pursuant to
Section 8 of RA 8551, is null and void. X x x. Therefore, based on our foregoing disquisition,
there should no longer be any doubt as to the proper execution of our 25 January 2000
decision – all the Commissioners appointed under RA 8551 should be removed from office, in
order to give way to the reinstatement of petitioners and respondent Adiong. (Canonizado
v. Aguirre, 351 SCRA 659, Feb. 15, 2001, En Banc [Gonzaga-Reyes])

THE INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE

Police Power

129. Define Police Power and clarify its scope.

83
 Held: 1. Police power is an inherent attribute of sovereignty. It has been defined as
the power vested by the Constitution in the legislature to make, ordain, and establish all
manner of wholesome and reasonable laws, statutes and ordinances, either with penalties or
without, not repugnant to the Constitution, as they shall judge to be for the good and
welfare of the commonwealth, and for the subjects of the same. The power is plenary and
its scope is vast and pervasive, reaching and justifying measures for public health, public
safety, public morals, and the general welfare.

It bears stressing that police power is lodged primarily in the National Legislature. It
cannot be exercised by any group or body of individuals not possessing legislative power.
The National Legislature, however, may delegate this power to the President and
administrative boards as well as the lawmaking bodies of municipal corporations or local
government units. Once delegated, the agents can exercise only such legislative powers as
are conferred on them by the national lawmaking body. (Metropolitan Manila
Development Authority v. Bel-Air Village Association, Inc., 328 SCRA 836, 843-
844, March 27, 2000, 1st Div. [Puno])

2. Police power as an inherent attribute of sovereignty is the power to prescribe

regulations to promote the health, morals, peace, education, good order or safety and
general welfare of the people (Binay v. Domingo, 201 SCRA 508). The State, through the
legislature, has delegated the exercise of police power to local government units, as
agencies of the State, in order to effectively accomplish and carry out the declared objects
of their creation (Tatel v. Muncipality of Virac, 207 SCRA 157). This delegation of police
power is embodies in the general welfare clause of the Local Government Code x x x.

The scope of police power has been held to be so comprehensive as to encompass

almost all matters affecting the health, safety, peace, order, morals, comfort and
convenience of the community. Police power is essentially regulatory in nature and the
power to issue licenses or grant business permits, if exercised for a regulatory and not
revenue-raising purpose, is within the ambit of this power (Procter and Gamble Phils. v. The
Muncicipality of Jagna, 94 SCRA 894). (Acebedo Optical Company, Inc. v. Court of
Appeals, 329 SCRA 314, 325-326, March 31, 2000, En Banc [Purisima])

130. How should laws that grant the right to exercise a part of the police power of the
State be construed?

Held: Lest the idea gets lost in the shoals of our subconsciousness, let us not forget
that PAGCOR is engaged in business affected with public interest. The phrase “affected with
public interest” means that an industry is subject to control for the public good; it has been
considered as the equivalent of “subject to the exercise of the police power.” Perforce, a
legislative franchise to operate jai-alai is imbued with public interest and involves an
exercise of police power. The familiar rule is that laws which grant the right to exercise a
part of the police power of the state are to be construed strictly and any doubt must be
resolved against the grant. The legislature is regarded as the guardian of society, and
therefore is not presumed to disable itself or abandon the discharge of its duty. Thus,
courts do not assume that the legislature intended to part away with its power to regulate
public morals. The presumption is influenced by constitutional considerations. Constitutions
are widely understood to withhold from legislatures any authority to bargain away their
police power for the power to protect the public interest is beyond abnegation.

It is stressed that the case at bar does not involve a franchise to operate a public
utility (such as water, transportation, communication or electricity) – the operation of which
undoubtedly redounds to the benefit of the general public. What is claimed is an alleged
legislative grant of a gambling franchise – a franchise to operate jai-alai. A statute which
legalizes a gambling activity or business should be strictly construed and every reasonable
doubt must be resolved to limit the powers and rights claimed under its authority . (Del
Mar v. PAGCOR, 346 SCRA 485, Nov. 29, 2000, En Banc [Puno])

131. Discuss why rates to be charged by public utilities like MERALCO are subject to State
regulation.

Held: The regulation of rates to be charged by public utilities is founded upon the
police power of the State and statutes prescribing rules for the control and regulations of
public utilities are a valid exercise thereof. When private property is used for a public
purpose and is affected with public interest, it ceases to be juris privati only and becomes
subject to regulation. The regulation is to promote the common good. Submission to
regulation may be withdrawn by the owner by discontinuing use; but as long as the use of
the property is continued, the same is subject to public regulation.

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 In regulating rates charged by public utilities, the State protects the public against
arbitrary and excessive rates while maintaining the efficiency and quality of services
rendered. However, the power to regulate rates does not give the State the right to
prescribe rates which are so low as to deprive the public utility of a reasonable return on
investment. Thus, the rates prescribed by the State must be one that yields a fair
return on the public utility upon the value of the property performing the service
and one that is reasonable to the public for the service rendered. The fixing of just
and reasonable rates involves a balancing of the investor and the consumer interests.
(Republic of the Philippines v. Manila Electric Company, G.R. No. 141314, Nov. 15,
2002, 3rd Div. [Puno])

132. Discuss the nature of the authority of local government units to issue or grant
licenses or permits.

Held: [T]he issuance of business licenses and permits by a municipality or city is

essentially regulatory in nature. The authority, which devolved upon local government units
to issue or grant such licenses or permits, is essentially in the exercise of the police power of
the State within the contemplation of the general welfare clause of the Local Government
Code. (Acebedo Optical Company, Inc. v. Court of Appeals, 329 SCRA 314, 335,
March 31, 2000, En Banc [Purisima])

133. Does Article 263(g) of the Labor Code (vesting upon the Secretary of Labor the
discretion to determine what industries are indispensable to the national interest and
thereafter, assume jurisdiction over disputes in said industries) violate the workers’
constitutional right to strike?

Held: Said article does not interfere with the workers’ right to strike but merely
regulates it, when in the exercise of such right, national interests will be affected. The rights
granted by the Constitution are not absolute. They are still subject to control and limitation
to ensure that they are not exercised arbitrarily. The interests of both the employers and
the employees are intended to be protected and not one of them is given undue preference.

The Labor Code vests upon the Secretary of Labor the discretion to determine what
industries are indispensable to national interest. Thus, upon the determination of the
Secretary of Labor that such industry is indispensable to the national interest, it will assume
jurisdiction over the labor dispute of said industry. The assumption of jurisdiction is in the
nature of police power measure. This is done for the promotion of the common good
considering that a prolonged strike or lockout can be inimical to the national economy. The
Secretary of Labor acts to maintain industrial peace. Thus, his certification for compulsory
arbitration is not intended to impede the workers’ right to strike but to obtain a speedy
settlement of the dispute. (Philtread Workers Union [PTWU] v. Confesor, 269 SCRA
393, March 12, 1997)

134. May solicitation for religious purposes be subject to proper regulation by the State in
the exercise of police power?

Held: Whence, even the exercise of religion may be regulated, at some slight
inconvenience, in order that the State may protect its citizens from injury. Without doubt, a
State may protect its citizens from fraudulent solicitation by requiring a stranger in the
community, before permitting him publicly to solicit funds for any purpose, to establish his
identity and his authority to act for the cause which he purports to represent. The State is
likewise free to regulate the time and manner of solicitation generally, in the interest of
public safety, peace, comfort, or convenience.

It does not follow, therefore, from the constitutional guarantees of the free exercise
of religion that everything which may be so called can be tolerated. It has been said that a
law advancing a legitimate governmental interest is not necessarily invalid as one
interfering with the “free exercise” of religion merely because it also incidentally has a
detrimental effect on the adherents of one or more religion. Thus, the general regulation, in
the public interest, of solicitation, which does not involve any religious test and does not
unreasonably obstruct or delay the collection of funds, is not open to any constitutional
objection, even though the collection be for a religious purpose. Such regulation would not
constitute a prohibited previous restraint on the free exercise of religion or interpose an
inadmissible obstacle to its exercise.

Even with numerous regulative laws in existence, it is surprising how many

operations are carried on by persons and associations who, secreting their activities under
the guise of benevolent purposes, succeed in cheating and defrauding a generous public. It

85
is in fact amazing how profitable the fraudulent schemes and practices are to people who
manipulate them. The State has authority under the exercise of its police power to
determine whether or not there shall be restrictions on soliciting by unscrupulous persons or
for unworthy causes or for fraudulent purposes. That solicitation of contributions under the
guise of charitable and benevolent purposes is grossly abused is a matter of common
knowledge. Certainly the solicitation of contributions in good faith for worthy purposes
should not be denied, but somewhere should be lodged the power to determine within
reasonable limits the worthy from the unworthy. The objectionable practices of
unscrupulous persons are prejudicial to worthy and proper charities which naturally suffer
when the confidence of the public in campaigns for the raising of money for charity is
lessened or destroyed. Some regulation of public solicitation is, therefore, in the public
interest.

To conclude, solicitation for religious purposes may be subject to proper regulation

by the State in the exercise of police power. (Centeno v. Villalon-Pornillos, 236 SCRA
197, Sept. 1, 1994 [Regalado])

135. Does a corporation or individual not himself licensed, have a right to hire and employ
licensed optometrists? Will the employment of a qualified optometrist by a corporation
go against public policy?

Held: From the foregoing, it is thus evident that Congress has not adopted a
unanimous position on the matter of prohibition of indirect practice of optometry by
corporations, specifically on the hiring and employment of licensed optometrists by optical
corporations. It is clear that Congress left the resolution of such issue for judicial
determination, and it is therefore proper for this Court to resolve the issue.

Even in the United States, jurisprudence varies and there is a conflict of opinions
among the federal courts as to the right of a corporation or individual not himself licensed,
to hire and employ licensed optometrists (128 ALR 586).

Courts have distinguished between optometry as a learned profession in the category

of law and medicine, and optometry as a mechanical art. And, insofar as the courts regartd
optometry as merely a mechanical art, they have tended to find nothing objectionable in the
making and selling of eyeglasses, spectacles and lenses by corporations so long as the
patient is actually examined and prescribed for by qualified practitioners (House of $8.50
Eyeglasses, Inc. v. State Board of Optometry, 288 Ala 349, 261 So 2d 27; State ex. Rel.
Board of Optometry v. Sears Roebuck and Co., 102 Ariz 175, 427 Pd 126).

The primary purpose of the statute regulating the practice of optometry is to insure
that optometrical services are to be rendered by competent and licensed persons in order to
protect the health and physical welfare of the people from the dangers engendered by
unlicensed practice. Such purpose may be fully accomplished although the person
rendering the service is employed by a corporation (Silver v. Lansburgh and Brother, 72 App
DC 77, 11 F2d 518, 128 ALR 582; 61 Am Jur 2d 289).

Furthermore, it was ruled that the employment of a qualified optometrist by a

corporation is not against public policy (Georgia State Examiners v. Friedman’s Jewelers,
183 Ga 669, 189 SE 238). Unless prohibited by statutes, a corporation has all the
contractual rights that an individual has (State ex rel. McKittrick v. Gate City Optical Co., 339
Mo 427, 97 SW 2d 89) and it does not become the practice of medicine or optometry
because of the presence of a physician or optometrist (Dickson v. Flynn, 246 App Div 341,
286 NYS 225). The manufacturing, selling, trading and bartering of eyeglasses and
spectacles as articles of merchandise do not constitute the practice of optometry (State ex
rel. Brother v. Beck Jewelry Enterprises, Inc. 220 Ind. 276, 41 NE 2d 622, 141 ALR 876 [61
Am Jur 187]; Kindy Opticians, Inc. v. State Board of Examiners in Optometry, 1939, 291 Mich
152, 289 NW 112, 113; New Jersey State Bd. Of Optometrists v. S.S. Kresge Co., 113 NJL
287, 174 A 353).

Xxx

To accomplish the objective of the regulation, a state may provide by statute that
corporations cannot sell eyeglasses, spectacles, and lenses unless a duly licensed physician
or a duly qualified optometrist is in charge of, and in personal attendance at the place where
such articles are sold (Roschen v. Ward, 279 US 337, 73 L Ed 722, 49 S Ct 336). In such a
case, the patient’s primary and essential safeguard lies in the optometrist’s control of the
“treatment” by means of prescription and preliminary and final examination (Small and
Maine Board of Registration and Examination in Optometry, 293 A 2d 786).

86
 In analogy, it is noteworthy that private hospitals are maintained by corporations
incorporated for the purpose of furnishing medical and surgical treatment. In the course of
providing such treatments, these corporations employ physicians, surgeons and medical
practitioners, in the same way that in the course of manufacturing and selling eyeglasses,
eye frames and optical lenses, optical shops hire licensed optometrists to examine,
prescribe and dispense ophthalmic lenses. No one has ever charged that these corporations
are engaged in the practice of medicine. There is indeed no valid basis for treating
corporations engaged in the business of running optical shops differently. (Acebedo
Optical Company, Inc. v. Court of Appeals, 329 SCRA 314, 331-333, March 31,
2000, En Banc [Purisima])

136. What powers of the State are involved in the implementation of the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law (CARL)? Discuss.

Held: The implementation of the CARL is an exercise of the State’s police power and
the power of eminent domain. To the extent that the CARL prescribes retention limits to the
landowners, there is an exercise of police power for the regulation of private property in
accordance with the Constitution. But where, to carry out such regulation, the owners are
deprived of lands they own in excess of the maximum area allowed, there is also a taking
under the power of eminent domain. The taking contemplated is not a mere limitation of
the use of the land. What is required is the surrender of the title to and physical possession
of the said excess and all beneficial rights accruing to the owner in favor of the farmer
beneficiary. The Bill of Rights provides that “[n]o person shall be deprived of life, liberty or
property without due process of law.” The CARL was not intended to take away property
without due process of law. The exercise of the power of eminent domain requires that due
process be observed in the taking of private property. (Roxas & Co., Inc. v. Court of
Appeals, 321 SCRA 106, Dec. 17, 1999, En Banc [Puno])

The Power of Eminent Domain

137. What is Eminent Domain?

Held: 1. Eminent domain is the right or power of a sovereign state to appropriate

private property to particular uses to promote public welfare. It is an indispensable attribute
of sovereignty; a power grounded in the primary duty of government to serve the common
need and advance the general welfare. Thus, the right of eminent domain appertains to
every independent government without the necessity for constitutional recognition. The
provisions found in modern constitutions of civilized countries relating to the taking of
property for the public use do not by implication grant the power to the government, but
limit a power which would otherwise be without limit. Thus, our own Constitution provides
that “[p]rivate property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation.”
Furthermore, the due process and equal protection clauses act as additional safeguards
against the arbitrary exercise of this governmental power.

Since the exercise of the power of eminent domain affects an individual’s right to
private property, a constitutionally-protected right necessary for the preservation and
enhancement of personal dignity and intimately connected with the rights to life and liberty,
the need for its circumspect operation cannot be overemphasized. In City of Manila v.
Chinese Community of Manila we said:

The exercise of the right of eminent domain, whether directly by the State, or
by its authorized agents, is necessarily in derogation of private rights, and the rule in
that case is that the authority must be strictly construed. No species of property is
held by individuals with greater tenacity, and none is guarded by the Constitution
and the laws more sedulously, than the right to the freehold of inhabitants. When
the legislature interferes with that right, and, for greater public purposes,
appropriates the land of ah individual without his consent, the plain meaning of the
law should not be enlarged by doubt[ful] interpretation. (Bensley v. Mountainlake
Water Co., 13 Cal., 306 and cases cited [73 Am. Dec., 576])

The statutory power of taking property from the owner without his consent is one of
the most delicate exercise of governmental authority. It is to be watched with jealous
scrutiny. Important as the power may be to the government, the inviolable sanctity which
all free constitutions attach to the right of property of the citizens, constrains the strict
observance of the substantial provisions of the law which are prescribed as modes of the
exercise of the power, and to protect it from abuse x x x.

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 The power of eminent domain is essentially legislative in nature. It is firmly settled,
however, that such power may be validly delegated to local government units, other public
entities and public utilities, although the scope of this delegated legislative power is
necessarily narrower than that of the delegating authority and may only be exercised in
strict compliance with the terms of the delegating law. (Heirs of Alberto Suguitan v.
City of Mandaluyong, 328 SCRA 137, 144-146, March 14, 2000, 3 rd Div. [Gonzaga-
Reyes])

2. Eminent domain is a fundamental State power that is inseparable from

sovereignty. It is government’s right to appropriate, in the nature of a compulsory sale to
the State, private property for public use or purpose. Inherently possessed by the national
legislature, the power of eminent domain may be validly delegated to local governments,
other public entities and public utilities. For the taking of private property by the
government to be valid, the taking must be for public purpose and there must be just
compensation. (Moday v. Court of Appeals, 268 SCRA 586, February 20, 1997)

138. Discuss the nature of the right of eminent domain and the limitations thereof.

Held: The right of eminent domain is usually understood to be an ultimate right of

the sovereign power to appropriate any property within its territorial sovereignty for a public
purpose. Fundamental to the independent existence of a State, it requires no recognition by
the Constitution, whose provisions are taken as being merely confirmatory of its presence
and as being regulatory, at most, in the due exercise of the power. In the hands of the
legislature, the power is inherent, its scope matching that of taxation, even that of police
power itself, in many respects. It reaches to every form of property the State needs for
public use and, as an old case so puts it, all separate interests of individuals in property are
held under a tacit agreement or implied reservation vesting upon the sovereign the right to
resume the possession of the property whenever the public interest so requires it.

The ubiquitous character of eminent domain is manifest in the nature of the

expropriation proceedings. Expropriation proceedings are not adversarial in the
conventional sense, for the condemning authority is not required to assert any conflicting
interest in the property. Thus, by filing the action, the condemnor in effect merely serves
notice that it is taking title and possession of the property, and the defendant asserts title or
interest in the property, not to prove a right to possession, but to prove a right to
compensation for the taking.

Obviously, however, the power is not without its limits: first, the taking must be for
public use, and second, that just compensation must be given to the private owner of the
property. These twin proscriptions have their origin in the recognition of the necessity for
achieving balance between the State interests, on the one hand, and private rights, upon
the other hand, by effectively restraining the former and affording protection to the latter.
In determining “public use,” two approaches are utilized – the first is public employment or
the actual use by the public, and the second is public advantage or benefit. It is also useful
to view the matter as being subject to constant growth, which is to say that as society
advances, its demands upon the individual so increases, and each demand is a new use to
which the resources of the individual may be devoted. (Republic of the Philippines v.
The Hon. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 146587, July 2, 2002, 1st Div. [Vitug])

139. State some limitations on the exercise of the power of Eminent Domain.

Held: The limitations on the power of eminent domain are that the use must be
public, compensation must be made and due process of law must be observed. The
Supreme Court, taking cognizance of such issues as the adequacy of compensation,
necessity of the taking and the public use character or the purpose of the taking, has ruled
that the necessity of exercising eminent domain must be genuine and of a public character.
Government may not capriciously choose what private property should be taken. (Moday
v. Court of Appeals, 268 SCRA 586, February 20, 1997)

140. Discuss the expanded notion of “public use” in eminent domain proceedings.

Held: The City of Manila, acting through its legislative branch, has the express
power to acquire private lands in the city and subdivide these lands into home lots for sale
to bona fide tenants or occupants thereof, and to laborers and low-salaried employees of the
city.

That only a few could actually benefit from the expropriation of the property does not
diminish its public character. It is simply not possible to provide all at once land and shelter
for all who need them.

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 Corollary to the expanded notion of public use, expropriation is not anymore confined
to vast tracts of land and landed estates. It is therefore of no moment that the land sought
to be expropriated in this case is less than half a hectare only.

Through the years, the public use requirement in eminent domain has evolved into a
flexible concept, influenced by changing conditions. Public use now includes the broader
notion of indirect public benefit or advantage, including in particular, urban land reform and
housing. (Filstream International Incorporated v. CA, 284 SCRA 716, Jan. 23, 1998
[Francisco])

141. What is the meaning of “public use” in eminent domain proceedings? Illustrative
case.

Held: This Court holds that respondent (Philippine Export Processing Zone) has the
legal authority to expropriate the subject Lot 1406-B and that the same was for a valid
public purpose. In Sumulong v. Guerrero, this Court has ruled that,

The “public use” requirement for a valid exercise of the power of eminent
domain is a flexible and evolving concept influenced by changing conditions. In this
jurisdiction, the statutory and judicial trend has been summarized as follows:

This Court has ruled that the taking to be valid must be for public use.
There was a time when it was felt that a literal meaning should be attached to
such a requirement. Whatever project is undertaken must be for the public to
enjoy, as in the case of streets or parks. Otherwise, expropriation is not
allowable. It is not anymore. As long as the purpose of the taking is public,
then the power of eminent domain comes into play . . . It is accurate to state
then that at present whatever may be beneficially employed for the general
welfare satisfies the requirement of public use. (Heirs of Juancho Ardona v.
Reyes, 125 SCRA 220 [1983] at 234-235 quoting E. Fernando, the Constitution
of the Philippines 523-4 [2nd Ed. 1977])

The term “public use” has acquired a more comprehensive coverage. To the
literal import of the term signifying strict use or employment by the public has been
added the broader notion of indirect public benefit or advantage.

In Manosca v. Court of Appeals, this Court has also held that what ultimately
emerged is a concept of public use which is just as broad as “public welfare.”

Respondent PEZA expropriated the subject parcel of land pursuant to Proclamation

No. 1980 x x x issued by former President Ferdinand Marcos. Meanwhile, the power of
eminent domain of respondent is contained in its original charter, Presidential Decree No. 66
x x x.

Accordingly, subject Lot 1406-B was expropriated “for the construction . . . of

terminal facilities, structures and approaches thereto.” The authority is broad enough to
give the respondent substantial leeway in deciding for what public use the expropriated
property would be utilized. Pursuant to this broad authority, respondent leased a portion of
the lot to commercial banks while the rest was made a transportation terminal. Said public
purposes were even reaffirmed by Republic Act No. 7916, a law amending respondent
PEZA’s original charter x x x.

In Manila Railroad Co. v. Mitchel, this Court has ruled that in the exercise of eminent
domain, only as much land can be taken as is necessary for the legitimate purpose of the
condemnation. The term “necessary,” in this connection, does not mean absolutely
indispensable but requires only a reasonable necessity of the taking for the stated purpose,
growth and future needs of the enterprise. The respondent cannot attain a self-sustaining
and viable ECOZONE if inevitable needs in the expansion in the surrounding areas are
hampered by the mere refusal of the private landowners to part with their properties. The
purpose of creating an ECOZONE and other facilities is better served if respondent directly
owns the areas subject of the expansion program.

X x x The expropriation of Lot 1406-B for the purpose of being leased to banks and
for the construction of a terminal has the purpose of making banking and transportation
facilities easily accessible to the persons working at the industries located in PEZA. The
expropriation of adjacent areas therefore comes as a matter of necessity to bring life to the
purpose of the law. In such a manner, PEZA’s goal of being a major force in the economic

89
development of the country would be realized. Furthermore, this Court has already ruled
that:

X x x [T]he Legislature may directly determine the necessity for appropriating

private property for a particular improvement for public use, and it may select the
exact location of the improvement. In such a case, it is well-settled that the utility of
the proposed improvement, the existence of the public necessity for its construction,
the expediency of constructing it, the suitableness of the location selected, are all
questions exclusively for the legislature to determine, and the courts have no power
to interfere or to substitute their own views for those of the representatives of the
people.

In the absence of some constitutional or statutory provisions to the contrary,

the necessity and expediency of exercising the right of eminent domain are
questions essentially political and not judicial in their character. (City of Manila v.
Chinese Community of Manila, 40 Phil. 349 [1919])

Inasmuch as both Presidential Decree No. 66 and Republic Act No. 7916, bestow respondent
with authority to develop terminal facilities and banking centers, this Court will not question
the respondent’s lease of certain portions of the expropriated lot to banks, as well as the
construction of terminal facilities.

Petitioner contends that respondent is bound by the representations of its Chief Civil
Engineer when the latter testified before the trial court that the lot was to be devoted for the
construction of government offices. Anent this issue, suffice it to say that PEZA can vary the
purpose for which a condemned lot will be devoted to, provided that the same is for public
use. Petitioner cannot impose or dictate on the respondent what facilities to establish for as
long as the same are for public purpose. (Estate of Salud Jimenez v. PEZA, 349 SCRA
240, Jan. 16, 2001, 2nd Div. [De Leon])

142. Discuss the meaning of “just compensation” in eminent domain proceedings. Does it
include the payment of “interest” and, if so, how is it to be computed?

Held: 1. The constitutional limitation of “just compensation” is considered to be the

sum equivalent to the market value of the property, broadly described to be the price fixed
by the seller in open market in the usual and ordinary course of legal action and competition
or the fair value of the property as between one who receives, and one who desires to sell it,
fixed at the time of the actual taking by the government. Thus, if property is taken for
public use before compensation is deposited with the court having jurisdiction over the case,
the final compensation must include interests on its just value to be computed from the time
the property is taken to the time when compensation is actually paid or deposited with the
court. In fine, between the taking of the property and the actual payment, legal interests
accrue in order to place the owner in a position as good as (but not better than) the position
he was in before the taking occurred. (Republic of the Philippines v. The Hon. Court of
Appeals, G.R. No. 146587, July 2, 2002, 1st Div. [Vitug])

2. We have ruled that the concept of just compensation embraces not only the
correct determination of the amount to be paid to the owners of the land, but also the
payment of the land within a reasonable time from its taking. Without prompt payment,
compensation cannot be considered “just” inasmuch as the property owner is made to suffer
the consequences of being immediately deprived of his land while being made to wait for a
decade or more before actually receiving the amount necessary to cope with his loss.
Payment of just compensation should follow as a matter of right immediately after the order
of expropriation is issued. Any delay in payment must be counted from said order.
However, the delay to constitute a violation of due process must be unreasonable and
inexcusable; it must be deliberately done by a party in order to defeat the ends of justice.
(Estate of Salud Jimenez v. PEZA, 349 SCRA 240, Jan. 16, 2001, 2 nd Div. [De Leon])

143. The constitutionality of Sec. 92 of B.P. Blg. 881 (requiring radio and television station
owners and operators to give to the Comelec radio and television time free of charge)
was challenged on the ground, among others, that it violated the due process clause and
the eminent domain provision of the Constitution by taking airtime from radio and
television broadcasting stations without payment of just compensation. Petitioners
claim that the primary source of revenue of radio and television stations is the sale of
airtime to advertisers and that to require these stations to provide free airtime is to
authorize a taking which is not “a de minimis temporary limitation or restraint upon the
use of private property.” Will you sustain the challenge?

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 Held: All broadcasting, whether by radio or by television stations, is licensed by the
government. Airwave frequencies have to be allocated as there are more individuals who
want to broadcast than there are frequencies to assign. A franchise is thus a privilege
subject, among other things, to amendment by Congress in accordance with the
constitutional provision that “any such franchise or right granted x x x shall be subject to
amendment, alteration or repeal by the Congress when the common good so requires.” (Art.
XII, Sec. 11)

Indeed, provisions for Comelec Time have been made by amendment of the
franchises of radio and television broadcast stations and such provisions have not been
thought of as taking property without just compensation. Art. XII, Sec. 11 of the Constitution
authorizes the amendment of franchises for “the common good.” What better measure can
be conceived for the common good than one for free airtime for the benefit not only of
candidates but even more of the public, particularly the voters, so that they will be fully
informed of the issues in an election? “[I]t is the right of the viewers and listeners, not the
right of the broadcasters, which is paramount.”

Nor indeed can there be any constitutional objection to the requirement that
broadcast stations give free airtime. Even in the United States, there are responsible
scholars who believe that government controls on broadcast media can constitutionally be
instituted to ensure diversity of views and attention to public affairs to further the system of
free expression. For this purpose, broadcast stations may be required to give free airtime to
candidates in an election.

In truth, radio and television broadcasting companies, which are given franchises, do
not own the airwaves and frequencies through which they transmit broadcast signals and
images. They are merely given the temporary privilege of using them. Since a franchise is
a mere privilege, the exercise of the privilege may reasonably be burdened with the
performance by the grantee of some form of public service.

In the granting of the privilege to operate broadcast stations and thereafter

supervising radio and television stations, the State spends considerable public funds in
licensing and supervising such stations. It would be strange if it cannot even require the
licensees to render public service by giving free airtime.

The claim that petitioner would be losing P52,380,000.00 in unrealized revenue from
advertising is based on the assumption that airtime is “finished product” which, it is said,
become the property of the company, like oil produced from refining or similar natural
resources after undergoing a process for their production. As held in Red Lion Broadcasting
Co. v. F.C.C., which upheld the right of a party personally attacked to reply, “licenses to
broadcast do not confer ownership of designated frequencies, but only the temporary
privilege of using them.” Consequently, “a license permits broadcasting, but the licensee
has no constitutional right to be the one who holds the license or to monopolize a radio
frequency to the exclusion of his fellow citizens. There is nothing in the First Amendment
which prevents the government from requiring a licensee to share his frequency with others
and to conduct himself as a proxy or fiduciary with obligations to present those views and
voices which are representative of his community and which would otherwise, by necessity,
be barred from the airwaves.” As radio and television broadcast stations do not own the
airwaves, no private property is taken by the requirement that they provide airtime to the
Comelec. (TELEBAP, Inc. v. COMELEC, 289 SCRA 337, April 21, 1998 [Mendoza])

144. May eminent domain be barred by "res judicata" or "law of the case"?

Held: The principle of res judicata, which finds application in generally all cases and
proceedings, cannot bar the right of the State or its agents to expropriate private property.
The very nature of eminent domain, as an inherent power of the State, dictates that the
right to exercise the power be absolute and unfettered even by a prior judgment or res
judicata. The scope of eminent domain is plenary and, like police power, can “reach every
form of property which the State might need for public use.” All separate interests of
individuals in property are held of the government under this tacit agreement or implied
reservation. Notwithstanding the grant to individuals, the eminent domain, the highest and
most exact idea of property, remains in the government, or in the aggregate body of the
people in their sovereign capacity; and they have the right to resume the possession of the
property whenever the public interest requires it.” Thus, the State or its authorized agent
cannot be forever barred from exercising said right by reason alone of previous non-
compliance with any legal requirement.

While the principle of res judicata does not denigrate the right of the State to
exercise eminent domain, it does apply to specific issues decided in a previous case. For

91
example, a final judgment dismissing an expropriation suit on the ground that there was no
prior offer precludes another suit raising the same issue; it cannot, however, bar the State or
its agent from thereafter complying with this requirement, as prescribed by law, and
subsequently exercising its power of eminent domain over the same property.
(Municipality of Paranaque v. V.M. Realty Corporation, 292 SCRA 678, July 20,
1998 [Panganiban])

145. Discuss how expropriation may be initiated, and the two stages in expropriation.

Held: Expropriation may be initiated by court action or by legislation. In both

instances, just compensation is determined by the courts.

The expropriation of lands consists of two stages. As explained in Municipality of

Binan v. Garcia, reiterated in National Power Corp. v. Jocson:

The first is concerned with the determination of the authority of the plaintiff to
exercise the power of eminent domain and the propriety of its exercise in the context
of the facts involved in the suit. It ends with an order, if not dismissal of the action,
"of condemnation declaring that the plaintiff has a lawful right to take the property
sought to be condemned, for the public use or purpose declared in the complaint,
upon the payment of just compensation to be determined as of the date of the filing
of the complaint" x x x.

The second phase of the eminent domain action is concerned with the
determination by the court of “the just compensation for the property sought to be
taken.” This is done by the court with the assistance of not more than three (3)
commissioners x x x.

It is only upon the completion of these two stages that expropriation is said to have
been completed. (Republic v. Salem Investment Corporation, et. al., G.R. No.
137569, June 23, 2000, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

146. May the owner of the property expropriated still dispose of that property before the
payment of just compensation? When does title over the property expropriated pass to
the expropriator?

Held: 1. [I]t is only upon payment of just compensation that title over the property
passes to the government. Therefore, until the action for expropriation has been completed
and terminated, ownership over the property being expropriated remains with the registered
owner. Consequently, the latter can exercise all rights pertaining to an owner, including the
right to dispose of his property, subject to the power of the State ultimately to acquire it
through expropriation. (Republic v. Salem Investment Corporation, et. al., G.R. No.
137569, June 23, 2000, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

2. The De la Ramas make much of the fact that ownership of the land was
transferred to the government because the equitable and the beneficial title was already
acquired by it in 1983, leaving them with only the naked title. However, as this Court held in
Association of Small Landowners in the Phil., Inc. v. Secretary of Agrarian Reform:

The recognized rule, indeed, is that title to the property expropriated shall
pass from the owner to the expropriator only upon full payment of the just
compensation. Jurisprudence on this settled principle is consistent both here and in
other democratic jurisdictions. X x x
(Republic v. Salem Investment Corporation, et. al., G.R. No. 137569, June 23,
2000, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

147. Do the two (2) stages in expropriation apply only to judicial, and not to legislative,
expropriation?

Held: We see no point in distinguishing between judicial and legislative

expropriation as far as the two stages mentioned above are concerned. Both involve these
stages and in both the process is not completed until payment of just compensation is
made. (Republic v. Salem Investment Corporation, et. al., G.R. No. 137569, June
23, 2000, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

148. Is prior unsuccessful negotiation a condition precedent for the exercise of eminent
domain?

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 Held: Citing Iron and Steel Authority v. Court of Appeals, petitioner insists that
before eminent domain may be exercised by the state, there must be a showing of prior
unsuccessful negotiation with the owner of the property to be expropriated.

This contention is not correct. As pointed out by the Solicitor General the current
effective law on delegated authority to exercise the power of eminent domain is found in
Section 12, Book III of the Revised Administrative Code, which provides:

“SEC. 12. Power of Eminent Domain – The President shall determine when it
is necessary or advantageous to exercise the power of eminent domain in behalf of
the National Government, and direct the Solicitor General, whenever he deems the
action advisable, to institute expropriation proceedings in the proper court.”

The foregoing provision does not require prior unsuccessful negotiation as a condition
precedent for the exercise of eminent domain. In Iron and Steel Authority v. Court of
Appeals, the President chose to prescribe this condition as an additional requirement
instead. In the instant case, however, no such voluntary restriction was imposed. (SMI
Development Corporation v. Republic, 323 SCRA 862, Jan. 28, 2000, 3 rd Div.
[Panganiban])

149. When may the property owner be entitled to the return of the expropriated property
in eminent domain cases?

Held: 1. In insisting on the return of the expropriated property, respondents would

exhort on the pronouncement in Provincial Government of Sorsogon v. Vda. De Villaroya
where the unpaid landowners were allowed the alternative remedy of recovery of the
property there in question. It might be borne in mind that the case involved the municipal
government of Sorsogon, to which the power of eminent domain is not inherent, but merely
delegated and of limited application. The grant of the power of eminent domain to local
governments under Republic Act No. 7160 cannot be understood as being the pervasive and
all-encompassing power vested in the legislative branch of government. For local
governments to be able to wield the power, it must, by enabling law, be delegated to it by
the national legislature, but even then, this delegated power of eminent domain is not,
strictly speaking, a power of eminent, but only of inferior, domain or only as broad or
confined as the real authority would want it to be.

Thus, in Valdehueza v. Republic where the private landowners had remained unpaid
ten years after the termination of the expropriation proceedings, this Court ruled –

“The points in dispute are whether such payment can still be made and, if so,
in what amount. Said lots have been the subject of expropriation proceedings. By
final and executory judgment in said proceedings, they were condemned for public
use, as part of an airport, and ordered sold to the government. x x x It follows that
both by virtue of the judgment, long final, in the expropriation suit, as well as the
annotations upon their title certificates, plaintiffs are not entitled to recover
possession of their expropriated lots – which are still devoted to the public use for
which they were expropriated – but only to demand the fair market value of the
same.

Said relief may be granted under plaintiffs’ prayer for: ‘such other remedies,
which may be deemed just and equitable under the premises’.”

The Court proceeded to reiterate its pronouncement in Alfonso v. Pasay City where the
recovery of possession of property taken for public use prayed for by the unpaid landowner
was denied even while no requisite expropriation proceedings were first instituted. The
landowner was merely given the relief of recovering compensation for his property
computed at its market value at the time it was taken and appropriated by the State.

The judgment rendered by the Bulacan RTC in 1979 on the expropriation proceedings
provides not only for the payment of just compensation to herein respondents but likewise
adjudges the property condemned in favor of petitioner over which parties, as well as their
privies, are bound. Petitioner has occupied, utilized and, for all intents and purposes,
exercised dominion over the property pursuant to the judgment. The exercise of such rights
vested to it as the condemnee indeed has amounted to at least a partial compliance or
satisfaction of the 1979 judgment, thereby preempting any claim of bar by prescription on
grounds of non-execution. In arguing for the return of their property on the basis of non-
payment, respondents ignore the fact that the right of the expropriatory authority is far from
that of an unpaid seller in ordinary sales, to which the remedy of rescission might perhaps
apply. An in rem proceeding, condemnation acts upon the property. After condemnation,

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the paramount title is in the public under a new and independent title; thus, by giving notice
to all claimants to a disputed title, condemnation proceedings provide a judicial process for
securing better title against all the world than may be obtained by voluntary conveyance .
(Republic of the Philippines v. The Hon. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 146587, July 2,
2002, 1st Div. [Vitug])

2. Though the respondent has committed a misdeed to petitioner, we cannot,

however, grant the petitioner’s prayer for the return of the expropriated Lot No. 1406-B.
The Order of expropriation dated July 11, 1991, has long become final and executory.
Petitioner cited Provincial Government of Sorsogon v. Rosa E. Vda. De Villaroya to support
its contention that it is entitled to a return of the lot where this Court ruled that “under
ordinary circumstances, immediate return to the owners of the unpaid property is the
obvious remedy.” However, the said statement was not the ruling in that case. As in other
cases where there was no prompt payment by the government, this Court declared in
Sorsogon that “the Provincial Government of Sorsogon is expected to immediately pay as
directed. Should any further delay be encountered, the trial court is directed to seize any
patrimonial property or cash savings of the province in the amount necessary to implement
this decision.” However, this Court also stressed and declared in that case that “in cases
where land is taken for public use, public interest, however, must be considered.” (Estate
of Salud Jimenez v. PEZA, 349 SCRA 240, Jan. 16, 2001, 2 nd Div. [De Leon])

The Power of Taxation

150. Can taxes be subject to off-setting or compensation?

Held: Taxes cannot be subject to compensation for the simple reason that the
government and the taxpayer are not creditors and debtors of each other. There is a
material distinction between a tax and debt. Debts are due to the Government in its
corporate capacity, while taxes are due to the Government in its sovereign capacity. It must
be noted that a distinguishing feature of a tax is that it is compulsory rather than a matter of
bargain. Hence, a tax does not depend upon the consent of the taxpayer. If any taxpayer
can defer the payment of taxes by raising the defense that it still has a pending claim for
refund or credit, this would adversely affect the government revenue system. A taxpayer
cannot refuse to pay his taxes when they fall due simply because he has a claim against the
government or that the collection of a tax is contingent on the result of the lawsuit it filed
against the government. (Philex Mining Corporation v. Commissioner of Internal
Revenue, 294 SCRA 687, Aug. 28, 1998 [Romero])

151. Under Article VI, Section 28, paragraph 3 of the 1987 Constitution, "[C]haritable
institutions, churches and parsonages or convents appurtenant thereto, mosques, non-
profit cemeteries, and all lands, buildings, and improvements, actually, directly and
exclusively used for religious, charitable or educational purposes shall be exempt from
taxation." YMCA claims that the income earned by its building leased to private entities
and that of its parking space is likewise covered by said exemption. Resolve.

Held: The debates, interpellations and expressions of opinion of the framers of the
Constitution reveal their intent that which, in turn, may have guided the people in ratifying
the Charter. Such intent must be effectuated.

Accordingly, Justice Hilario G. Davide, Jr., a former constitutional commissioner, who

is now a member of this Court, stressed during the Concom debates that "x x x what is
exempted is not the institution itself x x x; those exempted from real estate taxes are lands,
buildings and improvements actually, directly and exclusively used for religious, charitable
or educational purposes. Father Joaquin G. Bernas, an eminent authority on the Constitution
and also a member of the Concom, adhered to the same view that the exemption created by
said provision pertained only to property taxes.

In his treatise on taxation, Mr. Justice Jose C. Vitug concurs, stating that "[t]he tax
exemption covers property taxes only." (Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. CA, 298
SCRA 83, Oct. 14, 1998 [Panganiban])

152. Under Article XIV, Section 4, paragraph 3 of the 1987 Constitution, "[A]ll revenues
and assets of non-stock, non-profit educational institutions used actually, directly, and
exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt from taxes and duties." YMCA
alleged that it "is a non-profit educational institution whose revenues and assets are
used actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes so it is exempt from
taxes on its properties and income."

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 Held: We reiterate that private respondent is exempt from the payment of property
tax, but not income tax on the rentals from its property. The bare allegation alone that it is
a non-stock, non-profit educational institution is insufficient to justify its exemption from the
payment of income tax.

[L]aws allowing tax exemption are construed strictissimi juris. Hence, for the YMCA
to be granted the exemption it claims under the abovecited provision, it must prove with
substantial evidence that (1) it falls under the classification non-stock, non-profit
educational institution; and (2) the income it seeks to be exempted from taxation is used
actually, directly, and exclusively for educational purposes. However, the Court notes that
not a scintilla of evidence was submitted by private respondent to prove that it met the said
requisites. (Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. CA, 298 SCRA 83, Oct. 14, 1998
[Panganiban])

153. Is the YMCA an educational institution within the purview of Article XIV, Section 4,
par. 3 of the Constitution?

Held: We rule that it is not. The term “educational institution” or “institution of

learning” has acquired a well-known technical meaning, of which the members of the
Constitutional Commission are deemed cognizant. Under the Education Act of 1982, such
term refers to schools. The school system is synonymous with formal education, which
“refers to the hierarchically structured and chronologically graded learnings organized and
provided by the formal school system and for which certification is required in order for the
learner to progress through the grades or move to the higher levels.” The Court has
examined the “Amended Articles of Incorporation” and “By-Laws” of the YMCA, but found
nothing in them that even hints that it is a school or an educational institution.

Furthermore, under the Education Act of 1982, even non-formal education is

understood to be school-based and “private auspices such as foundations and civic-spirited
organizations” are ruled out. It is settled that the term “educational institution,” when used
in laws granting tax exemptions, refers to a “x x x school seminary, college or educational
establishment x x x.” (84 CJS 566) Therefore, the private respondent cannot be deemed one
of the educational institutions covered by the constitutional provision under consideration.
(Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. CA, 298 SCRA 83, Oct. 14, 1998
[Panganiban])

154. May the PCGG validly commit to exempt from all forms of taxes the properties to be
retained by the Marcos heirs in a Compromise Agreement between the former and the
latter?

Held: The power to tax and to grant exemptions is vested in the Congress and, to a
certain extent, in the local legislative bodies. Section 28(4), Article VI of the Constitution,
specifically provides: “No law granting any tax exemption shall be passed without the
concurrence of a majority of all the members of the Congress.” The PCGG has absolutely no
power to grant tax exemptions, even under the cover of its authority to compromise ill-
gotten wealth cases.

Even granting that Congress enacts a law exempting the Marcoses from paying taxes
on their properties, such law will definitely not pass the test of the equal protection clause
under the Bill of Rights. Any special grant of tax exemption in favor only of the Marcos heirs
will constitute class legislation. It will also violate the constitutional rule that “taxation shall
be uniform and equitable.” (Chavez v. PCGG, 299 SCRA 744, Dec. 9, 1998
[Panganiban])

155. Discuss the purpose of tax treaties?

Held: The RP-US Tax Treaty is just one of a number of bilateral treaties which the
Philippines has entered into for the avoidance of double taxation. The purpose of these
international agreements is to reconcile the national fiscal legislations of the contracting
parties in order to help the taxpayer avoid simultaneous taxation in two different
jurisdictions. More precisely, the tax conventions are drafted with a view towards the
elimination of international juridical double taxation x x x. (Commissioner of Internal
Revenue v. S.C. Johnson and Son, Inc., 309 SCRA 87, 101-102, June 25, 1999, 3 rd
Div. [Gonzaga-Reyes])

156. What is “international juridical double taxation”?

Held: It is defined as the imposition of comparable taxes in two or more states on

the same taxpayer in respect of the same subject matter and for identical periods.

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(Commissioner of Internal Revenue v. S.C. Johnson and Son, Inc., 309 SCRA 87,
102, June 25, 1999)

157. What is the rationale for doing away with international juridical double taxation?
What are the methods resorted to by tax treaties to eliminate double taxation?

Held: The apparent rationale for doing away with double taxation is to encourage
the free flow of goods and services and the movement of capital, technology and persons
between countries, conditions deemed vital in creating robust and dynamic economies.
Foreign investments will only thrive in a fairly predictable and reasonable international
investment climate and the protection against double taxation is crucial in creating such a
climate.

Double taxation usually takes place when a person is resident of a contracting state
and derives income from, or owns capital in, the other contracting state and both states
impose tax on that income or capital. In order to eliminate double taxation, a tax treaty
resorts to several methods. First, it sets out the respective rights to tax of the state of
source or situs and of the state of residence with regard to certain classes of income or
capital. In some cases, an exclusive right to tax is conferred on one of the contracting
states; however, for other items of income or capital, both states are given the right to tax,
although the amount of tax that may be imposed by the state of source is limited.

The second method for the elimination of double taxation applies whenever the state
of source is given a full or limited right to tax together with the state of residence. In this
case, the treaties make it incumbent upon the state of residence to allow relief in order to
avoid double taxation. There are two methods of relief - the exemption method and the
credit method. In the exemption method, the income or capital which is taxable in the state
of source or situs is exempted in the state of residence, although in some instances it may
be taken into account in determining the rate of tax applicable to the taxpayer's remaining
income or capital. On the other hand, in the credit method, although the income or capital
which is taxed in the state of source is still taxable in the state of residence, the tax paid in
the former is credited against the tax levied in the latter. The basic difference between the
two methods is that in the exemption method, the focus is on the income or capital itself,
whereas the credit method focuses upon the tax. (Commissioner of Internal Revenue v.
S.C. Johnson and Son, Inc., 309 SCRA 87, 102-103, June 25, 1999)

158. What is the rationale for reducing the tax rate in negotiating tax treaties?

Held: In negotiating tax treaties, the underlying rationale for reducing the tax rate is
that the Philippines will give up a part of the tax in the expectation that the tax given up for
this particular investment is not taxed by the other country. (Commissioner of Internal
Revenue v. S.C. Johnson and Son, Inc., 309 SCRA 87, 103, June 25, 1999)

THE BILL OF RIGHTS

The Due Process Clause

159. Discuss the Due Process Clause. Distinguish substantive due process from
procedural due process.

Held: Section 1 of the Bill of Rights lays down what is known as the “due process
clause” of the Constitution.

In order to fall within the aegis of this provision, two conditions must concur, namely,
that there is a deprivation and that such deprivation is done without proper observance of
due process. When one speaks of due process of law, however, a distinction must be made
between matters of procedure and matters of substance. In essence, procedural due
process “refers to the method or manner by which the law is enforced,” while substantive
due process “requires that the law itself, not merely the procedures by which the law would
be enforced, is fair, reasonable, and just.” (Corona v. United Harbor Pilots Association
of the Phils., 283 SCRA 31, Dec. 12, 1997 [Romero])

160. Respondents United Harbor Pilots Association of the Philippines argue that due
process was not observed in the adoption of PPA-AO No. 04-92 which provides that: “(a)ll
existing regular appointments which have been previously issued by the Bureau of
Customs or the PPA shall remain valid up to 31 December 1992 only,” and “(a)ll
appointments to harbor pilot positions in all pilotage districts shall, henceforth, be only
for a term of one (1) year from date of effectivity subject to renewal or cancellation by

96
 the Philippine Ports Authority after conduct of a rigid evaluation of performance,”
allegedly because no hearing was conducted whereby “relevant government agencies”
and the harbor pilots themselves could ventilate their views. They also contended that
the sole and exclusive right to the exercise of harbor pilotage by pilots has become
vested and can only be “withdrawn or shortened” by observing the constitutional
mandate of due process of law.

Held: They are obviously referring to the procedural aspect of the enactment.
Fortunately, the Court has maintained a clear position in this regard, a stance it has stressed
in the recent case of Lumiqued v. Hon. Exevea, where it declared that “(a)s long as a party
was given the opportunity to defend his interests in due course, he cannot be said to have
been denied due process of law, for this opportunity to be heard is the very essence of due
process. Moreover, this constitutional mandate is deemed satisfied if a person is granted an
opportunity to seek reconsideration of the action or ruling complained of.”

In the case at bar, respondents questioned PPA-AO No. 04-92 no less than four times
before the matter was finally elevated to this Tribunal. Their arguments on this score,
however, failed to persuade. X x x

Neither does the fact that the pilots themselves were not consulted in any way taint
the validity of the administrative order. As a general rule, notice and hearing, as the
fundamental requirements of procedural due process, are essential only when an
administrative body exercises its quasi-judicial function. In the performance of its executive
or legislative functions, such as issuing rules and regulations, an administrative body need
not comply with the requirements of notice and hearing.

Upon the other hand, it is also contended that the sole and exclusive right to the
exercise of harbor pilotage by pilots is a settled issue. Respondents aver that said right has
become vested and can only be “withdrawn or shortened” by observing the constitutional
mandate of due process of law. Their argument has thus shifted from the procedural to one
of substance. It is here where PPA-AO No. 04-92 fails to meet the condition set by the
organic law.

Pilotage, just like other professions, may be practiced only by duly licensed
individuals. Licensure is “the granting of license especially to practice a profession.” It is
also “the system of granting licenses (as for professional practice) in accordance with
established standards.” A license is a right or permission granted by some competent
authority to carry on a business or do an act which, without such license, would be illegal.

Before harbor pilots can earn a license to practice their profession, they literally have
to pass through the proverbial eye of a needle by taking, not one but five examinations,
each followed by actual training and practice. X x x

Their license is granted in the form of an appointment which allows them to engage
in pilotage until they retire at the age of 70 years. This is a vested right. Under the terms of
PPA-AO No. 04-92, “[a]ll existing regular appointments which have been previously issued
by the Bureau of Customs or the PPA shall remain valid up to 31 December 1992 only,” and
“(a)ll appointments to harbor pilot positions in all pilotage districts shall, henceforth, be only
for a term of one (1) year from date of effectivity subject to renewal or cancellation by the
Authority after conduct of a rigid evaluation of performance.”

It is readily apparent that PPA-AO No. 04-92 unduly restricts the right of harbor pilots
to enjoy their profession before their compulsory retirement. In the past, they enjoyed a
measure of security knowing that after passing five examinations and undergoing years of
on-the-job training, they would have a license which they could use until their retirement,
unless sooner revoked by the PPA for mental or physical unfitness. Under the new issuance,
they have to contend with an annual cancellation of their license which can be temporary or
permanent depending on the outcome of their performance evaluation. Veteran pilots and
neophytes alike are suddenly confronted with one-year terms which ipso facto expire at the
end of that period. Renewal of their license is now dependent on a “rigid evaluation of
performance” which is conducted only after the license has already been cancelled. Hence,
the use of the term “renewal.” It is this pre-evaluation cancellation which primarily makes
PPA-AO No. 04-92 unreasonable and constitutionally infirm. In a real sense, it is a
deprivation of property without due process of law. (Corona v. United Harbor Pilots
Association of the Phils., 283 SCRA 31, December 12, 1997 [Romero])

161. Does the due process clause encompass the right to be assisted by counsel during
an administrative inquiry?

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 Held: The right to counsel, which cannot be waived unless the waiver is in writing
and in the presence of counsel, is a right afforded a suspect or an accused during custodial
investigation. It is not an absolute right and may, thus, be invoked or rejected in a criminal
proceeding and, with more reason, in an administrative inquiry. In the case at bar,
petitioners invoke the right of an accused in criminal proceedings to have competent and
independent counsel of his own choice. Lumiqued, however, was not accused of any crime
in the proceedings below. The investigation conducted by the committee x x x was for the
sole purpose of determining if he could be held administratively liable under the law for the
complaints filed against him. x x x As such, the hearing conducted by the investigating
committee was not part of a criminal prosecution. X x x

While investigations conducted by an administrative body may at times be akin to a

criminal proceeding, the fact remains that under existing laws, a party in an administrative
inquiry may or may not be assisted by counsel, irrespective of the nature of the charges and
of the respondent's capacity to represent himself, and no duty rests on such a body to
furnish the person being investigated with counsel. In an administrative proceeding x x x a
respondent x x x has the option of engaging the services of counsel or not. x x x Thus, the
right to counsel is not imperative in administrative investigations because such inquiries are
conducted merely to determine whether there are facts that merit disciplinary measures
against erring public officers and employees, with the purpose of maintaining the dignity of
government service.

The right to counsel is not indispensable to due process unless required by the
Constitution or the law. Lumiqued v. Exevea, 282 SCRA 125, Nov. 18, 1997
[Romero])

162. Discuss the “Void for Vagueness” Doctrine, and why is it repugnant to the
Constitution. Distinguish a “perfectly vague act” from “legislation couched in imprecise
language.”

Held: 1. Due process requires that the terms of a penal statute must be sufficiently
explicit to inform those who are subject to it what conduct on their part will render them
liable to its penalties. A criminal statute that “fails to give a person of ordinary intelligence
fair notice that his contemplated conduct is forbidden by the statute,” or is so indefinite that
“it encourages arbitrary and erratic arrests and convictions,” is void for vagueness. The
constitutional vice in a vague or indefinite statute is the injustice to the accused in placing
him on trial for an offense, the nature of which he is given no fair warning.

We reiterated these principles in People v. Nazario:

As a rule, a statute or act may be said to be vague when it lacks

comprehensible standards that men “of common intelligence must necessarily guess
at its meaning and differ as to its application.” It is repugnant to the Constitution in
two respects: (1) it violates due process for failure to accord persons, especially the
parties targeted by it, fair notice of the conduct to avoid; and (2) it leaves law
enforcers unbridled discretion in carrying out its provisions and become an arbitrary
flexing of the Government muscle.

We added, however, that:

X x x the act must be utterly vague on its face, that is to say, it cannot be
clarified by either a saving clause or by construction. Thus, in Coates v. City of
Cincinnati, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down an ordinance that had made it illegal
for “three or more persons to assemble on any sidewalk and there conduct
themselves in a manner annoying to persons passing by.” Clearly, the ordinance
imposed no standard at all “because one may never know in advance what annoys
some people but does not annoy others.”

Coates highlights what has been referred to as a “perfectly vague” act whose
obscurity is evident on its face. It is to be distinguished, however, from legislation
coached in imprecise language – but which nonetheless specifies a standard though
defectively phrased – in which case, it may be “saved” by proper construction. X x x
(People v. Dela Piedra, 350 SCRA 163, Jan. 24, 2001, 1 st Div. [Kapunan])

2. The doctrine has been formulated in various ways, but is commonly stated to the
effect that a statute establishing a criminal offense must define the offense with sufficient
definiteness that persons of ordinary intelligence can understand what conduct is prohibited
by the statute. It can only be invoked against that specie of legislation that is utterly vague
on its face, i.e., that which cannot be clarified either by a saving clause or by construction.

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 A statute or act may be said to be vague when it lacks comprehensible standards
that men of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning and differ in its
application. In such instance, the statute is repugnant to the Constitution in two (2) respects
– it violated due process for failure to accord persons, especially the parties targeted by it,
fair notice of what conduct to avoid; and, it leaves law enforcers unbridled discretion in
carrying out its provisions and becomes an arbitrary flexing of the Government muscle. But
the doctrine does not apply as against legislations that are merely couched in imprecise
language but which nonetheless specify a standard though defectively phrased; or to those
that are apparently ambiguous yet fairly applicable to certain types of activities. The first
may be “saved” by proper construction, while no challenge may be mounted as against the
second whenever directed against such activities. With more reason, the doctrine cannot be
invoked where the assailed statute is clear and free from ambiguity, as in this case.

The test in determining whether a criminal statute is void for uncertainty is whether
the language conveys a sufficiently definite warning as to the proscribed conduct when
measured by common understanding and practice. It must be stressed, however, that the
“vagueness” doctrine merely requires a reasonable degree of certainty for the statute to be
upheld – not absolute precision or mathematical exactitude, as petitioner seems to suggest.
Flexibility, rather than meticulous specificity, is permissible as long as the metes and bounds
of the statute are clearly delineated. An act will not be held invalid merely because it might
have been more explicit in its wordings or detailed in its provisions, especially where,
because of the nature of the act, it would be impossible to provide all the details in advance
as in all other statutes. (Joseph Ejercito Estrada v. Sandiganbayan [Third Division],
G.R. No. 148560, Nov. 19, 2001, En Banc [Bellosillo])

163. Does Article 13 (b) of the Labor Code defining “recruitment and placement” violate
the due process clause?

Held: In support of her submission that Article 13 (b) is void for vagueness,
appellant invokes People v. Panis, where this Court x x x “criticized” the definition of
“recruitment and placement” x x x.

Appellant further argues that the acts that constitute “recruitment and placement”
suffer from overbreadth since by merely “referring” a person for employment, a person may
be convicted of illegal recruitment.

These contentions cannot be sustained.

Appellant’s reliance on People v. Panis is misplaced. The issue in Panis was whether,
under the proviso of Article 13(b), the crime of illegal recruitment could be committed only
“whenever two or more persons are in any manner promised or offered any employment for
a fee.” The Court held in the negative x x x.

X x x The Court, in Panis, merely bemoaned the lack of records that would help shed
light on the meaning of the proviso. The absence of such records notwithstanding, the Court
was able to arrive at a reasonable interpretation of the proviso by applying principles in
criminal law and drawing from the language and intent of the law itself. Section 13(b),
therefore, is not a “perfectly vague act” whose obscurity is evident on its face. If at all, the
proviso therein is merely couched in imprecise language that was salvaged by proper
construction. It is not void for vagueness.

Xxx

That Section 13(b) encompasses what appellant apparently considers as customary

and harmless acts such as “labor or employment referral” (“referring” an applicant, for
employment to a prospective employer) does not render the law overbroad. Evidently,
appellant misapprehends concept of overbreadth.

A statute may be said to be overbroad where it operates to inhibit the exercise of

individual freedoms affirmatively guaranteed by the Constitution, such as the freedom of
speech or religion. A generally worded statute, when construed to punish conduct which
cannot be constitutionally punished is unconstitutionally vague to the extent that it fails to
give adequate warning of the boundary between the constitutionally permissible and the
constitutionally impermissible applications of the statute.

In Blo Umpar Adiong v. Commission on Elections, for instance, we struck down as

void for overbreadth provisions prohibiting the posting of election propaganda in any place –
including private vehicles – other than in the common poster areas sanctioned by the

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COMELEC. We held that the challenged provisions not only deprived the owner of the
vehicle the use of his property but also deprived the citizen of his right to free speech and
information. The prohibition in Adiong, therefore, was so broad that it covered even
constitutionally guaranteed rights and, hence, void for overbreadth. In the present case,
however, appellant did not even specify what constitutionally protected freedoms are
embraced by the definition of “recruitment and placement” that would render the same
constitutionally overbroad. (People v. Dela Piedra, 350 SCRA 163, Jan. 24, 2001, 1 st
Div. [Kapunan])

164. Is the Plunder Law unconstitutional for being vague?

Held: As it is written, the Plunder Law contains ascertainable standards and well-
defined parameters which would enable the accused to determine the nature of his
violation. Section 2 is sufficiently explicit in its description of the acts, conduct and
conditions required or forbidden, and prescribes the elements of the crime with reasonable
certainty and particularity. X x x

As long as the law affords some comprehensible guide or rule that would inform
those who are subject to it what conduct would render them liable to its penalties, its
validity would be sustained. It must sufficiently guide the judge in its application; the
counsel, in defending one charged with its violation; and more importantly, the accused, in
identifying the realm of the proscribed conduct. Indeed, it can be understood with little
difficulty that what the assailed statute punishes is the act of a public officer in amassing or
accumulating ill-gotten wealth of at least P50,000,000.00 through a series or combination of
acts enumerated in Sec. 1, par. (d), of the Plunder Law.

In fact, the amended Information itself closely tracks the language of the law,
indicating with reasonable certainty the various elements of the offense which petitioner is
alleged to have committed x x x.

We discern nothing in the foregoing that is vague or ambiguous – as there is

obviously none – that will confuse petitioner in his defense. Although subject to proof, these
factual assertions clearly show that the elements of the crime are easily understood and
provide adequate contrast between the innocent and the prohibited acts. Upon such
unequivocal assertions, petitioner is completely informed of the accusations against him as
to enable him to prepare for an intelligent defense.

Petitioner, however, bewails the failure of the law to provide for the statutory
definition of the terms “combination” and “series” in the key phrase “a combination or
series of overt or criminal acts” found in Sec. 1, par. (d), and Sec. 2, and the word “pattern”
in Sec. 4. These omissions, according to petitioner, render the Plunder Law unconstitutional
for being impermissibly vague and overbroad and deny him the right to be informed of the
nature and cause of the accusation against him, hence, violative of his fundamental right to
due process.

The rationalization seems to us to be pure sophistry. A statute is not rendered

uncertain and void merely because general terms are used therein, or because of the
employment of terms without defining them; much less do we have to define every word we
use. Besides, there is no positive constitutional or statutory command requiring the
legislature to define each and every word in an enactment. Congress is not restricted in the
form of expression of its will, and its inability to so define the words employed in a statute
will not necessarily result in the vagueness or ambiguity of the law so long as the legislative
will is clear, or at least, can be gathered from the whole act, which is distinctly expressed in
the Plunder Law.

Moreover, it is a well-settled principle of legal hermeneutics that words of a statute

will be interpreted in their natural, plain and ordinary acceptation and signification, unless it
is evident that the legislature intended a technical or special legal meaning to those words.
The intention of the lawmakers – who are, ordinarily, untrained philologists and
lexicographers – to use statutory phraseology in such a manner is always presumed. Thus,
Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary contains the following commonly accepted definition of
the words “combination” and “series.”

Combination – the result or product of combining; the act or process of

combining. To combine is to bring into such close relationship as to obscure
individual characters.

Series – a number of things or events of the same class coming one after
another in spatial and temporal succession.

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 That Congress intended the words “combination” and “series” to be understood in
their popular meanings is pristinely evident from the legislative deliberations on the bill
which eventually became RA 7080 or the Plunder Law x x x.

Xxx

Thus when the Plunder Law speaks of “combination,” it is referring to at least two (2)
acts falling under different categories or enumeration provided in Sec. 1, par. (d), e.g., raids
on the public treasury in Sec. 1, par. (d), subpar. (1), and fraudulent conveyance of assets
belonging to the National Government under Sec. 1, par. (d), subpar. (3).

On the other hand, to constitute a “series” there must be two (2) or more overt or
criminal acts falling under the same category of enumeration found in Sec. 1, par. (d), say,
misappropriation, malversation and raids on the public treasury, all of which fall under Sec.
1, par. (d), subpar. (1). Verily, had the legislature intended a technical or distinctive
meaning for “combination” and “series,” it would have taken greater pains in specifically
providing for it in the law.

As for “pattern,” we agree with the observations of the Sandiganbayan that this term
is sufficiently defined in Sec. 4, in relation to Sec. 1, par. (d), and Sec. 2 –

x x x under Sec. 1 (d) of the law, a ‘pattern’ consists of at least a

combination or series of overt or criminal acts enumerated in subsections
(1) to (6) of Sec. 1 (d). Secondly, pursuant to Sec. 2 of the law, the pattern of
overt or criminal acts is directed towards a common purpose or goal which is
to enable the public officer to amass, accumulate or acquire ill-gotten
wealth. And thirdly, there must either be an ‘overall unlawful scheme’ or
‘conspiracy’ to achieve said common goal. As commonly understood, the term
‘overall unlawful scheme’ indicates a ‘general plan of action or method’ which the
principal accused and public officer and others conniving with him follow to achieve
the aforesaid common goal. In the alternative, if there is no such overall scheme or
where the schemes or methods used by multiple accused vary, the overt or criminal
acts must form part of a conspiracy to attain a common goal.

Xxx

Hence, it cannot plausibly be contended that the law does not give a fair warning and
sufficient notice of what it seeks to penalize. Under the circumstances, petitioner’s reliance
on the “void-for-vagueness” doctrine is manifestly misplaced.

Xxx

Moreover, we agree with, hence we adopt, the observations of Mr. Justice Vicente V.
Mendoza during the deliberations of the Court that the allegations that the Plunder Law is
vague and overbroad do not justify a facial review of its validity –

The void-for-vagueness doctrine states that “a statute which either forbids or

requires the doing of an act in terms so vague that men of common intelligence must
necessarily guess at its meaning and differ as to its application violates the first
essential of due process of law.” (Connally v. General Constr. Co., 269 U.S. 385, 391,
70 L. Ed. 328 [1926] cited in Ermita-Malate Hotel and Motel Operators Ass’n. v. City
Mayor, 20 SCRA 849, 867 [1967]) The overbreadth doctrine, on the other hand,
decrees that “a governmental purpose may not be achieved by means which sweep
unnecessarily broadly and thereby invade the area of protected freedoms.” (NAACP
v. Alabama, 377 U.S. 288, 307, 12, 2 L. Ed 325, 338 [1958]; Shelton v. Tucker, 364
U.S. 479, 5 L. Ed. 2d 231 [1960])

A facial challenge is allowed to be made to a vague statute and to one which

is overbroad because of possible “chilling effect” upon protected speech. The theory
is that “[w]hen statutes regulate or proscribe speech and no readily apparent
construction suggests itself as a vehicle for rehabilitating the statutes in a single
prosecution, the transcendent value to all society of constitutionally protected
expression is deemed to justify allowing attacks on overly broad statutes with no
requirement that the person making the attack demonstrate that his own conduct
could not be regulated by a statute drawn with narrow specificity.” (Gooding v.
Wilson, 405 U.S. 518, 521, 31 L. Ed. 2d 408, 413 [1972] [internal quotation marks
omitted]) The possible harm to society in permitting some unprotected speed to go
unpunished is outweighed by the possibility that the protected speech of others may

101
be deterred and perceived grievances left to fester because of possible inhibitory
effects of overly broad statutes.

This rationale does not apply to penal statutes. Criminal statutes have
general in terrorem effect resulting from their very existence, and, if facial challenge
is allowed for this reason alone, the State may well be prevented from enacting laws
against socially harmful conduct. In the area of criminal law, the law cannot take
chances as in the area of free speech.

The overbreadth and vagueness doctrine then have special application only to
free speech cases. They are inapt for testing the validity of penal statutes. As the
U.S. Supreme Court put it, in an opinion by Chief Justice Rehnquist, “we have not
recognized an ‘overbreadth’ doctrine outside the limited context of the First
Amendment.” In Broadwick v. Oklahoma (413 U.S. 601, 612-613, 37 L Ed. 2d 830,
840-841 [1973]), the Court ruled that “claims of facial overbreadth have been
entertained in cases involving statutes which, by their terms, seek to regulate only
spoken words” and, again, that “overbreadth claims, if entertained at all, have been
curtailed when invoked against ordinary criminal laws that are sought to be applied
to protected conduct.” For this reason, it has been held that “a facial challenge to a
legislative act is the most difficult challenge to mount successfully, since the
challenger must establish that no set of circumstances exists under which the Act
would be valid.” (United States v. Salerno, supra.) As for the vagueness doctrine, it is
said that a litigant may challenge a statute on its face only if it is vague in all its
possible applications. “A plaintiff who engages in some conduct that is clearly
proscribed cannot complain of the vagueness of the law as applied to the conduct of
others.” (Village of Hoffman Estates v. Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S. 489,
494-95, 71 L Ed. 2d 362, 369 [1982])

In sum, the doctrines of strict scrutiny, overbreadth, and vagueness are

analytical tools developed for testing “on their faces” statutes in free speech cases
or, as they are called in American law, First Amendment cases. They cannot be
made to do service when what is involved is a criminal statute. With respect to such
statute, the established rule is that “one to whom application of a statute is
constitutional will not be heard to attack the statute on the ground that impliedly it
might also be taken as applying to other persons or other situations in which its
application might be unconstitutional.” (United States v. Raines, 362 U.S. 17, 21, 4 L.
Ed. 2d 524, 529 [1960]. The paradigmatic case is Yazoo & Mississippi Valley RR. v.
Jackson Vinegar Co., 226 U.S. 217, 57 l. Ed. 193 [1912]) As has been pointed out,
“vagueness challenges in the First Amendment context, like overbreadth challenges
typically produce facial invalidation, while statutes found to be vague as a matter of
due process typically are invalidated [only] ‘as applied’ to a particular defendant.”
(G. Gunther & K. Sullivan, Constitutional Law 1299 [2001]) Consequently, there is no
basis for petitioner’s claim that this Court review the Anti-Plunder Law on its face and
in its entirety.

Indeed, “on its face” invalidation of statutes results in striking them down
entirely on the ground that they might be applied to parties not before the Court
whose activities are constitutionally protected (Id. at 1328). It constitutes a
departure from the case and controversy requirement of the Constitution and permits
decisions to be made without concrete factual settings and in sterile abstract
contexts (Constitution, Art. VIII, Sections 1 and 5. Compare Angara v. Electoral
Commission, 63 Phil. 139, 158 [1936]). But, as the U.S. Supreme Court pointed out in
Younger v. Harris (401 U.S. 37, 52-53, 27 L. Ed. 2d 669, 680 [1971]; others omitted.)

[T]he task of analyzing a proposed statute, pinpointing its deficiencies,

and requiring correction of these deficiencies before the statute is put into
effect, is rarely if ever an appropriate task for the judiciary. The combination
of the relative remoteness of the controversy, the impact on the legislative
process of the relief sought, and above all the speculative and amorphous
nature of the required line-by-line analysis of detailed statutes, x x x ordinarily
results in a kind of case that is wholly unsatisfactory for deciding
constitutional questions, whichever way they might be decided.

For these reasons, “on its face” invalidation of statutes has been described as
“manifestly strong medicine,” to be employed “sparingly and only as a last resort,”
(Broadwick v. Oklahoma, 413 U.S. at 613, 37 L.Ed.2d at 841; National Endowment for
the Arts v. Finley, 524 U.S. 569, 580 [1998]) and is generally disfavored (FW/PBS, Inc.
v. City of Dallas, 493 U.S. 223, 107 L.Ed.2d 603 [1990]; Cruz v. Secretary of
Environment and Natural Resources, G.R. No. 135385, 6 December 2000 [Mendoza,

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 J., Separate Opinion]). In determining the constitutionality of a statute, therefore, its
provisions which are alleged to have been violated in a case must be examined in the
light of the conduct with which the defendant is charged (United States v. National
Dairy Prod. Corp., 372 U.S. 29, 32-33, 9 L.Ed.2d 561, 565-6 [1963])

In light of the foregoing disquisition, it is evident that the purported ambiguity of the
Plunder Law, so tenaciously claimed and argued at length by petitioner, is more imagined
than real. Ambiguity, where none exists, cannot be created by dissecting parts and words in
the statute to furnish support to critics who cavil at the want of scientific precision in the
law. Every provision of the law should be construed in relation and with reference to every
other part. To be sure, it will take more than nitpicking to overturn the well-entrenched
presumption of constitutionality and validity of the Plunder Law. A fortiori, petitioner cannot
feign ignorance of what the Plunder Law is all about. Being one of the Senators who voted
for its passage, petitioner must be aware that the law was extensively deliberated upon by
the Senate and its appropriate committees by reason of which he even registered his
affirmative vote with full knowledge of its legal implications and sound constitutional
anchorage. (Joseph Ejercito Estrada v. Sandiganbayan [Third Division], G.R. No.
148560, Nov. 19, 2001, En Banc [Bellosillo])

165. Does an extraditee have the right to notice and hearing during the evaluation stage
of an extradition proceeding?

Held: Considering that in the case at bar, the extradition proceeding is only at its
evaluation stage, the nature of the right being claimed by the private respondent is
nebulous and the degree of prejudice he will allegedly suffer is weak, we accord greater
weight to the interests espoused by the government thru the petitioner Secretary of Justice.
Xxx

In tilting the balance in favor of the interests of the State, the Court stresses that it is
not ruling that the private respondent has no right to due process at all throughout the
length and breadth of the extradition proceedings. Procedural due process requires a
determination of what process is due, when it is due, and the degree of what is due. Stated
otherwise, a prior determination should be made as to whether procedural protections are
at all due and when they are due, which in turn depends on the extent to which an
individual will be "condemned to suffer grievous loss." We have explained why an
extraditee has no right to notice and hearing during the evaluation stage of the extradition
process. As aforesaid, P.D. No. 1069 which implements the RP-US Extradition Treaty affords
an extraditee sufficient opportunity to meet the evidence against him once the petition is
filed in court. The time for the extraditee to know the basis of the request for his extradition
is merely moved to the filing in court of the formal petition for extradition. The extraditee's
right to know is momentarily withheld during the evaluation stage of the extradition process
to accommodate the more compelling interest of the State to prevent escape of potential
extraditees which can be precipitated by premature information of the basis of the request
for his extradition. No less compelling at that stage of the extradition proceedings is the
need to be more deferential to the judgment of a co-equal branch of the government, the
Executive, which has been endowed by our Constitution with greater power over matters
involving our foreign relations. Needless to state, this balance of interests is not a static but
a moving balance which can be adjusted as the extradition process moves from the
administrative stage to the judicial stage and to the execution stage depending on factors
that will come into play. In sum, we rule that the temporary hold on private respondent's
privilege of notice and hearing is a soft restraint on his right to due process which will not
deprive him of fundamental fairness should he decide to resist the request for his extradition
to the United States. There is no denial of due process as long as fundamental fairness is
assured a party. (Secretary of Justice v. Hon. Ralph C. Lantion, G.R. No. 139465,
Oct. 17, 2000, En Banc [Puno])

166. Will Mark Jimenez’s detention prior to the conclusion of the extradition proceedings
not amount to a violation of his right to due process?

Held: Contrary to his contention, his detention prior to the conclusion of the
extradition proceedings does not amount to a violation of his right to due process. We
iterate the familiar doctrine that the essence of due process is the opportunity to be heard
but, at the same time, point out that the doctrine does not always call for a prior opportunity
to be heard. Where the circumstances – such as those present in an extradition case – call
for it, a subsequent opportunity to be heard is enough. In the present case, respondent will
be given full opportunity to be heard subsequently, when the extradition court hears the
Petition for Extradition. Hence, there is no violation of his right to due process and
fundamental fairness.

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 Contrary to the contention of Jimenez, we find no arbitrariness, either, in the
immediate deprivation of his liberty prior to his being heard. That his arrest and detention
will not be arbitrary is sufficiently ensured by (1) the DOJ’s filing in court the Petition with its
supporting documents after a determination that the extradition request meets the
requirements of the law and the relevant treaty; (2) the extradition judge’s independent
prima facie determination that his arrest will best serve the ends of justice before the
issuance of a warrant for his arrest; and (3) his opportunity, once he is under the court’s
custody, to apply for bail as an exception to the no-initial-bail rule.

It is also worth noting that before the US government requested the extradition of
respondent, proceedings had already been conducted in that country. But because he left
the jurisdiction of the requesting state before those proceedings could be completed, it was
hindered from continuing with the due processes prescribed under its laws. His invocation
of due process now had thus become hollow. He already had that opportunity in the
requesting state; yet, instead of taking it, he ran away.

In this light, would it be proper and just for the government to increase the risk of
violating its treaty obligations in order to accord Respondent Jimenez his personal liberty in
the span of time that it takes to resolve the Petition for Extradition? His supposed
immediate deprivation of liberty without due process that he had previously shunned pales
against the government’s interest in fulfilling its Extradition Treaty obligations and in
cooperating with the world community in the suppression of crime. Indeed, “[c]onstitutional
liberties do not exist in a vacuum; the due process rights accorded to individuals must be
carefully balanced against exigent and palpable government interest.”

Too, we cannot allow our country to be a haven for fugitives, cowards and weaklings
who, instead of facing the consequences of their actions, choose to run and hide. Hence, it
would not be good policy to increase the risk of violating our treaty obligations if, through
overprotection or excessively liberal treatment, persons sought to be extradited are able to
evade arrest or escape from our custody. In the absence of any provision – in the
Constitution, the law or the treaty – expressly guaranteeing the right to bail in extradition
proceedings, adopting the practice of not granting them bail, as a general rule, would be a
step towards deterring fugitives from coming to the Philippines to hide from or evade their
prosecutors.

The denial of bail as a matter of course in extradition cases falls into place with and
gives life to Article 14 (It states: “If the person sought consents in writing to surrender to the
Requesting State, the Requested State may surrender the person as expeditiously as
possible without further proceedings.”) of the Treaty, since this practice would encourage
the accused to voluntarily surrender to the requesting state to cut short their detention
here. Likewise, their detention pending the resolution of extradition proceedings would fall
into place with the emphasis of the Extradition Law on the summary nature of extradition
cases and the need for their speedy disposition. (Government of the United States of
America v. Hon. Guillermo Purganan, G.R. No. 148571, Sept. 24, 2002, En Banc
[Panganiban])

The Equal Protection Clause

167. Explain and discuss the equal protection of the law clause.

Held: 1. The equal protection of the law is embraced in the concept of due process,
as every unfair discrimination offends the requirements of justice and fair play. It has
nonetheless been embodied in a separate clause in Article III, Sec. 1, of the Constitution to
provide for a more specific guaranty against any form of undue favoritism or hostility from
the government. Arbitrariness in general may be challenged on the basis of the due process
clause. But if the particular act assailed partakes of an unwarranted partiality or prejudice,
the sharper weapon to cut it down is the equal protection clause.

According to a long line of decisions, equal protection simply requires that all persons
or things similarly situated should be treated alike, both as to rights conferred and
responsibilities imposed. Similar subjects, in other words, should not be treated differently,
so as to give undue favor to some and unjustly discriminate against others.

The equal protection clause does not require the universal application of the laws on
all persons or things without distinction. This might in fact sometimes result in unequal
protection, as where, for example, a law prohibiting mature books to all persons, regardless
of age, would benefit the morals of the youth but violate the liberty of adults. What the
clause requires is equality among equals as determined according to a valid classification.

104
By classification is meant the grouping of persons or things similar to each other in certain
particulars and different from all others in these same particulars. (Philippine Judges
Association v. Prado, 227 SCRA 703, 711-712, Nov. 11, 1993, En Banc [Cruz])

2. The equal protection clause exists to prevent undue favor or privilege. It is

intended to eliminate discrimination and oppression based on inequality. Recognizing the
existence of real difference among men, the equal protection clause does not demand
absolute equality. It merely requires that all persons shall be treated alike, under like
circumstances and conditions both as to the privileges conferred and liabilities enforced.
Thus, the equal protection clause does not absolutely forbid classifications x x x. If the
classification is based on real and substantial differences; is germane to the purpose of the
law; applies to all members of the same class; and applies to current as well as future
conditions, the classification may not be impugned as violating the Constitution's equal
protection guarantee. A distinction based on real and reasonable considerations related to a
proper legislative purpose x x x is neither unreasonable, capricious nor unfounded.
(Himagan v. People, 237 SCRA 538, Oct. 7, 1994, En Banc [Kapunan])

168. Congress enacted R.A. No. 8189 which provides, in Section 44 thereof, that "No
Election Officer shall hold office in a particular city or municipality for more than four (4)
years. Any election officer who, either at the time of the approval of this Act or
subsequent thereto, has served for at least four (4) years in a particular city or
municipality shall automatically be reassigned by the Commission to a new station
outside the original congressional district." Petitioners, who are City and Municipal
Election Officers, theorize that Section 44 of RA 8189 is violative of the "equal protection
clause" of the 1987 Constitution because it singles out the City and Municipal Election
Officers of the COMELEC as prohibited from holding office in the same city or
municipality for more than four (4) years. They maintain that there is no substantial
distinction between them and other COMELEC officials, and therefore, there is no valid
classification to justify the objective of the provision of law under attack. Resolve.

Held: The Court is not persuaded by petitioners' arguments. The "equal protection
clause" of the 1987 Constitution permits a valid classification under the following conditions:

1) The classification must rest on substantial distinction;

2) The classification must be germane to the purpose of the law;
3) The classification must not be limited to existing conditions only; and
4) The classification must apply equally to all members of the same class.

After a careful study, the ineluctable conclusion is that the classification under
Section 44 of RA 8189 satisfies the aforestated requirements.

The singling out of election officers in order to "ensure the impartiality of election
officials by preventing them from developing familiarity with the people of their place of
assignment" does not violate the equal protection clause of the Constitution.

In Lutz v. Araneta, it was held that "the legislature is not required by the Constitution
to adhere to a policy of 'all or none'". This is so for underinclusiveness is not an argument
against a valid classification. It may be true that all other officers of COMELEC referred to by
petitioners are exposed to the same evils sought to be addressed by the statute. However,
in this case, it can be discerned that the legislature thought the noble purpose of the law
would be sufficiently served by breaking an important link in the chain of corruption than by
breaking up each and every link thereof. Verily, under Section 3(n) of RA 8189, election
officers are the highest officials or authorized representatives of the COMELEC in a city or
municipality. It is safe to say that without the complicity of such officials, large-scale
anomalies in the registration of voters can hardly be carried out. (Agripino A. De Guzman,
Jr., et al. v. COMELEC (G.R. No. 129118, July 19, 2000, en Banc [Purisima])

169. Are there substantial distinctions between print media and broadcast media to justify
the requirement for the latter to give free airtime to be used by the Comelec to inform
the public of qualifications and program of government of candidates and political
parties during the campaign period? Discuss.

Held: There are important differences in the characteristics of the two media which
justify their differential treatment for free speech purposes. Because of the physical
limitations of the broadcast spectrum, the government must, of necessity, allocate
broadcast frequencies to those wishing to use them. There is no similar justification for
government allocation and regulation of the print media.

105
 In the allocation of limited resources, relevant conditions may validly be imposed on
the grantees or licensees. The reason for this is that the government spends public funds
for the allocation and regulation of the broadcast industry, which it does not do in the case
of print media. To require radio and television broadcast industry to provide free airtime for
the Comelec Time is a fair exchange for what the industry gets.

From another point of view, the SC has also held that because of the unique and
pervasive influence of the broadcast media, “[n]ecessarily x x x the freedom of television
and radio broadcasting is somewhat lesser in scope than the freedom accorded to
newspaper and print media.” (TELEBAP, Inc. v. COMELEC, 289 SCRA 337, April 21,
1998 [Mendoza])

170. Does the death penalty law (R.A. No. 7659) violate the equal protection clause
considering that, in effect, it punishes only people who are poor, uneducated, and
jobless?

Held: R.A. No. 7659 specifically provides that “[T]he death penalty shall be imposed
if the crime of rape is committed x x x when the victim is a religious or a child below seven
(7) years old.” Apparently, the death penalty law makes no distinction. It applies to all
persons and to all classes of persons – rich or poor, educated or uneducated, religious or
non-religious. No particular person or classes of persons are identified by the law against
whom the death penalty shall be exclusively imposed. The law punishes with death a
person who shall commit rape against a child below seven years of age. Thus, the
perpetration of rape against a 5-year old girl does not absolve or exempt an accused from
the imposition of the death penalty by the fact that he is poor, uneducated, jobless, and
lacks catechetical instruction. To hold otherwise will not eliminate but promote inequalities.

In Cecilleville Realty and Service Corporation v. CA, the SC clarified that compassion
for the poor is an imperative of every humane society but only when the recipient is not a
rascal claiming an undeserved privilege. (People v. Jimmy Mijano y Tamora, G.R. No.
129112, July 23, 1999, En Banc [Per Curiam])

171. The International School Alliance of Educators (ISAE) questioned the point-of-hire
classification employed by International School, Inc. to justify distinction in salary rates
between foreign-hires and local-hires, i.e., salary rates of foreign-hires are higher by 25%
than their local counterparts, as discriminatory and, therefore, violates the equal
protection clause. The International School contended that this is necessary in order to
entice foreign-hires to leave their domicile and work here. Resolve.

Held: That public policy abhors inequality and discrimination is beyond contention.
Our Constitution and laws reflect the policy against these evils. X x x

International law, which springs from general principles of law, likewise proscribes
discrimination x x x. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention against Discrimination in Education, the
Convention (No. 111) Concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation -
all embody the general principle against discrimination, the very antithesis of fairness and
justice. The Philippines, through its Constitution, has incorporated this principle as part of its
national laws.

[I]t would be an affront to both the spirit and letter of these provisions if the State, in
spite of its primordial obligation to promote and ensure equal employment opportunities,
closes its eyes to unequal and discriminatory terms and conditions of employment x x x.

Discrimination, particularly in terms of wages, is frowned upon by the Labor Code.

Article 135, for example, prohibits and penalizes the payment of lesser compensation to a
female employee as against a male employee for work of equal value. Article 248 declares
it an unfair labor practice for an employer to discriminate in regards to wages in order to
encourage or discourage membership in any labor organization. X x x

The foregoing provisions impregnably institutionalize in this jurisdiction the long

honored legal truism of “Equal pay for equal work.” Persons who work with substantially
equal qualifications, skill, effort and responsibility, under similar conditions, should be paid
similar salaries. This rule applies to the School (International School, Inc.), its "international
character" notwithstanding.

The School contends that petitioner has not adduced evidence that local-hires
perform work equal to that of foreign-hires. The Court finds this argument a little cavalier. If

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an employer accords employees the same position and rank, the presumption is that these
employees perform equal work. This presumption is borne by logic and human experience.
If the employer pays one employee less than the rest, it is not for that employee to explain
why he receives less or why the others receive more. That would be adding insult to injury.
The employer has discriminated against that employee; it is for the employer to explain why
the employee is treated unfairly.

The employer in this case failed to discharge this burden. There is no evidence here
that foreign-hires perform 25% more efficiently or effectively than the local-hires. Both
groups have similar functions and responsibilities, which they perform under similar working
conditions.

The School cannot invoke the need to entice foreign-hires to leave their domicile to
rationalize the distinction in salary rates without violating the principle of equal work for
equal pay.

Xxx

While we recognize the need of the School to attract foreign-hires, salaries should not
be used as an enticement to the prejudice of local-hires. The local-hires perform the same
services as foreign-hires and they ought to be paid the same salaries as the latter. For the
same reason, the "dislocation factor" and the foreign-hires' limited tenure also cannot serve
as valid bases for the distinction in salary rates. The dislocation factor and limited tenure
affecting foreign-hires are adequately compensated by certain benefits accorded them
which are not enjoyed by local-hires, such as housing, transportation, shipping costs, taxes
and home leave travel allowances.

The Constitution enjoins the State to “protect the rights of workers and promote their
welfare”, “to afford labor full protection.” The State, therefore, has the right and duty to
regulate the relations between labor and capital. These relations are not merely contractual
but are so impressed with public interest that labor contracts, collective bargaining
agreements included, must yield to the common good. Should such contracts contain
stipulations that are contrary to public policy, courts will not hesitate to strike down these
stipulations.

In this case, we find the point-of-hire classification employed by respondent School to

justify the distinction in the salary rates of foreign-hires and local-hires to be an invalid
classification. There is no reasonable distinction between the services rendered by foreign-
hires and local-hires. The practice of the School of according higher salaries to foreign-hires
contravenes public policy and, certainly, does not deserve the sympathy of this Court.
(International School Alliance of Educators (ISAE) v. Hon. Leonardo A.
Quisumbing, G.R. No. 128845, June 1, 2000, 1st Div. [Kapunan])

172. Accused-appellant Romeo G. Jalosjos filed a motion before the Court asking that he
be allowed to fully discharge the duties of a Congressman, including attendance at
legislative sessions and committee meetings despite his having been convicted in the
first instance of a non-bailable offense. Does being an elective official result in a
substantial distinction that allows different treatment? Is being a Congressman a
substantial differentiation which removes the accused-appellant as a prisoner from the
same class as all persons validly confined under law?

Held: In the ultimate analysis, the issue before us boils down to a question of
constitutional equal protection.

Xxx

The performance of legitimate and even essential duties by public officers has never
been an excuse to free a person validly in prison. The duties imposed by the “mandate of
the people” are multifarious. The accused-appellant asserts that the duty to legislate ranks
highest in the hierarchy of government. The accused-appellant is only one of 250 members
of the House of Representatives, not to mention the 24 members of the Senate, charged
with the duties of legislation. Congress continues to function well in the physical absence of
one or a few of its members. Depending on the exigency of Government that has to be
addressed, the President or the Supreme Court can also be deemed the highest for that
particular duty. The importance of a function depends on the need for its exercise. The
duty of a mother to nurse her infant is most compelling under the law of nature. A doctor
with unique skills has the duty to save the lives of those with a particular affliction. An
elective governor has to serve provincial constituents. A police officer must maintain peace

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and order. Never had the call of a particular duty lifted a prisoner into a different
classification from those others who are validly restrained by law.

A strict scrutiny of classifications is essential lest wittingly or otherwise, insidious

discriminations are made in favor of or against groups or types of individuals.

The Court cannot validate badges of inequality. The necessities imposed by public
welfare may justify exercise of government authority to regulate even if thereby certain
groups may plausibly assert that their interests are disregarded.

We, therefore, find that election to the position of Congressman is not a reasonable
classification in criminal law enforcement. The functions and duties of the office are not
substantial distinctions which lift him from the class of prisoners interrupted in their freedom
and restricted in liberty of movement. Lawful arrest and confinement are germane to the
purposes of the law and apply to all those belonging to the same class.

Xxx

It can be seen from the foregoing that incarceration, by its nature, changes an
individual’s status in society. Prison officials have the difficult and often thankless job of
preserving the security in a potentially explosive setting, as well as of attempting to provide
rehabilitation that prepare inmates for re-entry into the social mainstream. Necessarily,
both these demands require the curtailment and elimination of certain rights.

Premises considered, we are constrained to rule against the accused-appellant’s

claim that re-election to public office gives priority to any other right or interest, including
the police power of the State. (People v. Jalosjos, 324 SCRA 689, Feb. 3, 2000, En
Banc [Ynares-Santiago])

173. Appellant, who was charged with Illegal Recruitment in the RTC of Zamboanga City,
invokes the equal protection clause in her defense. She points out that although the
evidence purportedly shows that Jasmine Alejandro handed out application forms and
even received Lourdes Modesto’s payment, appellant was the only one criminally
charged. Alejandro, on the other hand, remained scot-free. From this, appellant
concludes that the prosecution discriminated against her on grounds of regional origins.
Appellant is a Cebuana while Alejandro is a Zamboanguena, and the alleged crime took
place in Zamboanga City.

Held: The argument has no merit.

The prosecution of one guilty while others equally guilty are not prosecuted,
however, is not, by itself, a denial of the equal protection of the laws. Where the official
action purports to be in conformity to the statutory classification, an erroneous or mistaken
performance of the statutory duty, although a violation of the statute, is not without more a
denial of the equal protection of the laws. The unlawful administration by officers of a
statute fair on its face, resulting in its unequal application to those who are entitled to be
treated alike, is not a denial of equal protection, unless there is shown to be present in it an
element of intentional or purposeful discrimination. This may appear on the face of the
action taken with respect to a particular class or person, or it may only be shown by
extrinsic evidence showing a discriminatory design over another not to be inferred from the
action itself. But a discriminatory purpose is not presumed, there must be a showing of
“clear and intentional discrimination.” Appellant has failed to show that, in charging
appellant in court, that there was a “clear and intentional discrimination” on the part of the
prosecuting officials.

The discretion of who to prosecute depends on the prosecution’s sound assessment

whether the evidence before it can justify a reasonable belief that a person has committed
an offense. The presumption is that the prosecuting officers regularly performed their
duties, and this presumption can be overcome only by proof to the contrary, not by mere
speculation. Indeed, appellant has not presented any evidence to overcome this
presumption. The mere allegation that appellant, a Cebuana, was charged with the
commission of a crime, while a Zamboanguena, the guilty party in appellant’s eyes, was not,
is insufficient to support a conclusion that the prosecution officers denied appellant equal
protection of the laws.

There is also common sense practicality in sustaining appellant’s prosecution.

While all persons accused of crime are to be treated on a basis of equality

before the law, it does not follow that they are to be protected in the commission of

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 crime. It would be unconscionable, for instance, to excuse a defendant guilty of
murder because others have murdered with impunity. The remedy for unequal
enforcement of the law in such instances does not lie in the exoneration of the guilty
at the expense of society x x x. Protection of the law will be extended to all persons
equally in the pursuit of their lawful occupations, but no person has the right to
demand protection of the law in the commission of a crime (People v. Montgomery,
117 P.2d 437 [1941]).

Likewise,

[i]f the failure of prosecutors to enforce the criminal laws as to some persons
should be converted into a defense for others charged with crime, the result would
be that the trial of the district attorney for nonfeasance would become an issue in the
trial of many persons charged with heinous crimes and the enforcement of law would
suffer a complete breakdown (State v. Hicks, 325 P.2d 794 [1958]).
(People v. Dela Piedra, 350 SCRA 163, Jan. 24, 2001, 1 st Div. [Kapunan])

The Right against Unreasonable Searches and Seizures

174. Discuss the constitutional requirement that a judge, in issuing a warrant of arrest,
must determine probable cause “personally.” Distinguish determination of probable
cause by the prosecutor and determination of probable cause by the judge.

Held: It must be stressed that the 1987 Constitution requires the judge to determine
probable cause “personally,” a requirement which does not appear in the corresponding
provisions of our previous constitutions. This emphasis evinces the intent of the framers to
place a greater degree of responsibility upon trial judges than that imposed under previous
Constitutions.

In Soliven v. Makasiar, this Court pronounced:

“What the Constitution underscores is the exclusive and personal

responsibility of the issuing judge to satisfy himself of the existence of probable
cause. In satisfying himself of the existence of probable cause for the issuance of a
warrant of arrest, the judge is not required to personally examine the complainant
and his witnesses. Following established doctrine and procedure, he shall: (1)
personally evaluate the report and the supporting documents submitted by the fiscal
regarding the existence of probable cause and, on the basis thereof, issue a warrant
of arrest; or (2) if in the basis thereof he finds no probable cause, he may disregard
the fiscal’s report and require the submission of supporting affidavits of witnesses to
aid him in arriving at a conclusion as to the existence of probable cause.”

Ho v. People (Ibid.) summarizes existing jurisprudence on the matter as follows:

“Lest we be too repetitive, we only wish to emphasize three vital matters once
more: First, as held in Inting, the determination of probable cause by the prosecutor
is for a purpose different from that which is to be made by the judge. Whether there
is reasonable ground to believe that the accused is guilty of the offense charged and
should be held for trial is what the prosecutor passes upon. The judge, on the other
hand, determines whether a warrant of arrest should be issued against the accused,
i.e., whether there is a necessity for placing him under immediate custody in order
not to frustrate the ends of justice. Thus, even if both should base their findings on
one and the same proceeding or evidence, there should be no confusion as to their
distinct objectives.

Second, since their objectives are different, the judge cannot rely solely on
the report of the prosecutor in finding probable cause to justify the issuance of a
warrant of arrest. Obviously and understandably, the contents of the prosecutor’s
report will support his own conclusion that there is reason to charge the accused for
an offense and hold him for trial. However, the judge must decide independently.
Hence, he must have supporting evidence, other than the prosecutor’s bare report,
upon which to legally sustain his own findings on the existence (or nonexistence) of
probable cause to issue an arrest order. This responsibility of determining personally
and independently the existence or nonexistence of probable cause is lodged in him
by no less than the most basic law of the land. Parenthetically, the prosecutor could
ease the burden of the judge and speed up the litigation process by forwarding to the
latter not only the information and his bare resolution finding probable cause, but
also so much of the records and the evidence on hand as to enable the His Honor to

109
 make his personal and separate judicial finding on whether to issue a warrant of
arrest.

Lastly, it is not required that the complete or entire records of the case during
the preliminary investigation be submitted to and examined by the judge. We do not
intend to unduly burden trial courts by obliging them to examine the complete
records of every case all the time simply for the purpose of ordering the arrest of an
accused. What is required, rather, is that the judge must have sufficient supporting
documents (such as the complaint, affidavits, counter-affidavits, sworn statements of
witnesses or transcript of stenographic notes, if any) upon which to make his
independent judgment or, at the very least, upon which to verify the findings of the
prosecutor as to the existence of probable cause. The point is: he cannot rely solely
and entirely on the prosecutor’s recommendation, as Respondent Court did in this
case. Although the prosecutor enjoys the legal presumption of regularity in the
performance of his official duties and functions, which in turn gives his report the
presumption of accuracy, the Constitution, we repeat, commands the judge to
personally determine probable cause in the issuance of warrants of arrest. This Court
has consistently held that a judge fails in his bounden duty if he relies merely on the
certification or the report of the investigating officer.” (Citations omitted)

In the case at bench, respondent admits that he issued the questioned warrant as
there was “no reason for (him) to doubt the validity of the certification made by the
Assistant Prosecutor that a preliminary investigation was conducted and that probable cause
was found to exist as against those charged in the information filed.” The statement is an
admission that respondent relied solely and completely on the certification made by the
fiscal that probable cause exists as against those charged in the information and issued the
challenged warrant of arrest on the sole basis of the prosecutor’s findings and
recommendations. He adopted the judgment of the prosecutor regarding the existence of
probable cause as his own. (Abdula v. Guiani, 326 SCRA 1, Feb. 18, 2000, 3 rd Div.
[Gonzaga-Reyes])

175. In an application for search warrant, the application was accompanied by a sketch of
the compound at 516 San Jose de la Montana St., Mabolo, Cebu City, indicating the 2-
storey residential house of private respondent with a large “X” enclosed in a square.
Within the same compound are residences of other people, workshops, offices, factories
and warehouse. The search warrant issued, however, merely indicated the address of
the compound which is 516 San Jose de la Montana St., Mabolo, Cebu City. Did this
satisfy the constitutional requirement under Section 2, Article III that the place to be
searched must be particularly described?

Held: This Court has held that the applicant should particularly describe the place to
be searched and the person or things to be seized, wherever and whenever it is feasible. In
the present case, it must be noted that the application for a search warrant was
accompanied by a sketch of the compound at 516 San Jose de la Montana St., Mabolo, Cebu
City. The sketch indicated the 2-storey residential house of private respondent with a large
"X" enclosed in a square. Within the same compound are residences of other people,
workshops, offices, factories and warehouse. With this sketch as the guide, it could have
been very easy to describe the residential house of private respondent with sufficient
particularity so as to segregate it from the other buildings or structures inside the same
compound. But the search warrant merely indicated the address of the compound which is
516 San Jose de la Montana St., Mabolo, Cebu City. This description of the place to be
searched is too general and does not pinpoint the specific house of private respondent.
Thus, the inadequacy of the description of the residence of private respondent sought to be
searched has characterized the questioned search warrant as a general warrant, which is
violative of the constitutional requirement. (People v. Estrada, 296 SCRA 383, 400,
[Martinez])

176. Can the place to be searched, as set out in the warrant, be amplified or modified by
the officers’ own personal knowledge of the premises, or the evidence they adduce in
support of their application for the warrant?

Held: Such a change is proscribed by the Constitution which requires inter alia the
search warrant to particularly describe the place to be searched as well as the persons or
things to be seized. It would concede to police officers the power of choosing the place to
be searched, even if it not be that delineated in the warrant. It would open wide the door to
abuse of the search process, and grant to officers executing a search warrant that discretion
which the Constitution has precisely removed from them. The particularization of the
description of the place to be searched may properly be done only by the Judge, and only in

110
the warrant itself; it cannot be left to the discretion of the police officers conducting the
search.

It is neither fair nor licit to allow police officers to search a place different from that
stated in the warrant on the claim that the place actually searched – although not that
specified in the warrant – is exactly what they had in view when they applied for the warrant
and had demarcated in their supporting evidence. What is material in determining the
validity of a search is the place stated in the warrant itself, not what applicants had in their
thoughts, or had represented in the proofs they submitted to the court issuing the warrant.
(People v. Court of Appeals, 291 SCRA 400, June 26, 1998 [Narvasa])

177. Is a respondent in an Extradition Proceeding entitled to notice and hearing before the
issuance of a warrant of arrest?

Held: Both parties cite Section 6 of PD 1069 in support of their arguments. X x x

Does this provision sanction RTC Judge Purganan’s act of immediately setting for
hearing the issuance of a warrant of arrest? We rule in the negative.

1. On the Basis of the Extradition Law

It is significant to note that Section 6 of PD 1069, our Extradition Law, uses the word
“immediate” to qualify the arrest of the accused. This qualification would be rendered
nugatory by setting for hearing the issuance of the arrest warrant. Hearing entails sending
notices to the opposing parties, receiving facts and arguments from them, and giving them
time to prepare and present such facts and arguments. Arrest subsequent to a hearing can
no longer be considered “immediate.” The law could not have intended the word as a mere
superfluity but, on the whole, as a means of impairing a sense of urgency and swiftness in
the determination of whether a warrant of arrest should be issued.

By using the phrase “if it appears,” the law further conveys that accuracy is not as
important as speed at such early stage. The trial court is not expected to make an
exhaustive determination to ferret out the true and actual situation, immediately upon the
filing of the petition. From the knowledge and the material then available to it, the court is
expected merely to get a good first impression – a prima facie finding – sufficient to make a
speedy initial determination as regards the arrest and detention of the accused.

Xxx

We stress that the prima facie existence of probable cause for hearing the petition
and, a priori, for issuing an arrest warrant was already evident from the Petition itself and its
supporting documents. Hence, after having already determined therefrom that a prima
facie finding did exist, respondent judge gravely abused his discretion when he set the
matter for hearing upon motion of Jimenez.

Moreover, the law specifies that the court sets a hearing upon receipt of the answer
or upon failure of the accused to answer after receiving the summons. In connection with
the matter of immediate arrest, however, the word “hearing” is notably absent from the
provision. Evidently, had the holding of a hearing at that stage been intended, the law could
have easily so provided. It also bears emphasizing at this point that extradition proceedings
are summary (See Sec. 9, PD 1069) in nature. Hence, the silence of the Law and the Treaty
leans to the more reasonable interpretation that there is no intention to punctuate with a
hearing every little step in the entire proceedings.

Xxx

Verily x x x sending to persons sought to be extradited a notice of the request for

their arrest and setting it for hearing at some future date would give them ample
opportunity to prepare and execute an escape. Neither the Treaty nor the Law could have
intended that consequence, for the very purpose of both would have been defeated by the
escape of the accused from the requested state.

2. On the Basis of the Constitution

Even Section 2 of Article III of our Constitution x x x does not require a notice or a
hearing before the issuance of a warrant of arrest. X x x

To determine probable cause for the issuance of arrest warrants, the Constitution
itself requires only the examination – under oath or affirmation – of complainants and the

111
witnesses they may produce. There is no requirement to notify and hear the accused before
the issuance of warrants of arrest.

In Ho v. People and in all the cases cited therein, never was a judge required to go to
the extent of conducting a hearing just for the purpose of personally determining probable
cause for the issuance of a warrant of arrest. All we required was that the “judge must have
sufficient supporting documents upon which to make his independent judgment, or at the
very least, upon which to verify the findings of the prosecutor as to the existence of
probable cause.”

In Webb v. De Leon, the Court categorically stated that a judge was not supposed to
conduct a hearing before issuing a warrant of arrest x x x.

At most, in cases of clear insufficiency of evidence on record, judges merely further

examine complainants and their witnesses. In the present case, validating the act of
respondent judge and instituting the practice of hearing the accused and his witnesses at
this early stage would be discordant with the rationale for the entire system. If the accused
were allowed to be heard and necessarily to present evidence during the prima facie
determination for the issuance of a warrant of arrest, what would stop him from presenting
his entire plethora of defenses at this stage – if he so desires – in his effort to negate a
prima facie finding? Such a procedure could convert the determination of a prima facie case
into a full-blown trial of the entire proceedings and possibly make trial of the main case
superfluous. This scenario is also anathema to the summary nature of extraditions.
(Government of the United States of America v. Hon. Guillermo Purganan, G.R.
No. 148571, Sept. 24, 2002, En Banc [Panganiban])

178. What is “search incidental to a lawful arrest”? Discuss.

Held: While a contemporaneous search of a person arrested may be effected to

discover dangerous weapons or proofs or implements used in the commission of the crime
and which search may extend to the area within his immediate control where he might gain
possession of a weapon or evidence he can destroy, a valid arrest must precede the search.
The process cannot be reversed.

In a search incidental to a lawful arrest, as the precedent arrest determines

the validity of the incidental search, the legality of the arrest is questioned in a large
majority of these cases, e.g., whether an arrest was merely used as a pretext for
conducting a search. In this instance, the law requires that there be first a lawful
arrest before a search can be made – the process cannot be reversed. (Malacat v.
Court of Appeals, 283 SCRA 159, 175 [1997])
(People v. Chua Ho San, 308 SCRA 432, June 17, 1999, En Banc [Davide, Jr., C.J.])

179. What is the “plain view” doctrine? What are its requisites? Discuss.

Held: 1. Objects falling in plain view of an officer who has a right to be in the
position to have that view are subject to seizure even without a search warrant and may be
introduced in evidence. The “plain view” doctrine applies when the following requisites
concur: (a) the law enforcement officer in search of the evidence has a prior justification for
an intrusion or is in a position from which he can view a particular area; (b) the discovery of
the evidence in plain view is inadvertent; (c) it is immediately apparent to the officer that
the item he observes may be evidence of a crime, contraband or otherwise subject to
seizure. The law enforcement officer must lawfully make an initial intrusion or properly be in
a position from which he can particularly view the area. In the course of such lawful
intrusion, he came inadvertently across a piece of evidence incriminating the accused. The
object must be open to eye and hand and its discovery inadvertent.

It is clear that an object is in plain view if the object itself is plainly exposed to sight.
The difficulty arises when the object is inside a closed container. Where the object seized
was inside a closed package, the object itself is not in plain view and therefore cannot be
seized without a warrant. However, if the package proclaims its contents, whether by its
distinctive configuration, its transparency, or if its contents are obvious to an observer, then
the contents are in plain view and may be seized. In other words, if the package is such that
an experienced observer could infer from its appearance that it contains the prohibited
article, then the article is deemed in plain view. It must be immediately apparent to the
police that the items that they observe may be evidence of a crime, contraband or otherwise
subject to seizure. (People v. Doria, 301 SCRA 668, Jan. 22, 1999, En Banc [Puno,
J.])

2. For the doctrine to apply, the following elements must be present:

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 a) a prior valid intrusion based on the valid warrantless arrest in which the police are
legally present in the pursuit of their official duties;
b) the evidence was inadvertently discovered by the police who have the right to be
where they are; and
c) the evidence must be immediately apparent; and
d) plain view justified mere seizure of evidence without further search.

In the instant case, recall that PO2 Balut testified that they first located the marijuana
plants before appellant was arrested without a warrant. Hence, there was no valid
warrantless arrest which preceded the search of appellant’s premises. Note further that the
police team was dispatched to appellant’s kaingin precisely to search for and uproot the
prohibited flora. The seizure of evidence in “plain view” applies only where the police officer
is not searching for evidence against the accused, but inadvertently comes across an
incriminating object. Clearly, their discovery of the cannabis plants was not inadvertent.
We also note the testimony of SPO2 Tipay that upon arriving at the area, they first had to
“look around the area” before they could spot the illegal plants. Patently, the seized
marijuana plants were not “immediately apparent” and “further search” was needed. In
sum, the marijuana plants in question were not in “plain view” or “open to eye and hand.”
The “plain view” doctrine, thus, cannot be made to apply.

Nor can we sustain the trial court’s conclusion that just because the marijuana plants
were found in an unfenced lot, appellant could not invoke the protection afforded by the
Charter against unreasonable searches by agents of the State. The right against
unreasonable searches and seizures is the immunity of one’s person, which includes his
residence, his papers, and other possessions. The guarantee refers to “the right of personal
security” of the individual. X x x, what is sought to be protected against the State’s unlawful
intrusion are persons, not places. To conclude otherwise would not only mean swimming
against the stream, it would also lead to the absurd logic that for a person to be immune
against unreasonable searches and seizures, he must be in his home or office, within a
fenced yard or a private place. The Bill of Rights belongs as much to the person in the street
as to the individual in the sanctuary of his bedroom. (People v. Abe Valdez, G.R. No.
129296, Sept. 25, 2000, En Banc [Quisumbing])

3. Considering its factual milieu, this case falls squarely under the plain view
doctrine.

When Spencer wrenched himself free from the grasp of PO2 Gaviola, he instinctively
ran towards the house of appellant. The members of the buy-bust team were justified in
running after him and entering the house without a search warrant for they were hot in the
heels of a fleeing criminal. Once inside the house, the police officers cornered Spencer and
recovered the buy-bust money from him. They also caught appellant in flagrante delicto
repacking the marijuana bricks which were in full view on top of a table. x x x.

Hence, appellant’s subsequent arrest was likewise lawful, coming as it is within the
purview of Section 5(a) of Rule 113 of the 1985 Rules on Criminal Procedure x x x.

Section 5(a) is commonly referred to as the rule on in flagrante delicto arrests. Here
two elements must concur: (1) the person to be arrested must execute an overt act
indicating that he has just committed, is actually committing, or is attempting to commit a
crime; and (2) such overt act is done in the presence or within the view of the arresting
officer. Thus, when appellant was seen repacking the marijuana, the police officers were not
only authorized but also duty-bound to arrest him even without a warrant. (People v.
Elamparo, 329 SCRA 404, 414-415, March 31, 2000, 2nd Div. [Quisumbing])

180. What is a “stop-and-frisk” search?

Held: 1. In the landmark case of Terry v. Ohio, a stop-and-frisk was defined as the
vernacular designation of the right of a police officer to stop a citizen on the street,
interrogate him, and pat him for weapon(s):

“x x x (W)here a police officer observes an unusual conduct which leads him

reasonably to conclude in light of his experience that criminal activity may be afoot
and that the persons with whom he is dealing may be armed and presently
dangerous, where in the course of investigating this behavior he identified himself as
a policeman and make reasonable inquiries, and where nothing in the initial stages of
the encounter serves to dispel his reasonable fear for his own or others’ safety, he is
entitled for the protection of himself or others in the area to conduct a carefully
limited search of the outer clothing of such persons in an attempt to discover

113
 weapons which might be used to assault him. Such a search is a reasonable search
under the Fourth Amendment, and any weapon seized may properly be introduced in
evidence against the person from whom they were taken.” (Herrera, A Handbook on
Arrest, Search and Seizure and Custodial Investigation, 1995 ed., p. 185; and Terry v.
Ohio, supra, p. 911)

In allowing such a search, the United States Supreme Court held that the interest of
effective crime prevention and detection allows a police officer to approach a person, in
appropriate circumstances and manner, for purposes of investigating possible criminal
behavior even though there is insufficient probable cause to make an actual arrest.

In admitting in evidence two guns seized during the stop-and-frisk, the US Supreme
Court held that what justified the limited search was the more immediate interest of the
police officer in taking steps to assure himself that the person with whom he was dealing
was not armed with a weapon that could unexpectedly and fatally be used against him.

It did not, however, abandon the rule that the police must, whenever practicable,
obtain advance judicial approval of searches and seizures through the warrant procedure,
excused only by exigent circumstances. (Manalili v. CA, 280 SCRA 400, Oct. 9, 1997
[Panganiban])

2. We now proceed to the justification for and allowable scope of a “stop-and-frisk”

as a “limited protective search of outer clothing for weapons,” as laid down in Terry, thus:

We merely hold today that where a police officer observes unusual conduct
which leads him reasonably to conclude in light of his experience that criminal
activity may be afoot and that the persons with whom he is dealing may be armed
and presently dangerous, where in the course of investigating this behavior he
identifies himself as a policeman and makes reasonable inquiries, and where nothing
in the initial stages of the encounter serves to dispel his reasonable fear for his own
or others’ safety, he is entitled for the protection of himself and others in the area to
conduct a carefully limited search of the outer clothing of such persons in an attempt
to discover weapons which might be used to assault him. Such a search is a
reasonable search under the Fourth Amendment (Terry, at 911. In fact, the Court
noted that the ‘sole justification’ for a stop-and-frisk was the ‘protection of the police
officer and others nearby’; while the scope of the search conducted in the case was
limited to patting down the outer clothing of petitioner and his companions, the
police officer did not place his hands in their pockets nor under the outer surface of
their garments until he had felt weapons, and then he merely reached for and
removed the guns. This did not constitute a general exploratory search, Id.)

Other notable points of Terry are that while probable cause is not required to conduct
a “stop-and-frisk,” it nevertheless holds that mere suspicion or a hunch will not validate a
“stop-and-frisk.” A genuine reason must exist, in light of the police officer’s experience and
surrounding conditions, to warrant the belief that the person detained has weapons
concealed about him. Finally, a “stop-and-frisk” serves a two-fold interest: (1) the general
interest of effective crime prevention and detection, which underlies the recognition that a
police officer may, under appropriate circumstances and in an appropriate manner,
approach a person for purposes of investigating possible criminal behavior even without
probable cause; and (2) the more pressing interest of safety and self-preservation which
permit the police officer to take steps to assure himself that the person with whom he deals
is not armed with a deadly weapon that could unexpectedly and fatally be used against the
police officer. (Malacat v. Court of Appeals, 283 SCRA 159, Dec. 12, 1997 [Davide])

181. Are searches at checkpoints valid? Discuss.

Held: This Court has ruled that not all checkpoints are illegal. Those which are
warranted by the exigencies of public order and are conducted in a way least intrusive to
motorists are allowed. For, admittedly, routine checkpoints do intrude, to a certain extent,
on motorists’ right to “free passage without interruption,” but it cannot be denied that, as a
rule, it involves only a brief detention of travelers during which the vehicle’s occupants are
required to answer a brief question or two. For as long as the vehicle is neither searched
nor its occupants subjected to a body search, and the inspection of the vehicle is limited to a
visual search, said routine checks cannot be regarded as violative of an individual’s right
against unreasonable search. In fact, these routine checks, when conducted in a fixed area,
are even less intrusive. (People v. Usana, 323 SCRA 754, Jan. 28, 2000, 1 st Div.
[Davide, CJ])

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182. Illustrative case of valid search at checkpoint conducted to implement the gun ban
law during election. Is it still necessary that checkpoints be pre-announced?

Held: Accused-appellants assail the manner by which the checkpoint in question

was conducted. They contend that the checkpoint manned by elements of the Makati Police
should have been announced. They also complain of its having been conducted in an
arbitrary and discriminatory manner.

We take judicial notice of the existence of the COMELEC resolution imposing a gun
ban during the election period issued pursuant to Section 52(c) in relation to Section 26(q) of
the Omnibus Election Code (Batas Pambansa Blg. 881). The national and local elections in
1995 were held on 8 May, the second Monday of the month. The incident, which happened
on 5 April 1995, was well within the election period.

Xxx

The checkpoint herein conducted was in pursuance of the gun ban enforced by the
COMELEC. The COMELEC would be hard put to implement the ban if its deputized agents
were limited to a visual search of pedestrians. It would also defeat the purpose for which
such ban was instituted. Those who intend to bring a gun during said period would know
that they only need a car to be able to easily perpetrate their malicious designs.

The facts adduced do not constitute a ground for a violation of the constitutional
rights of the accused against illegal search and seizure. PO3 Suba admitted that they were
merely stopping cars they deemed suspicious, such as those whose windows are heavily
tinted just to see if the passengers thereof were carrying guns. At best they would merely
direct their flashlights inside the cars they would stop, without opening the car’s doors or
subjecting its passengers to a body search. There is nothing discriminatory in this as this is
what the situation demands.

We see no need for checkpoints to be announced x x x. Not only would it be

impractical, it would also forewarn those who intend to violate the ban. Even so, badges of
legitimacy of checkpoints may still be inferred from their fixed location and the regularized
manner in which they are operated. (People v. Usana, 323 SCRA 754, Jan. 28, 2000,
1st Div. [Davide, CJ])

183. Do the ordinary rights against unreasonable searches and seizures apply to searches
conducted at the airport pursuant to routine airport security procedures?

Held: Persons may lose the protection of the search and seizure clause by exposure
of their persons or property to the public in a manner reflecting a lack of subjective
expectation of privacy, which expectation society is prepared to recognize as reasonable.
Such recognition is implicit in airport security procedures. With increased concern over
airplane hijacking and terrorism has come increased security at the nation’s airports.
Passengers attempting to board an aircraft routinely pass through metal detectors; their
carry-on baggage as well as checked luggage are routinely subjected to x-ray scans. Should
these procedures suggest the presence of suspicious objects, physical searches are
conducted to determine what the objects are. There is little question that such searches are
reasonable, given their minimal intrusiveness, the gravity of the safety interests involved,
and the reduced privacy expectations associated with airline travel. Indeed, travelers are
often notified through airport public address systems, signs, and notices in their airline
tickets that they are subject to search and, if any prohibited materials or substances are
found, such would be subject to seizure. These announcements place passengers on notice
that ordinary constitutional protections against warrantless searches and seizures do not
apply to routine airport procedures. (People v. Leila Johnson, G.R. No. 138881, Dec.
18, 2000, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

184. May the constitutional protection against unreasonable searches and seizures be
extended to acts committed by private individuals?

Held: As held in People v. Marti, the constitutional protection against unreasonable

searches and seizures refers to the immunity of one's person from interference by
government and it cannot be extended to acts committed by private individuals so as to
bring it within the ambit of alleged unlawful intrusion. (People v. Mendoza, 301 SCRA
66, Jan. 18, 1999, 1st Div. [Melo])

185. Should the seized drugs (which are pharmaceutically correct but not properly
documented) subject of an illegal search (because the applicant “failed to allege in the
application for search warrant that the subject drugs for which she was applying for

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 search warrant were either fake, misbranded, adulterated, or unregistered,”) be
returned to the owner?

Ans.: No. Instead, they should be promptly disposed of in the manner provided by
law in order to insure that the same do not fall into the wrong hands who might use the
drugs underground. As clarified in People v. Judge Estrella T. Estrada (G.R No.
124461, June 26, 2000, Spcl. 2nd Div. [Ynares-Santiago]):

“With the State's obligation to protect and promote the right to health of the
people and instill health consciousness among them (Article II, Section 15, 1987
Constitution), in order to develop a healthy and alert citizenry (Article XIV, Section
19[1]), it became mandatory for the government to supervise and control the
proliferation of drugs in the market. The constitutional mandate that "the State shall
adopt an integrated and comprehensive approach to health development which shall
endeavor to make essential goods, health and other social services available to all
people at affordable cost" (Article XIII, Section 11) cannot be neglected. This is why
"the State shall establish and maintain an effective food and drug regulatory
system." (Article XIII, Section 12) The BFAD is the government agency vested by law
to make a mandatory and authoritative determination of the true therapeutic effect
of drugs because it involves technical skill which is within its special competence.
The health of the citizenry should never be compromised. To the layman, medicine is
a cure that may lead to better health.

If the seized 52 boxes of drugs are pharmaceutically correct but not properly
documented, they should be promptly disposed of in the manner provided by law in
order to ensure that the same do not fall into the wrong hands who might use the
drugs underground. X x x. The policy of the law enunciated in R.A. No. 8203 is to
protect the consumers as well as the licensed businessmen. Foremost among these
consumers is the government itself which procures medicines and distributes them to
the local communities through direct assistance to the local health centers or through
outreach and charity programs. Only with the proper government sanctions can
medicines and drugs circulate the market. We cannot afford to take any risk, for the
life and health of the citizenry are as precious as the existence of the State.”

186. Do Regional Trial Courts have competence to pass upon the validity or regularity of
seizure and forfeiture proceedings conducted by the Bureau of Customs and to enjoin or
otherwise interfere with these proceedings?

Held: In Jao v. Court of Appeals, this Court, reiterating its rulings x x x said:

There is no question that Regional Trial Courts are devoid of any competence
to pass upon the validity or regularity of seizure and forfeiture proceedings
conducted by the Bureau of Customs and to enjoin or otherwise interfere with these
proceedings. The Collector of Customs sitting in seizure and forfeiture proceedings
has exclusive jurisdiction to hear and determine all questions touching on the seizure
and forfeiture of dutiable goods. The Regional Trial Courts are precluded from
assuming cognizance over such matters even through petitions of certiorari,
prohibition or mandamus.

It is likewise well-settled that the provisions of the Tariff and Customs Code
and that of Republic Act No. 1125, as amended, otherwise known as “An Act Creating
the Court of Tax Appeals,” specify the proper fora and procedure for the ventilation
of any legal objections or issues raised concerning these proceedings. Thus, actions
of the Collector of Customs are appealable to the Commissioner of Customs, whose
decision, in turn, is subject to the exclusive appellate jurisdiction of the Court of Tax
Appeals and from there to the Court of Appeals.

The rule that Regional Trial Courts have no review powers over such
proceedings is anchored upon the policy of placing no unnecessary hindrance on the
government’s drive, not only to prevent smuggling and other frauds upon Customs,
but more importantly, to render effective and efficient the collection of import and
export duties due the State, which enables the government to carry out the functions
it has been instituted to perform.

Even if the seizure by the Collector of Customs were illegal, x x x we have said
that such act does not deprive the Bureau of Customs of jurisdiction thereon.
(Bureau of Customs v. Ogario, 329 SCRA 289, 296-298, March 30, 2000, 2 nd Div.
[Mendoza])

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187. Accused-appellant assails the validity of his arrest and his subsequent convictions for
the two crimes. Both the trial court and the Court of Appeals found that the arrest and
subsequent seizure were legal.

Held: In the cases at bar, the police saw the gun tucked in appellant’s waist when
he stood up. The gun was plainly visible. No search was conducted as none was necessary.
Accused-appellant could not show any license for the firearm, whether at the time of his
arrest or thereafter. Thus, he was in effect committing a crime in the presence of the police
officers. No warrant of arrest was necessary in such a situation, it being one of the
recognized exceptions under the Rules.

As a consequence of appellant’s valid warrantless arrest, he may be lawfully

searched for dangerous weapons or anything which may be used as proof of the commission
of an offense, without a search warrant, as provided in Rule 126, Section 12. This is a valid
search incidental to a lawful arrest. The subsequent discovery in his car of drug
paraphernalia and the crystalline substance, which, was later identified as shabu, though in
a distant place from where the illegal possession of firearm was committed, cannot be said
to have been made during an illegal search. As such, the seized items do not fall within the
exclusionary clause x x x. Hence, not being fruits of the poisonous tree x x x the objects
found at the scene of the crime, such as the firearm, the shabu and the drug paraphernalia,
can be used as evidence against appellant. Besides, it has been held that drugs discovered
as a result of a consented search is admissible in evidence. (Citations omitted.) (People v.
Go, 354 SCRA 338, Mar. 14, 2001, 1st Div. [Ynares-Santiago])

188. Discuss the nature of an “in flagrante delicto” warrantless arrest. Illustrative case.

Held: In the case at bar, the court a quo anchored its judgment of conviction on a
finding that the warrantless arrest of accused-appellants, and the subsequent search
conducted by the peace officers, are valid because accused-appellants were caught in
flagrante delicto in possession of prohibited drugs. This brings us to the issue of whether or
not the warrantless arrest, search and seizure in the present case fall within the recognized
exceptions to the warrant requirement.

In People v. Chua Ho San, the Court held that in cases of in flagrante delicto arrests,
a peace officer or a private person may, without a warrant, arrest a person when, in his
presence, the person to be arrested has committed, is actually committing, or is attempting
to commit an offense. The arresting office, therefore, must have personal knowledge of
such fact or, as a recent case law adverts to, personal knowledge of facts or circumstances
convincingly indicative or constitutive of probable cause. As discussed in People v. Doria,
probable cause means an actual belief or reasonable grounds of suspicion. The grounds of
suspicion are reasonable when, in the absence of actual belief of the arresting officers, the
suspicion that the person to be arrested is probably guilty of committing the offense, is
based on actual facts, i.e., supported by circumstances sufficiently strong in themselves to
create the probable cause of guilt of the person to be arrested. A reasonable suspicion
therefore must be founded on probable cause, coupled with good faith on the part of the
peace officers making the arrest.

As applied to in flagrante delicto arrests, it is settled that “reliable information”

alone, absent any overt act indicative of a felonious enterprise in the presence and within
the view of the arresting officers, are not sufficient to constitute probable cause that would
justify an in flagrante delicto arrest. Thus, in People v. Aminnudin, it was held that “the
accused-appellant was not, at the moment of his arrest, committing a crime nor was it
shown that he was about to do so or that he had just done so. What he was doing was
descending the gangplank of the M/V Wilcon 9 and there was no outward indication that
called for his arrest. To all appearances, he was like any of the other passengers innocently
disembarking from the vessel. It was only when the informer pointed to him as the carrier of
the marijuana that he suddenly became suspect and so subject to apprehension.”

Likewise, in People v. Mengote, the Court did not consider “eyes x x x darting from
side to side x x x [while] holding x x x [one’s] abdomen,” in a crowded street at 11:30 in the
morning, as overt acts and circumstances sufficient to arouse suspicion and indicative of
probable cause. According to the Court, “[b]y no stretch of the imagination could it have
been inferred from these acts that an offense had just been committed, or was actually
being committed, or was at least being attempted in [the arresting officers’] presence.” So
also, in People v. Encinada, the Court ruled that no probable cause is gleanable from the act
of riding a motorela while holding two plastic baby chairs.

Then, too, in Malacat v. Court of Appeals, the trial court concluded that petitioner was
attempting to commit a crime as he was “’standing at the corner of Plaza Miranda and

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Quezon Boulevard’ with his eyes ‘moving very fast’ and ‘looking at every person that come
(sic) nearer (sic) to them.’” In declaring the warrantless arrest therein illegal, the Court said:

Here, there could have been no valid in flagrante delicto … arrest preceding
the search in light of the lack of personal knowledge on the part of Yu, the arresting
officer, or an overt physical act, on the part of petitioner, indicating that a crime had
just been committed, was being committed or was going to be committed.

It went on to state that –

Second, there was nothing in petitioner’s behavior or conduct which could

have reasonably elicited even mere suspicion other than that his eyes were “moving
very fast” – an observation which leaves us incredulous since Yu and his teammates
were nowhere near petitioner and it was already 6:60 p.m., thus presumably dusk.
Petitioner and his companions were merely standing at the corner and were not
creating any commotion or trouble x x x.

Third, there was at all no ground, probable or otherwise, to believe that

petitioner was armed with a deadly weapon. None was visible to Yu, for as he
admitted, the alleged grenade was “discovered” “inside the front waistline” of
petitioner, and from all indications as to the distance between Yu and petitioner, any
telltale bulge, assuming that petitioner was indeed hiding a grenade, could not have
been visible to Yu.

Clearly, to constitute a valid in flagrante delicto arrest, two requisites must concur:
(1) the person to be arrested must execute an overt act indicating that he has just
committed, is actually committing, or is attempting to commit a crime; and (2) such overt
act is done in the presence or within the view of the arresting officer.

In the case at bar, accused-appellants manifested no outward indication that would

justify their arrest. In holding a bag on board a trisikad, accused-appellants could not be
said to be committing, attempting to commit or have committed a crime. It matters not that
accused-appellant Molina responded “Boss, if possible we will settle this” to the request of
SPO1 Pamplona to open the bag. Such response which allegedly reinforced the “suspicion”
of the arresting officers that accused-appellants were committing a crime, is an equivocal
statement which standing alone will not constitute probable cause to effect an in flagrante
delicto arrest. Note that were it not for SPO1 Marino Paguidopon (who did not participate in
the arrest but merely pointed accused-appellants to the arresting officers), accused-
appellants could not be subject of any suspicion, reasonable or otherwise.

While SPO1 Paguidopon claimed that he and his informer conducted a surveillance of
accused-appellant Mula, SPO1 Paguidopon, however, admitted that he only learned Mula’s
name and address after the arrest. What is more, it is doubtful if SPO1 Paguidopon indeed
recognized accused-appellant Mula. It is worthy to note that, before the arrest, he was able
to see Mula in person only once, pinpointed to him by his informer while they were on the
side of the road. These circumstances could not have afforded SPO1 Paguidopon a closer
look at accused-appellant Mula, considering that the latter was then driving a motorcycle
when SPO1 Paguidopon caught a glimpse of him. With respect to accused-appellant Molina,
SPO1 Paguidopon admitted that he had never seen him before the arrest.

This belies the claim of SPO1 Pamplona that he knew the name of accused-appellants
even before the arrest x x x.

The aforesaid testimony of SPO1 Pamplona, therefore, is entirely baseless. SPO1

Pamplona could not have learned the name of accused-appellants from SPO1 Paguidopon
because Paguidopon himself, who allegedly conducted the surveillance, was not even aware
of accused-appellants’ name and address prior to the arrest.

Evidently, SPO1 Paguidopon, who acted as informer of the arresting officers, more so
the arresting officers themselves, could not have been certain of accused-appellants’
identity, and were, from all indications, merely fishing for evidence at the time of the arrest.

Compared to People v. Encinada, the arresting officer in the said case knew appellant
Encinada even before the arrest because of the latter’s illegal gambling activities, thus,
lending at least a semblance of validity on the arrest effected by the peace officers.
Nevertheless, the Court declared in said case that the warrantless arrest and the
consequent search were illegal, holding that “[t]he prosecution’s evidence did not show any
suspicious behavior when the appellant disembarked from the ship or while he rode the

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motorela. No act or fact demonstrating a felonious enterprise could be ascribed to appellant
under such bare circumstances.” (People v. Encinada, supra.)

Moreover, it could not be said that accused-appellants waived their right against
unreasonable searches and seizure. Implied acquiescence to the search, if there was any,
could not have been more than mere passive conformity given under intimidating or
coercive circumstances and is thus considered no consent at all within the purview of the
constitutional guarantee.

Withal, the Court holds that the arrest of accused-appellants does not fall under the
exceptions allowed by the rules. Hence, the search conducted on their person was likewise
illegal. Consequently, the marijuana seized by the peace officers could not be admitted as
evidence against accused-appellants, and the Court is thus, left with no choice but to find in
favor of accused-appellants. (People v. Molina, 352 SCRA 174, Feb. 19, 2001, En
Banc [Ynares-Santiago])

The Right to Privacy of Communications and Correspondence

189. What is the Anti-Wire Tapping Act (R.A. 4200)?

Ans.: R.A. 4200 is a special law prohibiting and penalizing wire-tapping. Section 1
thereof provides:

Sec. 1. It shall be unlawful for any person, not being authorized by all the
parties to any private communication or spoken word, to tap any wire or cable, or by
using any other device or arrangement, to secretly overhear, intercept, or record
such communication or spoken word by using a device commonly known as a
dictaphone or dictagraph or detectaphone or walkie-talkie or tape-recorder, or
however otherwise described:

It shall also be unlawful for any person, be he a participant or not in the act or
acts penalized in the next preceding sentence, to knowingly possess any tape record,
wire record, disc record, or any other such record, or copies thereof, of any
communication or spoken word secured either before or after the effective date of
this Act in the manner prohibited by this law; or to replay the same for any other
person or persons; or to communicate the contents thereof, either verbally or in
writing, or to furnish transcriptions thereof, whether complete or partial, to any other
person: Provided, That the use of such record or any copies thereof as evidence in
any civil, criminal investigation or trial of offenses mentioned in section 3 hereof,
shall not be covered by this prohibition.

Section 4 thereof also provides:

Sec. 4. Any communication or spoken word, or the existence, contents,

substance, purport, effect, or meaning of the same or any part thereof, or any
information therein contained obtained or secured by any person in violation of the
preceding sections of this Act shall not be admissible in evidence in any judicial,
quasi-judicial, legislative or administrative hearing or investigation.

190. Private respondent Rafael S. Ortanez filed with the Regional Trial Court of Quezon
City a complaint for annulment of marriage with damages against his wife, herein
petitioner, Teresita Salcedo-Ortanez, on grounds of lack of marriage license and/or
psychological incapacity of the petitioner. Among the exhibits offered by private
respondent were three (3) cassette tapes of alleged telephone conversations between
petitioner and unidentified persons. The trial court issued the assailed order admitting
all of the evidence offered by private respondent, including tape recordings of telephone
conversations of petitioner with unidentified persons. These tape recordings were made
and obtained when private respondent allowed his friends from the military to wire tap
his home telephone. Did the trial court act properly when it admitted in evidence said
tape recordings?

Held: Republic Act No. 4200 entitled “An Act to Prohibit and Penalize Wire Tapping
and Other Related Violations of the Privacy of Communication, and For Other Purposes”
expressly makes such tape recordings inadmissible in evidence. x x x.

Clearly, respondent trial court and Court of Appeals failed to consider the afore-
quoted provisions of the law in admitting in evidence the cassette tapes in question. Absent

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a clear showing that both parties to the telephone conversations allowed the recording of
the same, the inadmissibility of the subject tapes is mandatory under Rep. Act No. 4200.

Additionally, it should be mentioned that the above-mentioned Republic Act in

Section 2 thereof imposes a penalty of imprisonment of not less than six (6) months and up
to six (6) years for violation of said Act. (Salcedo-Ortanez v. Court of Appeals, 235
SCRA 111, Aug. 4, 1994 [Padilla])

191. Two local media men in Lucena City went to the police station to report alleged
indecent show in one night establishment in the City. At the station, there was a heated
argument between police officer Navarro and Lingan, one of the two media men, which
led to fisticuffs. Lingan fell and his head hit the pavement which caused his death.
During the trial, Jalbuena, the other media man, testified. Presented in evidence to
confirm his testimony was a voice recording he had made of the heated discussion at
the police station between accused police officer Navarro and the deceased, Lingan,
which was taken without the knowledge of the two. Is the voice recording admissible in
evidence in view of R.A. 4200, which prohibits wire-tapping?

Held: [J]albuena’s testimony is confirmed by the voice recording he had made. It

may be asked whether the tape is admissible in view of R.A. No. 4200, which prohibits wire
tapping. The answer is in the affirmative. x x x.

[T]he law prohibits the overhearing, intercepting, or recording of private

communications (Ramirez v. Court of Appeals, 248 SCRA 590 [1995]). Since the exchange
between petitioner Navarro and Lingan was not private, its tape recording is not prohibited.
(Felipe Navarro v. Court of Appeals, G.R. No. 121087, Aug. 26, 1999, 2 nd Div.
[Mendoza])

The Right to Privacy

192. Is there a constitutional right to privacy?

Held: The essence of privacy is the “right to be let alone.” In the 1965 case of
Griswold v. Connecticut (381 U.S. 479, 14 L. ed. 2D 510 [1965]), the United States Supreme
Court gave more substance to the right of privacy when it ruled that the right has a
constitutional foundation. It held that there is a right of privacy which can be found within
the penumbras of the First, Third, Fourth, Fifth and Ninth Amendments x x x. In the 1968
case of Morfe v. Mutuc (22 SCRA 424, 444-445), we adopted the Griswold ruling that there is
a constitutional right to privacy x x x.

Indeed, if we extend our judicial gaze we will find that the right of privacy is
recognized and enshrined in several provisions of our Constitution. (Morfe v. Mutuc, 22
SCRA 424, 444 [1968]; Cortes, The Constitutional Foundations of Privacy, p. 18 [1970]). It is
expressly recognized in Section 3(1) of the Bill of Rights x x x. Other facets of the right to
privacy are protected in various provisions of the Bill of Rights (viz: Secs. 1, 2, 6, 8, and 17.
(Ople v. Torres, G.R. No. 127685, July 23, 1998 [Puno])

193. What are the zones of privacy recognized and protected in our laws?

Held: The Civil Code provides that “[e]very person shall respect the dignity,
personality, privacy and peace of mind of his neighbors and other persons” and punishes as
actionable torts several acts by a person of meddling and prying into the privacy of another.
It also holds a public officer or employee or any private individual liable for damages for any
violation of the rights and liberties of another person, and recognizes the privacy of letters
and other private communications. The Revised Penal Code makes a crime the violation of
secrets by an officer, the revelation of trade and industrial secrets, and trespass to dwelling.
Invasion of privacy is an offense in special laws like the Anti-Wiretapping Law (R.A. 4200),
the Secrecy of Bank Deposits (R.A. 1405) and the Intellectual Property Code (R.A. 8293).
The Rules of Court on privileged communication likewise recognize the privacy of certain
information (Section 24, Rule 130[c], Revised Rules on Evidence). (Ople v. Torres, G.R.
No. 127685, July 23, 1998 [Puno])

194. Discuss why Administrative Order No. 308 (issued by the President prescribing for a
National ID system for all citizens to facilitate business transactions with government
agencies engaged in the delivery of basic services and social security provisions) should
be declared unconstitutional.

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 Held: We prescind from the premise that the right to privacy is a fundamental right
guaranteed by the Constitution, hence, it is the burden of government to show that A.O. No.
308 is justified by some compelling state interest and that it is narrowly drawn. A.O. No.
308 is predicated on two considerations: (1) the need to provide our citizens and foreigners
with the facility to conveniently transact business with basic service and social security
providers and other government instrumentalities and (2) the need to reduce, if not totally
eradicate, fraudulent transactions and misrepresentations by persons seeking basic
services. It is debatable whether these interests are compelling enough to warrant the
issuance of A.O. No. 308. But what is not arguable is the broadness, the vagueness, the
overbreadth of A.O. No. 308 which if implemented will put our people’s right to privacy in
clear and present danger.

The heart of A.O. No. 308 lies in its Section 4 which provides for a Population
Reference Number (PRN) as a “common reference number to establish a linkage among
concerned agencies” through the use of “Biometrics Technology” and “computer application
designs.”

It is noteworthy that A.O. No. 308 does not state what specific biological
characteristics and what particular biometrics technology shall be used to identify people
who will seek its coverage. Considering the banquet of options available to the
implementors of A.O. No. 308, the fear that it threatens the right to privacy of our people is
not groundless.

A.O. No. 308 should also raise our antennas for a further look will show that it does
not state whether encoding of data is limited to biological information alone for identification
purposes. x x x. Clearly, the indefiniteness of A.O. No. 308 can give the government the
roving authority to store and retrieve information for a purpose other than the identification
of the individual through his PRN.

The potential for misuse of the data to be gathered under A.O. No. 308 cannot be
underplayed x x x. The more frequent the use of the PRN, the better the chance of building
a huge and formidable information base through the electronic linkage of the files. The data
may be gathered for gainful and useful government purposes; but the existence of this vast
reservoir of personal information constitutes a covert invitation to misuse, a temptation that
may be too great for some of our authorities to resist.

It is plain and we hold that A.O. No. 308 falls short of assuring that personal
information which will be gathered about our people will only be processed for unequivocally
specified purposes. The lack of proper safeguards in this regard of A.O. No. 308 may
interfere with the individual’s liberty of abode and travel by enabling authorities to track
down his movement; it may also enable unscrupulous persons to access confidential
information and circumvent the right against self-incrimination; it may pave the way for
“fishing expeditions” by government authorities and evade the right against unreasonable
searches and seizures. The possibilities of abuse and misuse of the PRN, biometrics and
computer technology are accentuated when we consider that the individual lacks control
over what can be read or placed on his ID, much less verify the correctness of the data
encoded. They threaten the very abuses that the Bill of Rights seeks to prevent.

The ability of a sophisticated data center to generate a comprehensive cradle-to-

grave dossier on an individual and transmit it over a national network is one of the most
graphic threats of the computer revolution. The computer is capable of producing a
comprehensive dossier on individuals out of information given at different times and for
varied purposes. x x x. Retrieval of stored data is simple. When information of a privileged
character finds its way into the computer, it can be extracted together with other data on
the subject. Once extracted, the information is putty in the hands of any person. The end of
privacy begins.

[T]he Court will not be true to its role as the ultimate guardian of the people’s liberty
if it would not immediately smother the sparks that endanger their rights but would rather
wait for the fire that could consume them.

[A]nd we now hold that when the integrity of a fundamental right is at stake, this
Court will give the challenged law, administrative order, rule or regulation a stricter scrutiny.
It will not do for the authorities to invoke the presumption of regularity in the performance
of official duties. Nor is it enough for the authorities to prove that their act is not irrational
for a basic right can be diminished, if not defeated, even when the government does not act
irrationally. They must satisfactorily show the presence of compelling state interest and
that the law, rule, or regulation is narrowly drawn to preclude abuses. This approach is
demanded by the 1987 Constitution whose entire matrix is designed to protect human rights

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and to prevent authoritarianism. In case of doubt, the least we can do is to lean towards the
stance that will not put in danger the rights protected by the Constitution.

The right to privacy is one of the most threatened rights of man living in a mass
society. The threats emanate from various sources – governments, journalists, employers,
social scientists, etc. In the case at bar, the threat comes from the executive branch of
government which by issuing A.O. No. 308 pressures the people to surrender their privacy
by giving information about themselves on the pretext that it will facilitate delivery of basic
services. Given the record-keeping power of the computer, only the indifferent will fail to
perceive the danger that A.O. No. 308 gives the government the power to compile a
devastating dossier against unsuspecting citizens. x x x [W]e close with the statement that
the right to privacy was not engraved in our Constitution for flattery. (Ople v. Torres, G.R.
No. 127685, July 23, 1998 [Puno])

195. Should in camera inspection of bank accounts be allowed? If in the affirmative,

under what circumstances should it be allowed?

Held: The issue is whether petitioner may be cited for indirect contempt for her
failure to produce the documents requested by the Ombudsman. And whether the order of
the Ombudsman to have an in camera inspection of the questioned account is allowed as an
exception to the law on secrecy of bank deposits (R.A. No. 1405).

An examination of the secrecy of bank deposits law (R.A. No. 1405) would reveal the
following exceptions:

1) Where the depositor consents in writing;

2) Impeachment cases;
3) By court order in bribery or dereliction of duty cases against public officials;
4) Deposit is subject of litigation;
5) Sec. 8, R.A. No. 3019, in cases of unexplained wealth as held in the case of PNB v.
Gancayco (122 Phil. 503, 508 [1965]).

The order of the Ombudsman to produce for in camera inspection the subject
accounts with the Union Bank of the Philippines, Julia Vargas Branch, is based on a pending
investigation at the Office of the Ombudsman against Amado Lagdameo, et. al. for violation
of R.A. No. 3019, Sec. 3 (e) and (g) relative to the Joint Venture Agreement between the
Public Estates Authority and AMARI.

We rule that before an in camera inspection may be allowed, there must be a

pending case before a court of competent jurisdiction. Further, the account must be clearly
identified, the inspection limited to the subject matter of the pending case before the court
of competent jurisdiction. The bank personnel and the account holder must be notified to be
present during the inspection, and such inspection may cover only the account identified in
the pending case.

In Union Bank of the Philippines v. Court of Appeals, we held that “Section 2 of the
Law on Secrecy of Bank Deposits, as amended, declares bank deposits to be ‘absolutely
confidential’ except:

1) In an examination made in the course of a special or general examination of a

bank that is specifically authorized by the Monetary Board after being satisfied
that there is reasonable ground to believe that a bank fraud or serious irregularity
has been or is being committed and that it is necessary to look into the deposit to
establish such fraud or irregularity,
2) In an examination made by an independent auditor hired by the bank to conduct
its regular audit provided that the examination is for audit purposes only and the
results thereof shall be for the exclusive use of the bank,
3) Upon written permission of the depositor,
4) In cases of impeachment,
5) Upon order of a competent court in cases of bribery or dereliction of duty of
public officials, or
6) In cases where the money deposited or invested is the subject matter of the
litigation”.

In the case at bar, there is yet no pending litigation before any court of competent
authority. What is existing is an investigation by the Office of the Ombudsman. In short,
what the Office of the Ombudsman would wish to do is to fish for additional evidence to
formally charge Amado Lagdameo, et. al., with the Sandiganbayan. Clearly, there was no
pending case in court which would warrant the opening of the bank account for inspection.

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(Lourdes T. Marquez v. Hon. Aniano A. Desierto, G.R. No. 135882, June 27, 2001,
En Banc [Pardo])

Freedom of Expression

196. Distinguish “content-based restrictions” on free speech from “content-neutral

restrictions,” and give example of each.

Held: Content-based restrictions are imposed because of the content of the speech
and are, therefore, subject to the clear-and-present danger test. For example, a rule such as
that involved in Sanidad v. Comelec, prohibiting columnists, commentators, and announcers
from campaigning either for or against an issue in a plebiscite must have compelling reason
to support it, or it will not pass muster under strict scrutiny. These restrictions are censorial
and therefore they bear a heavy presumption of constitutional invalidity. In addition, they
will be tested for possible overbreadth and vagueness.

Content-neutral restrictions, on the other hand, like Sec. 11(b) of R.A. No. 6646,
which prohibits the sale or donation of print space and air time to political candidates during
the campaign period, are not concerned with the content of the speech. These regulations
need only a substantial governmental interest to support them. A deferential standard of
review will suffice to test their validity. The clear-and-present danger rule is inappropriate
as a test for determining the constitutional validity of laws, like Sec. 11(b) of R.A. No. 6646,
which are not concerned with the content of political ads but only with their incidents. To
apply the clear-and-present danger test to such regulatory measures would be like using a
sledgehammer to drive a nail when a regular hammer is all that is needed.

The test for this difference in the level of justification for the restriction of speech is
that content-based restrictions distort public debate, have improper motivation, and are
usually imposed because of fear of how people will react to a particular speech. No such
reasons underlie content-neutral regulations, like regulation of time, place and manner of
holding public assemblies under B.P. Blg. 880, the Public Assembly Act of 1985. (Osmena
v. COMELEC, 288 SCRA 447, March 31, 1998 [Mendoza])

197. What is the most influential test for distinguishing content-based from content-
neutral regulations?

Held: The United States Supreme Court x x x held in United States v. O’ Brien:

[A] a governmental regulation is sufficiently justified (1) if it is within the

constitutional power of the government; (2) if it furthers an important or substantial
governmental interest; (3) if the governmental interest is unrelated to the
suppression of free expression; and (4) if the incidental restriction on alleged First
Amendment freedoms (of speech, expression and press) is no greater than is
essential to the furtherance of that intesrst (391 U.S. 367, 20 L. Ed. 2df 692, 680
[1968] [bracketed numbers added])

This is so far the most influential test for distinguishing content-based from content-
neutral regulations and is said to have “become canonical in the review of such laws.” (G.
Gunther & K. Sullivan, Constitutional Law 1217 [13th ed. 1997]). It is noteworthy that the O’
Brien test has been applied by this Court in at least two cases (Adiong v. Comelec, 207
SCRA 712 [1992]; Osmena v. Comelec, supra.).

Under this test, even if a law furthers an important or substantial governmental

interest, it should be invalidated if such governmental interest is “not unrelated to the
suppression of free expression.” Moreover, even if the purpose is unrelated to the
suppression of free speech, the law should nevertheless be invalidated if the restriction on
freedom of expression is greater than is necessary to achieve the governmental purpose in
question. (Social Weather Stations, Inc. v. Comelec, G.R. No. 147571, May 5, 2001,
En Banc [Mendoza])

198. Does the conduct of exit poll by ABS CBN present a clear and present danger of
destroying the credibility and integrity of the electoral process as it has the tendency to
sow confusion considering the randomness of selecting interviewees, which further
makes the exit poll highly unreliable, to justify the promulgation of a Comelec resolution
prohibiting the same?

Held: Such arguments are purely speculative and clearly untenable. First, by the
very nature of a survey, the interviewees or participants are selected at random, so that the

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results will as much as possible be representative or reflective of the general sentiment or
view of the community or group polled. Second, the survey result is not meant to replace or
be at par with the official Comelec count. It consists merely of the opinion of the polling
group as to who the electorate in general has probably voted for, based on the limited data
gathered from polled individuals. Finally, not at stake are the credibility and the integrity of
the elections, which are exercises that are separate and independent from the exit polls.
The holding and the reporting of the results of exit polls cannot undermine those of the
elections, since the former is only part of the latter. If at all, the outcome of one can only be
indicative of the other.

The COMELEC’s concern with the possible noncommunicative effect of exit polls –
disorder and confusion in the voting centers – does not justify a total ban on them.
Undoubtedly, the assailed Comelec Resolution is too broad, since its application is without
qualification as to whether the polling is disruptive or not. There is no showing, however,
that exit polls or the means to interview voters cause chaos in voting centers. Neither has
any evidence been presented proving that the presence of exit poll reporters near an
election precinct tends to create disorder or confuse the voters.

Moreover, the prohibition incidentally prevents the collection of exit poll data and
their use for any purpose. The valuable information and ideas that could be derived from
them, based on the voters’ answers to the survey questions will forever remain unknown
and unexplored. Unless the ban is restrained, candidates, researchers, social scientists and
the electorate in general would be deprived of studies on the impact of current events and
of election-day and other factors on voters’ choices.

The absolute ban imposed by the Comelec cannot, therefore, be justified. It does not
leave open any alternative channel of communication to gather the type of information
obtained through exit polling. On the other hand, there are other valid and reasonable ways
and means to achieve the Comelec end of avoiding or minimizing disorder and confusion
that may be brought about by exit surveys.

With foregoing premises, it is concluded that the interest of the state in reducing
disruption is outweighed by the drastic abridgment of the constitutionally guaranteed rights
of the media and the electorate. Quite the contrary, instead of disrupting elections, exit
polls – properly conducted and publicized – can be vital tools for the holding of honest,
orderly, peaceful and credible elections; and for the elimination of election-fixing, fraud and
other electoral ills. (ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation v. COMELEC, G.R. No.
133486, Jan. 28, 2000, En Banc [Panganiban])

199. Section 5.4 of R.A. No. 9006 (Fair Election Act) which provides: “Surveys affecting
national candidates shall not be published fifteen (15) days before an election and
surveys affecting local candidates shall not be published seven (7) days before an
election.” The Social Weather Stations, Inc. (SWS), a private non-stock, non-profit social
research institution conducting surveys in various fields; and Kamahalan Publishing
Corporation, publisher of the Manila Standard, a newspaper of general circulation, which
features newsworthy items of information including election surveys, challenged the
constitutionality of aforesaid provision as it constitutes a prior restraint on the exercise
of freedom of speech without any clear and present danger to justify such restraint.
Should the challenge be sustained?

Held: For reason hereunder given, we hold that Section 5.4 of R.A. No. 9006
constitutes an unconstitutional abridgment of freedom of speech, expression, and the press.

To be sure, Section 5.4 lays a prior restraint on freedom of speech, expression, and
the press by prohibiting the publication of election survey results affecting candidates within
the prescribed periods of fifteen (15) days immediately preceding a national election and
seven (7) days before a local election. Because of the preferred status of the constitutional
rights of speech, expression, and the press, such a measure is vitiated by a weighty
presumption of invalidity. Indeed, “any system of prior restraints of expression comes to
this Court bearing a heavy presumption against its constitutional validity x x x. The
Government ‘thus carries a heavy burden of showing justification for the enforcement of
such restraint.’” There is thus a reversal of the normal presumption of validity that inheres
in every legislation.

Nor may it be argued that because of Art. IX-C, Sec. 4 of the Constitution, which gives
the Comelec supervisory power to regulate the enjoyment or utilization of franchise for the
operation of media of communication, no presumption of invalidity attaches to a measure
like Sec. 5.4. For as we have pointed out in sustaining the ban on media political
advertisements, the grant of power to the Comelec under Art. IX-C, Sec. 4 is limited to

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ensuring “equal opportunity, time, space, and the right to reply” as well as uniform and
reasonable rates of charges for the use of such media facilities for “public information
campaigns and forums among candidates.”

Xxx

Nor can the ban on election surveys be justified on the ground that there are other
countries x x x which similarly impose restrictions on the publication of election surveys. At
best this survey is inconclusive. It is noteworthy that in the United States no restriction on
the publication of election survey results exists. It cannot be argued that this is because the
United States is a mature democracy. Neither are there laws imposing an embargo on
survey results, even for a limited period, in other countries. x x x.

What test should then be employed to determine the constitutional validity of Section
5.4? The United States Supreme Court x x x held in United States v. O’ Brien:

[A] government regulation is sufficiently justified (1) if it is within the constitutional

power of the government; (2) if it furthers an important or substantial governmental
interest; (3) if the governmental interest is unrelated to the suppression of free
expression; and (4) if the incidental restriction on alleged First Amendment freedoms
(of speech, expression and press) is no greater than is essential to the furtherance of
that interest (391 U.S. 367, 20 L. Ed. 2d 692, 680 [1968] [bracketed numbers
added]).

This is so far the most influential test for distinguishing content-based from content-
neutral regulations and is said to have “become canonical in the review of such laws.” It is
noteworthy that the O’ Brien test has been applied by this Court in at least two cases
(Adiong v. Comelec; Osmena v. Comelec).

Under this test, even if a law furthers an important or substantial governmental

interest, it should be invalidated if such governmental interest is “not unrelated to the
suppression of free expression.” Moreover, even if the purpose is unrelated to the
suppression of free speech, the law should nevertheless be invalidated if the restriction on
freedom of expression is greater than is necessary to achieve the governmental purpose in
question.

Our inquiry should accordingly focus on these two considerations as applied to Sec.
5.4.

First. Sec. 5.4 fails to meet criterion (3) of the O’ Brien test because the causal
connection of expression to the asserted governmental interest makes such interest “not
unrelated to the suppression of free expression.” By prohibiting the publication of election
survey results because of the possibility that such publication might undermine the integrity
of the election, Sec. 5.4 actually suppresses a whole class of expression, while allowing the
expression of opinion concerning the same subject matter by newspaper columnists, radio
and TV commentators, armchair theorists, and other opinion makers. In effect, Sec. 5.4
shows a bias for a particular subject matter, if not viewpoint, by preferring personal opinion
to statistical results. The constitutional guarantee of freedom of expression means that “the
government has no power to restrict expression because of its message, its ideas, its
subject matter, or its contents.” The inhibition of speech should be upheld only if the
expression falls within one of the few unprotected categories dealt with in Chaplinsky v. New
Hampshire, thus:

There are certain well-defined and narrowly limited classes of speech, the
prevention and punishment of which have never been thought to raise any
Constitutional problem. These include the lewd and obscene, the profane, the
libelous, and the insulting or ‘fighting’ words – those which by their very utterance
inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace. [S]uch utterances
are no essential part of any exposition of ideas, and are of such slight social value as
a step to truth that any benefit that may be derived from them is clearly outweighed
by the social interest in order and morality.

Nor is there justification for the prior restraint which Sec. 5.4 lays on protected
speech. In Near v. Minnesota, it was held:

[T]he protection even as to previous restraint is not absolutely unlimited. But the
limitation has been recognized only in exceptional cases x x x. No one would
question but that a government might prevent actual obstruction to its recruiting
service or the publication of the sailing dates of transports or the number and

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 location of troops. On similar grounds, the primary requirements of decency may be
enforced against obscene publications. The security of the community life may be
protected against incitements to acts of violence and the overthrow by force of
orderly government x x x.

Thus, x x x the prohibition imposed by Sec. 5.4 cannot be justified on the ground that
it is only for a limited period and is only incidental. The prohibition may be for a limited
time, but the curtailment of the right of expression is direct, absolute, and substantial. It
constitutes a total suppression of a category of speech and is not made less so because it is
only for a period of fifteen (15) days immediately before a national election and seven (7)
days immediately before a local election.

This sufficiently distinguishes Sec. 5.4 from R.A. No. 6646, Sec. 11(b), which this
Court found to be valid in National Press Club v. Comelec, and Osmena v. Comelec. For the
ban imposed by R.A. No. 6646, Sec. 11(b) is not only authorized by a specific constitutional
provision (Art. IX-C, Sec. 4), but it also provided an alternative so that, as this Court pointed
out in Osmena, there was actually no ban but only a substitution of media advertisements
by the Comelec space, and Comelec hour.

Second. Even if the governmental interest sought to be promoted is unrelated to the

suppression of speech and the resulting restriction of free expression is only incidental, Sec.
5.4 nonetheless fails to meet criterion (4) of the O’ Brien test, namely, that the restriction be
not greater than is necessary to further the governmental interest. As already stated, Sec.
5.4. aims at the prevention of last-minute pressure on voters, the creation of bandwagon
effect, “junking” of weak or “losing” candidates, and resort to the form of election cheating
called “dagdag-bawas.” Praiseworthy as these aims of the regulation might be, they cannot
be attained at the sacrifice of the fundamental right of expression, when such aim can be
more narrowly pursued by punishing unlawful acts, rather than speech because of
apprehension that such speech creates the danger of such evils. Thus, under the
Administrative Code of 1987 (Bk. V, Tit. I, Subtit. C, Ch 1, Sec. 3[1]), the Comelec is given
the power:

To stop any illegal activity, or confiscate, tear down, and stop any unlawful,
libelous, misleading or false election propaganda, after due notice and hearing.

This is surely a less restrictive means than the prohibition contained in Sec. 5.4.
Pursuant to this power of the Comelec, it can confiscate bogus survey results calculated to
mislead voters. Candidates can have their own surveys conducted. No right of reply can be
invoked by others. No principle of equality is involved. It is a free market to which each
candidate brings his ideas. As for the purpose of the law to prevent bandwagon effects, it is
doubtful whether the Government can deal with this natural-enough tendency of some
voters. Some voters want to be identified with the “winners.” Some are susceptible to the
herd mentality. Can these be legitimately prohibited by suppressing the publication of
survey results which are a form of expression? It has been held that “[mere] legislative
preferences or beliefs respecting matters of public convenience may well support regulation
directed at other personal activities, but be insufficient to justify such as diminishes the
exercise of rights so vital to the maintenance of democratic institutions.”

To summarize then, we hold that Sec. 5.4. is invalid because (1) it imposes a prior
restraint on the freedom of expression, (2) it is a direct and total suppression of a category
of expression even though such suppression is only for a limited period, and (3) the
governmental interest sought to be promoted can be achieved by means other than the
suppression of freedom of expression. (Social Weather Stations, Inc., v. COMELEC,
G.R. No. 147571, May 5, 2001, En Banc [Mendoza])

200. The question for determination in this case is the liability for libel of a citizen who
denounces a barangay official for misconduct in office. The Regional Trial Court of
Manila x x x found petitioner guilty x x x on the ground that petitioner failed to prove the
truth of the charges and that he was “motivated by vengeance in uttering the
defamatory statement.”

Held: The decision appealed from should be reversed.

In denouncing the barangay chairman in this case, petitioner and the other residents
of the Tondo Foreshore Area were not only acting in their self-interest but engaging in the
performance of a civic duty to see to it that public duty is discharged faithfully and well by
those on whom such duty is incumbent. The recognition of this right and duty of every
citizen in a democracy is inconsistent with any requirement placing on him the burden of
proving that he acted with good motives and for justifiable ends.

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 For that matter, even if the defamatory statement is false, no liability can attach if it
relates to official conduct, unless the public official concerned proves that the statement was
made with actual malice – that is, with knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard
of whether it was false or not. This is the gist of the ruling in the landmark case of New York
Times v. Sullivan, which this Court has cited with approval in several of its own decisions.
This is the rule of “actual malice.” In this case, the prosecution failed to prove not only that
the charges made by petitioner were false but also that petitioner made them with
knowledge of their falsity or with reckless disregard of whether they were false or not.

A rule placing on the accused the burden of showing the truth of allegations of official
misconduct and/or good motives and justifiable ends for making such allegations would not
only be contrary to Art. 361 of the Revised Penal Code. It would, above all, infringe on the
constitutionally guaranteed freedom of expression. Such a rule would deter citizens from
performing their duties as members of a self-governing community. Without free speech
and assembly, discussions of our most abiding concerns as a nation would be stifled. As
Justice Brandies has said, “public discussion is a political duty” and the “greatest menace to
freedom is an inert people.” (Whitney v. California) (Vasquez v. Court of Appeals, 314
SCRA 460, Sept. 15, 1999, En Banc [Mendoza])

201. Discuss the "doctrine of fair comment" as a valid defense in an action for libel or
slander.

Held: Fair commentaries on matters of public interest are privileged and constitute
a valid defense in an action for libel or slander. The doctrine of fair comment means that
while in general every discreditable imputation publicly made is deemed false, because
every man is presumed innocent until his guilt is judicially proved, and every false
imputation is deemed malicious, nevertheless, when the discreditable imputation is directed
against a public person in his public capacity, it is not necessarily actionable. In order that
such discreditable imputation to a public official may be actionable, it must either be a false
allegation of fact or a comment based on a false supposition. If the comment is an
expression of opinion, based on established facts, then it is immaterial that the opinion
happens to be mistaken, as long as it might reasonably be inferred from the facts. (Borjal
v. CA, 301 SCRA 1, Jan. 14, 1999, 2nd Div. [Bellosillo])

202. What is the “raison d’etre” for the New York Times v. Sullivan (376 US 254) holding
that honest criticisms on the conduct of public officials and public figures are insulated
from libel judgments?

Held: The guarantees of freedom of speech and press prohibit a public official or
public figure from recovering damages for a defamatory falsehood relating to his official
conduct unless he proves that the statement was made with actual malice, i.e., with
knowledge that it was false or with reckless disregard of whether it was false or not.

The raison d’etre for the New York Times doctrine was that to require critics of official
conduct to guarantee the truth of all their factual assertions on pain of libel judgments would
lead to self-censorship, since would-be critics would be deterred from voicing out their
criticisms even if such were believed to be true, or were in fact true, because of doubt
whether it could be proved or because of fear of the expense of having to prove it. (Borjal
v. CA, 301 SCRA 1, Jan. 14, 1999, 2nd Div. [Bellosillo])

203. Columnist Art Borjal of The Philippine Star wrote in his column that petitioner (private
respondent), the Executive Director and Spokesman of the FNCLT (First National
Conference on Land Transportation), a joint project of the government and the private
sector to raise funds to improve the state of land transportation in the country, engaged
in shady and anomalous deals. He was sued for damages arising from libel by petitioner
(private respondent) and subsequently found liable by the trial court and made to pay
damages. On appeal, the SC reversed applying the doctrine of fair comment.

Held: [W]e deem private respondent a public figure within the purview of the New
York Times ruling. X x x

The FNCLT (First National Conference on Land Transportation) was an undertaking

infused with public interest. It was promoted as a joint project of the government and the
private sector, and organized by top government officials and prominent businessmen. For
this reason, it attracted media mileage and drew public attention not only to the conference
itself but to the personalities behind as well. As its Executive Director and spokesman,
private respondent consequently assumed the status of a public figure.

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 But even assuming ex-gratia argumenti that private respondent, despite the position
he occupied in the FNCLT, would not qualify as a public figure, it does not necessarily follow
that he could not validly be the subject of a public comment even if he was not a public
official or at least a public figure, for he could be, as long as he was involved in a public
issue. If a matter is a subject of public or general interest, it cannot suddenly become less
so merely because a private individual is involved or because in some sense the individual
did not voluntarily choose to become involved. The public’s primary interest is in the event;
the public focus is on the conduct of the participant and the content, effect and significance
of the conduct, not the participant’s prior anonymity or notoriety. (Borjal v. CA, 301 SCRA
1, Jan. 14, 1999, 2nd Div. [Bellosillo])

204. Who is a “public figure,” and therefore subject to public comment?

Held: At any rate, we have also defined “public figure” in Ayers Production Pty., Ltd.
v. Capulong as –

X x x a person who, by his accomplishments, fame, mode of living, or by adopting a

profession or calling which gives the public a legitimate interest in his doings, his
affairs and his character, has become a ‘public personage.’ He is, in other words, a
celebrity. Obviously, to be included in this category are those who have achieved
some degree of reputation by appearing before the public, as in the case of an actor,
a professional baseball player, a pugilist, or any other entertainer. The list is,
however, broader than this. It includes public officers, famous inventors and
explorers, war heroes and even ordinary soldiers, infant prodigy, and no less a
personage than the Great Exalted Ruler of the lodge. It includes, in short, anyone
who has arrived at a position where the public attention is focused upon him as a
person. (Borjal v. CA, 301 SCRA 1, Jan. 14, 1999, 2nd Div. [Bellosillo])

205. What are the types of privileged communications?

Held: A privileged communication may be either absolutely privileged or qualifiedly

privileged. Absolutely privileged communications are those which are not actionable even if
the author acted in bad faith. An example is found in Sec. 11, Art. VI, of the 1987
Constitution which exempts a member of Congress from liability for any speech or debate in
the Congress or in any Committee thereof. Upon the other hand, qualifiedly privileged
communications containing defamatory imputations are not actionable unless found to have
been made without good intention or justifiable motive. To this genre belong “private
communications” and “fair and true report without any comments or remarks.” (Borjal v.
CA, 301 SCRA 1, Jan. 14, 1999, 2nd Div. [Bellosillo])

206. Is the enumeration of qualifiedly privileged communications under Article 354 of the
Revised Penal Code exclusive?

Held: Indisputably, petitioner Borjal’s questioned writings are not within the
exceptions of Art. 354 of The Revised Penal Code for x x x they are neither private
communications nor fair and true report without any comments or remarks. However, this
does not necessarily mean that they are not privileged. To be sure, the enumeration under
Art. 354 is not an exclusive list of qualifiedly privileged communications since fair
commentaries on matters of public interest are likewise privileged. (Borjal v. CA, 301
SCRA 1, Jan. 14, 1999, 2nd Div. [Bellosillo])

207. Discuss the origin of the rule on privileged communication. Did it originate in the
nation’s penal laws, or in the Bill of Rights guaranteeing freedom of speech and of the
press?

Held: The rule on privileged communications had its genesis not in the nation’s
penal code but in the Bill of Rights of the Constitution guaranteeing freedom of speech and
of the press. As early as 1918, in United States v. Canete (38 Phil. 253, 265 [1918]), this
Court ruled that publications which are privileged for reasons of public policy are protected
by the constitutional guaranty of freedom of speech. This constitutional right cannot be
abolished by the mere failure of the legislature to give it express recognition in the statute
punishing libel. (Borjal v. CA, 301 SCRA 1, Jan. 14, 1999, 2nd Div. [Bellosillo])

208. The Office of the Mayor of Las Pinas refused to issue permit to petitioners to hold
rally a rally in front of the Justice Hall of Las Pinas on the ground that it was prohibited
under Supreme Court En Banc Resolution dated July 7,1998 in A.M. No. 98-7-02-SC,
entitled, "Re: Guidelines on the Conduct of Demonstrations, Pickets, Rallies and Other
Similar Gatherings in the Vicinity of the Supreme Court and All Other Courts." Petitioners
thus initiated the instant proceedings. They submit that the Supreme Court gravely

128
 abused its discretion and/or acted without or in excess of jurisdiction in promulgating
those guidelines.

Held: We shall first dwell on the critical argument made by petitioners that the rules
constitute an abridgment of the people's aggregate rights of free speech, free expression,
peaceful assembly and petitioning government for redress of grievances citing Sec. 4,
Article III of the 1987 Constitution that “no law shall be passed abridging” them.

It is true that the safeguarding of the people's freedom of expression to the end that
individuals may speak as they think on matters vital to them and that falsehoods may be
exposed through the processes of education and discussion, is essential to free government.
But freedom of speech and expression despite its indispensability has its limitations. It has
never been understood as the absolute right to speak whenever, however, and wherever
one pleases, for the manner, place, and time of public discussion can be constitutionally
controlled. [T]he better policy is not liberty untamed but liberty regulated by law where
every freedom is exercised in accordance with law and with due regard for the rights of
others.

Conventional wisdom tells us that the realities of life in a complex society preclude
an absolutist interpretation of freedom of expression where it does not involve pure speech
but speech plus physical actions like picketing. There are other significant societal values
that must be accommodated and when they clash, they must all be weighed with the
promotion of the general welfare of the people as the ultimate objective. In balancing these
values, this Court has accorded freedom of expression a preferred position in light of its
more comparative importance. Hence, our rulings now musty in years hold that only the
narrowest time, place and manner regulations that are specifically tailored to serve an
important governmental interest may justify the application of the balancing of interests test
in derogation of the people's right of free speech and expression. Where said regulations do
not aim particularly at the evils within the allowable areas of state control but, on the
contrary, sweep within their ambit other activities as to operate as an overhanging threat to
free discussion, or where upon their face they are so vague, indefinite, or inexact as to
permit punishment of the fair use of the right of free speech, such regulations are void.

Prescinding from this premise, the Court reiterates that judicial independence and
the fair and orderly administration of justice constitute paramount governmental interests
that can justify the regulation of the public's right of free speech and peaceful assembly in
the vicinity of courthouses. In the case of In Re: Emil P. Jurado, the Court pronounced in no
uncertain terms that:

“x x x freedom of expression needs on occasion to be adjusted to and

accommodated with the requirements of equally important public interests. One of
these fundamental public interests is the maintenance of the integrity and orderly
functioning of the administration of justice. There is no antinomy between free
expression and the integrity of the system of administering justice. For the
protection and maintenance of freedom of expression itself can be secured only
within the context of a functioning and orderly system of dispensing justice, within
the context, in other words, of viable independent institutions for delivery of justice
which are accepted by the general community. x x x” (In Re: Emil P. Jurado, 243
SCRA 299, 323-324 [1995])

It is sadly observed that judicial independence and the orderly administration of

justice have been threatened not only by contemptuous acts inside, but also by irascible
demonstrations outside, the courthouses. They wittingly or unwittingly, spoil the ideal of
sober, non-partisan proceedings before a cold and neutral judge. Even in the United States,
a prohibition against picketing and demonstrating in or near courthouses, has been ruled as
valid and constitutional notwithstanding its limiting effect on the exercise by the public of
their liberties. X x x

The administration of justice must not only be fair but must also appear to be fair and
it is the duty of this Court to eliminate everything that will diminish if not destroy this judicial
desideratum. To be sure, there will be grievances against our justice system for there can
be no perfect system of justice but these grievances must be ventilated through appropriate
petitions, motions or other pleadings. Such a mode is in keeping with the respect due to the
courts as vessels of justice and is necessary if judges are to dispose their business in a fair
fashion. It is the traditional conviction of every civilized society that courts must be
insulated from every extraneous influence in their decisions. The facts of a case should be
determined upon evidence produced in court, and should be uninfluenced by bias, prejudice
or sympathies. (In Re: Petition to Annul En Banc Resolution A.M. 98-7-02-SC -

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Ricardo C. Valmonte and Union of Lawyers and Advocates for Transparency in
Government [ULAT], G.R. No. 134621, Sept. 29, 1998)

209. Did the Supreme Court commit an act of judicial legislation in promulgating En Banc
Resolution A.M. 98-7-02-SC, entitled, “Re: Guidelines on the Conduct of Demonstrations,
Pickets, Rallies and Other Similar Gatherings in the Vicinity of the Supreme Court and All
Other Courts?”

Held: Petitioners also claim that this Court committed an act of judicial legislation in
promulgating the assailed resolution. They charge that this Court amended provisions of
Batas Pambansa (B.P.) Blg. 880, otherwise known as “the Public Assembly Act,” by
converting the sidewalks and streets within a radius of two hundred (200) meters from every
courthouse from a public forum place into a “no rally” zone. Thus, they accuse this Court of
x x x violating the principle of separation of powers.

We reject these low watts arguments. Public places historically associated with the
free exercise of expressive activities, such as streets, sidewalks, and parks, are considered,
without more, to be public fora. In other words, it is not any law that can imbue such places
with the public nature inherent in them. But even in such public fora, it is settled
jurisprudence that the government may restrict speech plus activities and enforce
reasonable time, place, and manner regulations as long as the restrictions are content-
neutral, are narrowly tailored to serve a significant governmental interest, and leave open
ample alternative channels of communication.

Contrary therefore to petitioners’ impression, B.P. Blg. 880 did not establish streets
and sidewalks, among other places, as public fora. A close look at the law will reveal that it
in fact prescribes reasonable time, place, and manner regulations. Thus, it requires a
written permit for the holding of public assemblies in public places subject, even, to the right
of the mayor to modify the place and time of the public assembly, to impose a rerouting of
the parade or street march, to limit the volume of loud speakers or sound system and to
prescribe other appropriate restrictions on the conduct of the public assembly.

The existence of B.P. Blg. 880, however, does not preclude this Court from
promulgating rules regulating conduct of demonstrations in the vicinity of courts to assure
our people of an impartial and orderly administration of justice as mandated by the
Constitution. To insulate the judiciary from mob pressure, friendly or otherwise, and isolate
it from public hysteria, this Court merely moved away the situs of mass actions within a 200-
meter radius from every courthouse. In fine, B.P. Blg. 880 imposes general restrictions to
the time, place and manner of conducting concerted actions. On the other hand, the
resolution of this Court regulating demonstrations adds specific restrictions as they involve
judicial independence and the orderly administration of justice. There is thus no discrepancy
between the two sets of regulatory measures. Simply put, B.P. Blg. 880 and the assailed
resolution complement each other. We so hold following the rule in legal hermeneutics that
an apparent conflict between a court rule and a statutory provision should be harmonized
and both should be given effect if possible. (In Re: Petition to Annul En Banc
Resolution A.M. 98-7-02-SC - Ricardo C. Valmonte and Union of Lawyers and
Advocates for Transparency in Government [ULAT], G.R. No. 134621, Sept. 29,
1998)

210. Should live media coverage of court proceedings be allowed?

Held: The propriety of granting or denying permission to the media to broadcast,

record, or photograph court proceedings involves weighing the constitutional guarantees of
freedom of the press, the right of the public to information and the right to public trial, on
the one hand, and on the other hand, the due process rights of the defendant and the
inherent and constitutional power of the courts to control their proceedings in order to
permit the fair and impartial administration of justice. Collaterally, it also raises issues on
the nature of the media, particularly television and its role in society, and of the impact of
new technologies on law.

Xxx

Courts do not discriminate against radio and television media by forbidding the
broadcasting or televising of a trial while permitting the newspaper reporter access to the
courtroom, since a television or news reporter has the same privilege, as the news reporter
is not permitted to bring his typewriter or printing press into the courtroom.

In Estes v. Texas, the United States Supreme Court held that television coverage of
judicial proceedings involves an inherent denial of due process rights of a criminal

130
defendant. Voting 5-4, the Court through Mr. Justice Clark, identified four (4) areas of
potential prejudice which might arise from the impact of the cameras on the jury, witnesses,
the trial judge and the defendant. The decision in part pertinently stated:

“Experience likewise has established the prejudicial effect of telecasting on

witnesses. Witnesses might be frightened, play to the camera, or become nervous.
They are subject to extraordinary out-of-court influences which might affect their
testimony. Also, telecasting not only increases the trial judge's responsibility to avoid
actual prejudice to the defendant; it may as well affect his own performance. Judges
are human beings also and are subject to the same psychological reactions as
laymen. For the defendant, telecasting is a form of mental harassment and subjects
him to excessive public exposure and distracts him from the effective presentation of
his defense.

“The television camera is a powerful weapon which intentionally or

inadvertently can destroy an accused and his case in the eyes of the public.”

Representatives of the press have no special standing to apply for a writ of mandate
to compel a court to permit them to attend a trial, since within the courtroom a reporter's
constitutional rights are no greater than those of any other member of the public. Massive
intrusion of representatives of the news media into the trial itself can so alter or destroy the
constitutionally necessary judicial atmosphere and decorum that the requirements of
impartiality imposed by due process of law are denied the defendant and a defendant in a
criminal proceeding should not be forced to run a gauntlet of reporters and photographers
each time he enters or leaves the courtroom.

Considering the prejudice it poses to the defendant's right to due process as well as
to the fair and orderly administration of justice, and considering further that the freedom of
the press and the right of the people to information may be served and satisfied by less
distracting, degrading and prejudicial means, live radio and television coverage of court
proceedings shall not be allowed. Video footages of court hearings for news purposes shall
be restricted and limited to shots of the courtroom, the judicial officers, the parties and their
counsel taken prior to the commencement of official proceedings. No video shots or
photographs shall be permitted during the trial proper. (Supreme Court En Banc
Resolution Re: Live TV and Radio Coverage of the Hearing of President Corazon C.
Aquino's Libel Case, dated Oct. 22, 1991)

211. Should the Court allow live media coverage of the anticipated trial of the plunder and
other criminal cases filed against former President Joseph E. Estrada before the
Sandiganbayan in order “to assure the public of full transparency in the proceedings of
an unprecedented case in our history” as requested by the Kapisanan ng mga
Brodkaster ng Pilipinas?

Held: The propriety of granting or denying the instant petition involve the weighing
out of the constitutional guarantees of freedom of the press and the right to public
information, on the one hand, and the fundamental rights of the accused, on the other hand,
along with the constitutional power of a court to control its proceedings in ensuring a fair
and impartial trial.

When these rights race against one another, jurisprudence tells us that the right of
the accused must be preferred to win.

With the possibility of losing not only the precious liberty but also the very life of an
accused, it behooves all to make absolutely certain that an accused receives a verdict solely
on the basis of a just and dispassionate judgment, a verdict that would come only after the
presentation of credible evidence testified to by unbiased witnesses unswayed by any kind
of pressure, whether open or subtle, in proceedings that are devoid of histrionics that might
detract from its basic aim to ferret veritable facts free from improper influence, and decreed
by a judge with an unprejudiced mind, unbridled by running emotions or passions.

Due process guarantees the accused a presumption of innocence until the contrary is
proved in a trial that is not lifted above its individual settings nor made an object of public’s
attention and where the conclusions reached are induced not by any outside force or
influence but only by evidence and argument given in open court, where fitting dignity and
calm ambiance is demanded.

Witnesses and judges may very well be men and women of fortitude, able to thrive in
hardy climate, with every reason to presume firmness of mind and resolute endurance, but
it must also be conceded that “television can work profound changes in the behavior of the

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people it focuses on.” Even while it may be difficult to quantify the influence, or pressure
that media can bring to bear on them directly and through the shaping of public opinion, it is
a fact, nonetheless, that, indeed, it does so in so many ways and in varying degrees. The
conscious or unconscious effect that such a coverage may have on the testimony of
witnesses and the decision of judges cannot be evaluated but, it can likewise be said, it is
not at all unlikely for a vote of guilt or innocence to yield to it. It might be farcical to build
around them an impregnable armor against the influence of the most powerful media of
public opinion.

To say that actual prejudice should first be present would leave to near nirvana the
subtle threats to justice that a disturbance of the mind so indispensable to the calm and
deliberate dispensation of justice can create. The effect of television may escape the
ordinary means of proof, but it is not far-fetched for it to gradually erode our basal
conception of a trial such as we know it now.

An accused has a right to a public trial but it is a right that belongs to him, more than
anyone else, where his life or liberty can be held critically in balance. A public trial aims to
ensure that he is fairly dealt with and would not be unjustly condemned and that his rights
are not compromised in secret conclaves of long ago. A public trial is not synonymous with
publicized trial; it only implies that the court doors must be open to those who wish to come,
sit in the available seats, conduct themselves with decorum and observe the trial process.
In the constitutional sense, a courtroom should have enough facilities for a reasonable
number of the public to observe the proceedings, not too small as to render the openness
negligible and not too large as to distract the trial participants from their proper functions,
who shall then be totally free to report what they have observed during the proceedings.

The courts recognize the constitutionally embodied freedom of the press and the
right to public information. It also approves of media’s exalted power to provide the most
accurate and comprehensive means of conveying the proceedings to the public and in
acquainting the public with the judicial process in action; nevertheless, within the
courthouse, the overriding consideration is still the paramount right of the accused to due
process which must never be allowed to suffer diminution in its constitutional proportions.
Justice Clark thusly pronounced, “while a maximum freedom must be allowed the press in
carrying out the important function of informing the public in a democratic society, its
exercise must necessarily be subject to the maintenance of absolute fairness in the judicial
process.”

Xxx

The Integrated Bar of the Philippines x x x expressed its own concern on the live
television and radio coverage of the criminal trials of Mr. Estrada; to paraphrase: Live
television and radio coverage can negate the rule on exclusion of witnesses during the
hearings intended to assure a fair trial; at stake in the criminal trial is not only the life and
liberty of the accused but the very credibility of the Philippine criminal justice system, and
live television and radio coverage of the trial could allow the “hooting throng” to arrogate
unto themselves the task of judging the guilt of the accused, such that the verdict of the
court will be acceptable only if popular; and live television and radio coverage of the trial will
not subserve the ends of justice but will only pander to the desire for publicity of a few
grandstanding lawyers.

Xxx

Unlike other government offices, courts do not express the popular will of the people
in any sense which, instead, are tasked to only adjudicate controversies on the basis of what
alone is submitted before them. A trial is not a free trade of ideas. Nor is a competing
market of thoughts the known test of truth in a courtroom. (Re: Request Radio-TV
coverage of the Trial in the Sandiganbayan of the Plunder Cases against the
former President Joseph E. Estrada, A.M. No. 01-4-03-SC, June 29, 2001, En Banc
[Vitug])

Freedom of Religion

212. Discuss the two aspects of freedom of religion.

Held: 1. The right to religious profession and worship has a two-fold aspect, viz.,
freedom to believe and freedom to act on one's belief. The first is absolute as long as the
belief is confined within the realm of thought. The second is subject to regulation where the

132
belief is translated into external acts that affect the public welfare. (Iglesia Ni Cristo v.
CA, 259 SCRA 529, July 26, 1996 [Puno])

2. The constitutional inhibition of legislation on the subject of religion has a double

aspect. On the one hand, it forestalls compulsion by law of the acceptance of any creed or
the practice of any form of worship. Freedom of conscience and freedom to adhere to such
religious organization or form of worship as the individual may choose cannot be restricted
by law. On the other hand, it safeguards the free exercise of the chosen form of religion.
Thus, the Constitution embraces two concepts, that is, freedom to believe and freedom to
act. The first is absolute but, in the nature of things, the second cannot be. Conduct
remains subject to regulation for the protection of society. The freedom to act must have
appropriate definitions to preserve the enforcement of that protection. In every case, the
power to regulate must be so exercised, in attaining a permissible end, as not to unduly
infringe on the protected freedom.

Whence, even the exercise of religion may be regulated, at some slight

inconvenience, in order that the State may protect its citizens from injury. X x x

It does not follow, therefore, from the constitutional guarantees of the free exercise
of religion that everything which may be so called can be tolerated. It has been said that a
law advancing a legitimate governmental interest is not necessarily invalid as one
interfering with the “free exercise” of religion merely because it also incidentally has a
detrimental effect on the adherents of one or more religion. (Centeno v. Villalon-
Pornillos, 236 SCRA 197, Sept. 1, 1994 [Regalado])

213. Discuss why the Gerona ruling (justifying the expulsion from public schools of
children of Jehovah’s Witnesses who refuse to salute the flag and sing the national
anthem during flag ceremony as prescribed by the Flag Salute Law) should be
abandoned.

Held: Our task here is extremely difficult, for the 30-year old decision of this court in
Gerona upholding the flag salute law and approving the expulsion of students who refuse to
obey it, is not lightly to be trifled with.

It is somewhat ironic however, that after the Gerona ruling had received legislative
cachet by its incorporation in the Administrative Code of 1987, the present Court believes
that the time has come to reexamine it. The idea that one may be compelled to salute the
flag, sing the national anthem, and recite the patriotic pledge, during a flag ceremony on
pain of being dismissed from one’s job or of being expelled from school, is alien to the
conscience of the present generation of Filipinos who cut their teeth on the Bill of Rights
which guarantees their rights to free speech (The flag salute, singing the national anthem
and reciting the patriotic pledge are all forms of utterances.) and the free exercise of
religious profession and worship.

Religious freedom is a fundamental right which is entitled to the highest priority and
the amplest protection among human rights, for it involves the relationship of man to his
Creator.

Xxx

Petitioners stress x x x that while they do not take part in the compulsory flag
ceremony, they do not engage in “external acts” or behavior that would offend their
countrymen who believe in expressing their love of country through the observance of the
flag ceremony. They quietly stand at attention during the flag ceremony to show their
respect for the rights of those who choose to participate in the solemn proceedings. Since
they do not engage in disruptive behavior, there is no warrant for their expulsion.

“The sole justification for a prior restraint or limitation on the exercise of

religious freedom (according to the late Chief Justice Claudio Teehankee in his
dissenting opinion in German v. Barangan, 135 SCRA 514, 517) is the existence of a
grave and present danger of a character both grave and imminent, of a serious evil
to public safety, public morals, public health or any other legitimate public interest,
that the State has a right (and duty) to prevent.” Absent such a threat to public
safety, the expulsion of the petitioners from the schools is not justified.

The situation that the Court directly predicted in Gerona that:

“[T]he flag ceremony will become a thing of the past or perhaps conducted
with very few participants, and the time will come when we would have citizens

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 untaught and uninculcated in and not imbued with reverence for the flag and love of
country, admiration for national heroes, and patriotism – a pathetic, even tragic
situation, and all because a small portion of the school population imposed its will,
demanded and was granted an exemption.”

has not come to pass. We are not persuaded that by exempting the Jehovah’s Witnesses
from saluting the flag, singing the national anthem and reciting the patriotic pledge, this
religious group which admittedly comprises a “small portion of the school population” will
shake up our part of the globe and suddenly produce a nation “untaught and uninculcated in
and unimbued with reverence for the flag, patriotism, love of country and admiration for
national heroes. After all, what the petitioners seek only is exemption from the flag
ceremony, not exclusion from the public schools where they may study the Constitution, the
democratic way of life and form of government, and learn not only the arts, sciences,
Philippine history and culture but also receive training for a vocation or profession and be
taught the virtues of “patriotism, respect for human rights, appreciation for national heroes,
the rights and duties of citizenship, and moral and spiritual values (Sec. 3[2], Art. XIV, 1987
Constitution) as part of the curricula. Expelling or banning the petitioners from Philippine
schools will bring about the very situation that this Court had feared in Gerona. Forcing a
small religious group, through the iron hand of the law, to participate in a ceremony that
violates their religious beliefs, will hardly be conducive to love of country or respect for duly
constituted authorities.

Xxx

Moreover, the expulsion of members of Jehovah’s Witnesses from the schools where
they are enrolled will violate their right as Philippine citizens, under the 1987 Constitution, to
receive free education, for it is the duty of the State to “protect and promote the right of all
citizens to quality education x x x and to make such education accessible to all” (Sec. 1, Art.
XIV).

In Victoriano v. Elizalde Rope Workers’ Union, we upheld the exemption of members

of the Iglesia Ni Cristo, from the coverage of a closed shop agreement between their
employer and a union because it would violate the teaching of their church not to join any
labor group x x x.

Xxx

We hold that a similar exemption may be accorded to the Jehovah’s Witnesses with
regard to the observance of the flag ceremony out of respect for their religious beliefs,
however “bizarre” those beliefs may seem to others. Nevertheless, their right not to
participate in the flag ceremony does not give them a right to disrupt such patriotic
exercises. Paraphrasing the warning cited by this Court in Non v. Dames II, while the
highest regard must be afforded their right to the free exercise of their religion, “this should
not be taken to mean that school authorities are powerless to discipline them” if they should
commit breaches of the peace by actions that offend the sensibilities, both religious and
patriotic, of other persons. If they quietly stand at attention during the flag ceremony while
their classmates and teachers salute the flag, sing the national anthem and recite the
patriotic pledge, we do not see how such conduct may possibly disturb the peace, or pose “a
grave and present danger of a serious evil to public safety, public morals, public health or
any other legitimate public interest that the State has a right (and duty) to prevent .”
(Ebralinag v. The Division Superintendent of Schools of Cebu, 219 SCRA 256, 269-
273, March 1, 1993, En Banc [Grino-Aquino])

214. A pre-taped TV program of the Iglesia Ni Cristo (INC) was submitted to the MTRCB for
review. The latter classified it as “rated X” because it was shown to be attacking
another religion. The INC protested by claiming that its religious freedom is per se
beyond review by the MTRCB. Should this contention be upheld?

Held: The Iglesia Ni Cristo's postulate that its religious freedom is per se beyond
review by the MTRCB should be rejected. Its public broadcast on TV of its religious programs
brings it out of the bosom of internal belief. Television is a medium that reaches even the
eyes and ears of children. The exercise of religious freedom can be regulated by the State
when it will bring about the clear and present danger of a substantive evil which the State is
duty-bound to prevent, i.e., serious detriment to the more overriding interest of public
health, public morals, or public welfare. A laissez faire policy on the exercise of religion can
be seductive to the liberal mind but history counsels the Court against its blind adoption as
religion is and continues to be a volatile area of concern in our society today. “For sure, we
shall continue to subject any act pinching the space for the free exercise of religion to a
heightened scrutiny but we shall not leave its rational exercise to the irrationality of man.

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For when religion divides and its exercise destroys, the State should not stand still.”
(Iglesia Ni Cristo v. CA, 259 SCRA 529, July 26, 1996 [Puno])

215. Did the MTRCB act correctly when it rated “X” the Iglesia Ni Cristo's pre-taped TV
program simply because it was found to be “attacking” another religion?

Held: The MTRCB may disagree with the criticisms of other religions by the Iglesia
Ni Cristo but that gives it no excuse to interdict such criticisms, however unclean they may
be. Under our constitutional scheme, it is not the task of the State to favor any religion by
protecting it against an attack by another religion. Religious dogma and beliefs are often at
war and to preserve peace among their followers, especially the fanatics, the establishment
clause of freedom of religion prohibits the State from leaning towards any religion. Vis-à-vis
religious differences, the State enjoys no banquet of options. Neutrality alone is its fixed
and immovable stance. In fine, the MTRCB cannot squelch the speech of the INC simply
because it attacks another religion. In a State where there ought to be no difference
between the appearance and the reality of freedom of religion, the remedy against bad
theology is better theology. The bedrock of freedom of religion is freedom of thought and it
is best served by encouraging the marketplace of dueling ideas. When the luxury of time
permits, the marketplace of ideas demands that speech should be met by more speech for it
is the spark of opposite speech, the heat of colliding ideas, that can fan the embers of truth.
(Iglesia Ni Cristo v. CA, 259 SCRA 529, July 26, 1996 [Puno])

216. Is solicitation for the construction of a church covered by P.D. No. 1564 and,
therefore, punishable if done without the necessary permit for solicitation from the
DSWD?

Held: First. Solicitation of contributions for the construction of a church is not

solicitation for “charitable or public welfare purpose” but for a religious purpose, and a
religious purpose is not necessarily a charitable or public welfare purpose. A fund campaign
for the construction or repair of a church is not like fund drives for needy families or victims
of calamity or for the construction of a civic center and the like. Like solicitation of
subscription to religious magazines, it is part of the propagation of religious faith or
evangelization. Such solicitation calls upon the virtue of faith, not of charity, save as those
solicited for money or aid may not belong to the same religion as the solicitor. Such
solicitation does not engage the philanthropic as much as the religious fervor of the person
who is solicited for contribution.

Second. The purpose of the Decree is to protect the public against fraud in view of
the proliferation of fund campaigns for charity and other civic projects. On the other hand,
since religious fund drives are usually conducted among those belonging to the same
religion, the need for public protection against fraudulent solicitations does not exist in as
great a degree as does the need for protection with respect to solicitations for charity or
civic projects as to justify state regulation.

Third. To require a government permit before solicitation for religious purpose may
be allowed is to lay a prior restraint on the free exercise of religion. Such restraint, if
allowed, may well justify requiring a permit before a church can make Sunday collections or
enforce tithing. But in American Bible Society v. City of Manila, we precisely held that an
ordinance requiring payment of a license fee before one may engage in business could not
be applied to the appellant's sale of bibles because that would impose a condition on the
exercise of a constitutional right. It is for the same reason that religious rallies are
exempted from the requirement of prior permit for public assemblies and other uses of
public parks and streets (B.P. Blg. 880, Sec. 3[a]). To read the Decree, therefore, as
including within its reach solicitations for religious purposes would be to construe it in a
manner that it violates the Free Exercise of Religion Clause of the Constitution x x x.
(Concurring Opinion, Mendoza, V.V., J., in Centeno v. Villalon-Pornillos, 236 SCRA
197, Sept. 1, 1994)

217. What is a purely ecclesiastical affair to which the State can not meddle?

Held: An ecclesiastical affair is “one that concerns doctrine, creed, or form of

worship of the church, or the adoption and enforcement within a religious association of
needful laws and regulations for the government of the membership, and the power of
excluding from such associations those deemed not worthy of membership.” Based on this
definition, an ecclesiastical affair involves the relationship between the church and its
members and relate to matters of faith, religious doctrines, worship and governance of the
congregation. To be concrete, examples of this so-called ecclesiastical affairs to which the
State cannot meddle are proceedings for excommunication, ordinations of religious
ministers, administration of sacraments and other activities with attached religious

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significance. (Pastor Dionisio V. Austria v. NLRC, G.R. No. 124382, Aug. 16, 1999, 1 st
Div. [Kapunan])

218. Petitioner is a religious minister of the Seventh Day Adventist (SDA). He was
dismissed because of alleged misappropriation of denominational funds, willful breach of
trust, serious misconduct, gross and habitual neglect of duties and commission of an
offense against the person of his employer’s duly authorized representative. He filed an
illegal termination case against the SDA before the labor arbiter. The SDA filed a motion
to dismiss invoking the doctrine of separation of Church and State. Should the motion
be granted?

Held: Where what is involved is the relationship of the church as an employer and
the minister as an employee and has no relation whatsoever with the practice of faith,
worship or doctrines of the church, i.e., the minister was not excommunicated or expelled
from the membership of the congregation but was terminated from employment, it is a
purely secular affair. Consequently, the suit may not be dismissed invoking the doctrine of
separation of church and the state. (Pastor Dionisio V. Austria v. NLRC, G.R. No.
124382, Aug. 16, 1999, 1st Div. [Kapunan])

The Right of the People to Information on Matters of Public Concern

219. Discuss the scope of the right to information on matters of public concern.

Held: In Valmonte v. Belmonte, Jr., the Court emphasized that the information
sought must be “matters of public concern,” access to which may be limited by law.
Similarly, the state policy of full public disclosure extends only to “transactions involving
public interest” and may also be “subject to reasonable conditions prescribed by law.” As to
the meanings of the terms “public interest” and “public concern,” the Court, in Legaspi v.
Civil Service Commission, elucidated:

“In determining whether or not a particular information is of public concern

there is no rigid test which can be applied. ‘Public concern’ like ‘public interest’ is a
term that eludes exact definition. Both terms embrace a broad spectrum of subjects
which the public may want to know, either because these directly affect their lives, or
simply because such matters naturally arouse the interest of an ordinary citizen. In
the final analysis, it is for the courts to determine on a case by case basis whether
the matter at issue is of interest or importance, as it relates to or affects the public.”

Considered a public concern in the above-mentioned case was the “legitimate

concern of citizens to ensure that government positions requiring civil service eligibility are
occupied only by persons who are eligibles.” So was the need to give the general public
adequate notification of various laws that regulate and affect the actions and conduct of
citizens, as held in Tanada. Likewise did the “public nature of the loanable funds of the GSIS
and the public office held by the alleged borrowers (members of the defunct Batasang
Pambansa)” qualify the information sought in Valmonte as matters of public interest and
concern. In Aquino-Sarmiento v. Morato, the Court also held that official acts of public
officers done in pursuit of their official functions are public in character; hence, the records
pertaining to such official acts and decisions are within the ambit of the constitutional right
of access to public records.

Under Republic Act No. 6713, public officials and employees are mandated to
“provide information on their policies and procedures in clear and understandable language,
[and] ensure openness of information, public consultations and hearing whenever
appropriate x x x,” except when “otherwise provided by law or when required by the public
interest.” In particular, the law mandates free public access, at reasonable hours, to the
annual performance reports of offices and agencies of government and government-owned
or controlled corporations; and the statements of assets, liabilities and financial disclosures
of all public officials and employees.

In general, writings coming into the hands of public officers in connection with their
official functions must be accessible to the public, consistent with the policy of transparency
of governmental affairs. This principle is aimed at affording the people an opportunity to
determine whether those to whom they have entrusted the affairs of the government are
honestly, faithfully and competently performing their functions as public servants.
Undeniably, the essence of democracy lies in the free-flow of thought; but thoughts and
ideas must be well-informed so that the public would gain a better perspective of vital issues
confronting them and, thus, be able to criticize as well as participate in the affairs of the
government in a responsible, reasonable and effective manner. Certainly, it is by ensuring

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an unfettered and uninhibited exchange of ideas among a well-informed public that a
government remains responsive to the changes desired by the people. (Chavez v. PCGG,
299 SCRA 744, Dec. 9, 1998, [Panganiban])

220. What are some of the recognized restrictions to the right of the people to information
on matters of public concern?

Held: In Chavez v. PCGG (299 SCRA 744, Dec. 9, 1998 [Panganiban]), the SC
enumerated the recognized restrictions to the right of the people to information on matters
of public concern, as follows:

1) National security matters and intelligence information. This jurisdiction

recognizes the common law holding that there is a governmental privilege
against public disclosure with respect to state secrets regarding military,
diplomatic and other national security matters. Likewise, information on inter-
government exchanges prior to the conclusion of treaties and executive
agreements may be subject to reasonable safeguards for the sake of national
interest;
2) Trade or industrial secrets (pursuant to the Intellectual Property Code [R.A. No.
8293, approved on June 6, 1997] and other related laws) and banking
transactions (pursuant to the Secrecy of Bank Deposits Act [R.A. No. 1405, as
amended]);
3) Criminal matters, such as those relating to the apprehension, the prosecution and
the detention of criminals, which courts may not inquire into prior to such arrest,
detention and prosecution;
4) Other confidential information. The Ethical Standards Act (R.A. No. 6713, enacted
on February 20, 1989) further prohibits public officials and employees from using
or divulging “confidential or classified information officially known to them by
reason of their office and not made available to the public.” (Sec. 7[c], ibid.)
Other acknowledged limitations to information access include diplomatic
correspondence, closed door Cabinet meetings and executive sessions of either
house of Congress, as well as the internal deliberations of the Supreme Court.

221. Is the recovery of the alleged ill-gotten wealth of the Marcoses a matter of public
concern subject to this right?

Held: With such pronouncements of our government x x x there is no doubt that the
recovery of the Marcoses’ alleged ill-gotten wealth is a matter of public concern and imbued
with public interest. We may also add that “ill-gotten wealth” refers to assets and properties
purportedly acquired, directly or indirectly, by former President Marcos, his immediate
family, relatives and close associates through or as a result of their improper or illegal use of
government funds or properties; or their having taken undue advantage of their public
office; or their use of powers, influences or relationships, “resulting in their unjust
enrichment and causing grave damage and prejudice to the Filipino people and the Republic
of the Philippines.” Clearly, the assets and properties referred to supposedly originated from
the government itself. To all intents and purposes, therefore, they belong to the people. As
such, upon reconveyance they will be returned to the public treasury, subject only to the
satisfaction of positive claims of certain persons as may be adjudged by competent courts.
Another declared overriding consideration for the expeditious recovery of ill-gotten wealth is
that it may be used for national economic recovery.

We believe the foregoing disquisition settles the question of whether petitioner has a
right to respondents' disclosure of any agreement that may be arrived at concerning the
Marcoses’ purported ill-gotten wealth. (Chavez v. PCGG, 299 SCRA 744, Dec. 9, 1998
[Panganiban])

Freedom of Association

222. Does the right of civil servants to organize include their right to strike? Clarify.

Held: Specifically, the right of civil servants to organize themselves was positively
recognized in Association of Court of Appeals Employees (ACAE) v. Ferrer-Calleja. But, as in
the exercise of the rights of free expression and of assembly, there are standards for
allowable limitations such as the legitimacy of the purposes of the association, the
overriding considerations of national security and the preservation of democratic
institutions.

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 As regards the right to strike, the Constitution itself qualifies its exercise with the
proviso “in accordance with law.” This is a clear manifestation that the state may, by law,
regulate the use of this right, or even deny certain sectors such right. Executive Order No.
180 which provides guidelines for the exercise of the right of government workers to
organize, for instance, implicitly endorsed an earlier CSC circular which “enjoins under pain
of administrative sanctions, all government officers and employees from staging strikes,
demonstrations, mass leaves, walkouts and other forms of mass action which will result in
temporary stoppage or disruption of public service” (CSC Memorandum Circular No. 6, s.
1987, dated April 21, 1987) by stating that the Civil Service law and rules governing
concerted activities and strikes in the government service shall be observed.

It is also settled in jurisprudence that, in general, workers in the public sector do not
enjoy the right to strike. Alliance of Concerned Government Workers v. Minister of Labor
and Employment rationalized the proscription thus:

“The general rule in the past and up to the present is that the ‘terms and
conditions of employment in the Government, including any political subdivision or
instrumentality thereof are governed by law.’ x x x. Since the terms and conditions
of government employment are fixed by law, government workers cannot use the
same weapons employed by the workers in the private sector to secure concessions
from their employers. The principle behind labor unionism in private industry is that
industrial peace cannot be secured through compulsion by law. Relations between
private employers and their employees rest on an essentially voluntary basis.
Subject to the minimum requirements of wage laws and other labor and welfare
legislation, the terms and conditions of employment in the unionized private sector
are settled through the process of collective bargaining. In government employment,
however, it is the legislature and, where properly given delegated power, the
administrative heads of government which fix the terms and conditions of
employment. And this is effected through statutes or administrative circulars, rules,
and regulations, not through collective bargaining agreements.”

After delving into the intent of the framers of the Constitution, the Court affirmed the
above rule in Social Security System Employees Association (SSSEA) v. Court of Appeals and
explained:

“Government employees may, therefore, through their unions or associations,

either petition the Congress for the betterment of the terms and conditions of
employment which are within the ambit of legislation or negotiate with the
appropriate government agencies for the improvement of those which are not fixed
by law. If there be any unresolved grievances, the dispute may be referred to the
Public Sector Labor-Management Council for appropriate action. But employees in
the civil service may not resort to strikes, walkouts and other temporary work
stoppages, like workers in the private sector, to pressure the Government to accede
to their demands. As now provided under Sec. 4, Rule III of the Rules and
Regulations to Govern the Exercise of the Right of Government Employees to Self-
Organization, which took effect after the instant dispute arose, ‘[t]he terms and
conditions of employment in the government, including any political subdivision or
instrumentality thereof and government-owned and controlled corporations with
original charters are governed by law and employees therein shall not strike for the
purpose of securing changes [thereto].’”
(Jacinto v. Court of Appeals, 281 SCRA 657, Nov. 14, 1997, En Banc
[Panganiban])

223. Petitioners public school teachers walked out of their classes and engaged in mass
actions during certain dates in September 1990 protesting the alleged unlawful
withholding of their salaries and other economic benefits. They also raised national
issues, such as the removal of US bases and the repudiation of foreign debts, in their
mass actions. They refused to return to work despite orders to do so and subsequently
were found guilty of conduct prejudicial to the best interests of the service for having
absented themselves without proper authority, from their schools during regular school
days, and penalized. They denied that they engaged in “strike” but claimed that they
merely exercised a constitutionally guaranteed right – the right to peaceably assemble
and petition the government for redress of grievances - and, therefore, should not have
been penalized. Should their contention be upheld?

Held: Petitioners, who are public schoolteachers and thus government employees,
do not seek to establish that they have a right to strike. Rather, they tenaciously insist that
their absences during certain dates in September 1990 were a valid exercise of their
constitutional right to engage in peaceful assembly to petition the government for a redress

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of grievances. They claim that their gathering was not a strike, therefore, their participation
therein did not constitute any offense. MPSTA v. Laguio and ACT v. Carino, in which this
Court declared that “these ‘mass actions’ were to all intents and purposes a strike; they
constituted a concerted and unauthorized stoppage of, or absence from, work which it was
the teachers’ duty to perform, undertaken for essentially economic reasons,” should not
principally resolve the present case, as the underlying facts are allegedly not identical.

Strike, as defined by law, means any temporary stoppage of work done by the
concerted action of employees as a result of an industrial or labor dispute . A labor dispute
includes any controversy or matter concerning terms and conditions of employment; or the
association or representation of persons in negotiating, fixing, maintaining, changing or
arranging the terms and conditions of employment, regardless of whether the disputants
stand in the proximate relation of employers and employees. With these premises, we now
evaluate the circumstances of the instant petition.

It cannot be denied that the mass action or assembly staged by the petitioners
resulted in the non-holding of classes in several public schools during the corresponding
period. Petitioners do not dispute that the grievances for which they sought redress
concerned the alleged failure of public authorities - essentially, their “employers” - to fully
and justly implement certain laws and measures intended to benefit them materially x x x.
And probably to clothe their action with permissible character, they also raised national
issues such as the removal of the U.S. bases and the repudiation of foreign debt. In
Balingasan v. Court of Appeals, however, this Court said that the fact that the conventional
term “strike” was not used by the participants to describe their common course of action
was insignificant, since the substance of the situation, and not its appearance, was deemed
controlling.

Moreover, the petitioners here x x x were not penalized for the exercise of their right
to assemble peacefully and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Rather,
the Civil Service Commission found them guilty of conduct prejudicial to the best interest of
the service for having absented themselves without proper authority, from their schools
during regular school days, in order to participate in the mass protest, their absence
ineluctably resulting in the non-holding of classes and in the deprivation of students of
education, for which they were responsible. Had petitioners availed themselves of their free
time - recess, after classes, weekends or holidays - to dramatize their grievances and to
dialogue with the proper authorities within the bounds of law, no one - not the DECS, the
CSC or even this Court - could have held them liable for the valid exercise of their
constitutionally guaranteed rights. As it was, the temporary stoppage of classes resulting
from their activity necessarily disrupted public services, the very evil sought to be
forestalled by the prohibition against strikes by government workers. Their act by their
nature was enjoined by the Civil Service law, rules and regulations, for which they must,
therefore, be made answerable. (Jacinto v. CA, 281 SCRA 657, Nov. 14, 1997, En Banc
[Panganiban])

The Non-Impairment Clause

224. Is the constitutional prohibition against impairing contractual obligations absolute?

Held: 1. Nor is there merit in the claim that the resolution and memorandum
circular violate the contract clause of the Bill of Rights.

The executive order creating the POEA was enacted to further implement the social
justice provisions of the 1973 Constitution, which have been greatly enhanced and
expanded in the 1987 Constitution by placing them under a separate Article (Article XIII).
The Article on Social Justice was aptly described as the “heart of the new Charter” by the
President of the 1986 Constitutional Commission, retired Justice Cecilia Munoz Palma . Social
justice is identified with the broad scope of the police power of the state and requires the
extensive use of such power. x x x.

The constitutional prohibition against impairing contractual obligations is not

absolute and is not to be read with literal exactness. It is restricted to contracts with respect
to property or some object of value and which confer rights that may be asserted in a court
of justice; it has no application to statutes relating to public subjects within the domain of
the general legislative powers of the State and involving the public rights and public welfare
of the entire community affected by it. It does not prevent a proper exercise by the State of
its police power by enacting regulations reasonably necessary to secure the health, safety,
morals, comfort, or general welfare of the community, even though contracts may thereby

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be affected, for such matters cannot be placed by contract beyond the power of the State to
regulate and control them.

Verily, the freedom to contract is not absolute; all contracts and all rights are subject
to the police power of the State and not only may regulations which affect them be
established by the State, but all such regulations must be subject to change from time to
time, as the general well-being of the community may require, or as the circumstances may
change, or as experience may demonstrate the necessity. And under the Civil Code,
contracts of labor are explicitly subject to the police power of the State because they are not
ordinary contracts but are impressed with public interest. Article 1700 thereof expressly
provides:

Art. 1700. The relations between capital and labor are not merely contractual.
They are so impressed with public interest that labor contracts must yield to the
common good. Therefore, such contracts are subject to the special laws on labor
unions, collective bargaining, strikes and lockouts, closed shop, wages, working
conditions, hours of labor and similar subjects.

The challenged resolution and memorandum circular being valid implementations of

E.O. No. 797 (Creating the POEA), which was enacted under the police power of the State,
they cannot be struck down on the ground that they violate the contract clause. To hold
otherwise is to alter long-established constitutional doctrine and to subordinate the police
power to the contract clause. (The Conference of Maritime Manning Agencies, Inc. v.
POEA, 243 SCRA 666, April 21, 1995 [Davide, Jr.])

2. Petitioners pray that the present action should be barred, because private
respondents have voluntarily executed quitclaims and releases and received their
separation pay. Petitioners claim that the present suit is a “grave derogation of the
fundamental principle that obligations arising from a valid contract have the force of law
between the parties and must be complied with in good faith.”

The Court disagrees. Jurisprudence holds that the constitutional guarantee of non-
impairment of contract is subject to the police power of the state and to reasonable
legislative regulations promoting health, morals, safety and welfare. Not all quitclaims are
per se invalid or against public policy, except (1) where there is clear proof that the waiver
was wangled from an unsuspecting or gullible person, or (2) where the terms of settlement
are unconscionable on their face. In these cases, the law will step in to annul the
questionable transactions. Such quitclaim and release agreements are regarded as
ineffective to bar the workers from claiming the full measure of their legal rights.

In the case at bar, the private respondents agreed to the quitclaim and release in
consideration of their separation pay. Since they were dismissed allegedly for business
losses, they are entitled to separation pay under Article 283 of the Labor Code. And since
there was thus no extra consideration for the private respondents to give up their
employment, such undertakings cannot be allowed to bar the action for illegal dismissal.
(Bogo-Medellin Sugarcane Planters Association, Inc. v. NLRC, 296 SCRA 108, 124,
[Panganiban])

3. Only slightly less abstract but nonetheless hypothetical is the contention of CREBA
that the imposition of the VAT on the sales and leases of real estate by virtue of contracts
entered prior to the effectivity of the law would violate the constitutional provision that “No
law impairing the obligation of contracts shall be passed.” It is enough to say that the
parties to a contract cannot, through the exercise of prophetic discernment, fetter the
exercise of the taxing power of the State. For not only are existing laws read into contracts
in order to fix obligations as between parties, but the reservation of essential attributes of
sovereign power is also read into contracts as a basic postulate of the legal order. The
policy of protecting contracts against impairment presupposes the maintenance of a
government which retains adequate authority to secure the peace and good order of
society.

In truth, the Contract Clause has never been thought as a limitation on the exercise
of the State's power of taxation save only where a tax exemption has been granted for a
valid consideration. x x x. (Tolentino v. Secretary of Finance, 235 SCRA 630, 685-
686, Aug. 25, 1994, En Banc [Mendoza])

4. Since timber licenses are not contracts, the non-impairment clause x x x cannot
be invoked.

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 X x x, even if it is to be assumed that the same are contracts, the instant case does
not involve a law or even an executive issuance declaring the cancellation or modification of
existing timber licenses. Hence, the non-impairment clause cannot as yet be invoked.
Nevertheless, granting further that a law has actually been passed mandating cancellations
or modifications, the same cannot still be stigmatized as a violation of the non-impairment
clause. This is because by its very nature and purpose, such a law could have only been
passed in the exercise of the police power of the state for the purpose of advancing the right
of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology, promoting their health and enhancing
their general welfare. x x x.

In short, the non-impairment clause must yield to the police power of the state.

Finally, it is difficult to imagine x x x how the non-impairment clause could apply with
respect to the prayer to enjoin the respondent Secretary from receiving, accepting,
processing, renewing or approving new timber license for, save in cases of renewal, no
contract would have as yet existed in the other instances. Moreover, with respect to
renewal, the holder is not entitled to it as a matter of right. (Oposa v. Factoran, Jr., 224
SCRA 792 [1993])

5. Anent petitioners’ contention that the forcible refund of incentive benefits is an

unconstitutional impairment of a contractual obligation, suffice it to state that “[n]ot all
contracts entered into by the government will operate as a waiver of its non-suability;
distinction must be made between its sovereign and proprietary acts. The acts involved in
this case are governmental. Besides, the Court is in agreement with the Solicitor General
that the incentive pay or benefit is in the nature of a bonus which is not a demandable or
enforceable obligation. (Blaquera v. Alcala, 295 SCRA 366, 446, Sept. 11, 1998, En
Banc [Purisima])

The In-Custodial Investigation Rights of an Accused Person

225. State the procedure, guidelines and duties which the arresting, detaining, inviting, or
investigating officer or his companions must do and observe at the time of making an
arrest and again at and during the time of the custodial interrogation.

Held: Lastly, considering the heavy penalty of death and in order to ensure that the
evidence against an accused were obtained through lawful means, the Court, as guardian of
the rights of the people lays down the procedure, guidelines and duties which the arresting,
detaining, inviting, or investigating officer or his companions must do and observe at the
time of making an arrest and again at and during the time of the custodial interrogation in
accordance with the Constitution, jurisprudence and Republic Act No. 7438 (An Act Defining
Certain Rights of Person Arrested, Detained or Under Custodial Investigation as well as the
Duties of the Arresting, Detaining, and Investigating Officers and Providing Penalties for
Violations Thereof). It is high-time to educate our law-enforcement agencies who neglect
either by ignorance or indifference the so-called Miranda rights which had become
insufficient and which the Court must update in the light of new legal developments:

1) The person arrested, detained, invited or under custodial investigation must be

informed in a language known to and understood by him of the reason for the
arrest and he must be shown the warrant of arrest, if any. Every other warnings,
information or communication must be in a language known to and understood
by said person;
2) He must be warned that he has a right to remain silent and that any statement
he makes may be used as evidence against him;
3) He must be informed that he has the right to be assisted at all times and have
the presence of an independent and competent lawyer, preferably of his own
choice;
4) He must be informed that if he has no lawyer or cannot afford the services of a
lawyer, one will be provided for him; and that a lawyer may also be engaged by
any person in his behalf, or may be appointed by the court upon petition of the
person arrested or one acting on his behalf;
5) That whether or not the person arrested has a lawyer, he must be informed that
no custodial investigation in any form shall be conducted except in the presence
of his counsel of after a valid waiver has been made;
6) The person arrested must be informed that, at any time, he has the right to
communicate or confer by the most expedient means - telephone, radio, letter or
messenger - with his lawyer (either retained or appointed), any member of his
immediate family, or any medical doctor, priest or minister chosen by him or by
any one from his immediate family or by his counsel, or be visited by/confer with

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 duly accredited national or international non-government organization. It shall be
the responsibility of the officer to ensure that this is accomplished;
7) He must be informed that he has the right to waive any of said rights provided it
is made voluntarily, knowingly and intelligently and ensure that he understood
the same;
8) In addition, if the person arrested waives his right to a lawyer, he must be
informed that it must be done in writing and in the presence of counsel,
otherwise, he must be warned that the waiver is void even if he insist on his
waiver and chooses to speak;
9) That the person arrested must be informed that he may indicate in any manner
at any time or stage of the process that he does not wish to be questioned with
warning that once he makes such indication, the police may not interrogate him if
the same had not yet commenced, or the interrogation must cease if it has
already begun;
10) The person arrested must be informed that his initial waiver of his right to remain
silent, the right to counsel or any of his rights does not bar him from invoking it at
any time during the process, regardless of whether he may have answered some
questions or volunteered some statements;
11) He must also be informed that any statement or evidence, as the case may be,
obtained in violation of any of the foregoing, whether inculpatory or exculpatory,
in whole or in part, shall be admissible in evidence.
(People v. Mahinay, 302 SCRA 455, Feb. 1, 1999, En Banc [Per Curiam])

226. Explain the kind of information that is required to be given by law enforcement
officers to suspect during custodial investigation.

Held: [I]t is settled that one’s right to be informed of the right to remain silent and
to counsel contemplates the transmission of meaningful information rather just the
ceremonial and perfunctory recitation of an abstract constitutional principle. It is not
enough for the interrogator to merely repeat to the person under investigation the
provisions of Section 12, Article III of the 1987 Constitution; the former must also explain the
effects of such provision in practical terms – e.g., what the person under investigation may
or may not do – and in a language the subject fairly understands. The right to be informed
carries with it a correlative obligation on the part of the police investigator to explain, and
contemplates effective communication which results in the subject’s understanding of what
is conveyed. Since it is comprehension that is sought to be attained, the degree of
explanation required will necessarily vary and depend on the education, intelligence, and
other relevant personal circumstances of the person undergoing investigation. In further
ensuring the right to counsel, it is not enough that the subject is informed of such right; he
should also be asked if he wants to avail of the same and should be told that he could ask
for counsel if he so desired or that one could be provided him at his request. If he decides
not to retain a counsel of his choice or avail of one to be provided for him and, therefore,
chooses to waive his right to counsel, such waiver, to be valid and effective, must still be
made with the assistance of counsel, who, under prevailing jurisprudence, must be a lawyer.
(People v. Canoy, 328 SCRA 385, March 17, 2000, 1st Div. [Davide, CJ])

227. What is the meaning of “competent counsel” under Section 12 of the Bill of Rights?

Held: The meaning of “competent counsel” was explained in People v. Deniega as

follows:

“x x x [T]he lawyer called to be present during such investigation should be as

far as reasonably possible, the choice of the individual undergoing questioning. If the
lawyer were one furnished in the accused’s behalf, it is important that he should be
competent and independent, i.e., that he is willing to fully safeguard the
constitutional rights of the accused, as distinguished from one who would merely be
giving a routine, peremptory and meaningless recital of the individual’s rights. In
People v. Basay (219 SCRA 404, 418), this Court stressed that an accused’s right to
be informed of the right to remain silent and to counsel ‘contemplates the
transmission of meaningful information rather than just the ceremonial and
perfunctory recitation of an abstract constitutional principle.’

“Ideally therefore, a lawyer engaged for an individual facing custodial

investigation (if the latter could not afford one) ‘should be engaged by the accused
(himself), or by the latter’s relative or person authorized by him to engage an
attorney or by the court, upon proper petition of the accused or person authorized by
the accused to file such petition.’ Lawyers engaged by the police, whatever
testimonials are given as proof of their probity and supposed independence, are

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 generally suspect, as in many areas, the relationship between lawyers and law
enforcement authorities can be symbiotic.

“x x x The competent or independent lawyer so engaged should be present

from the beginning to end, i.e., at all stages of the interview, counseling or advising
caution reasonably at every turn of the investigation, and stopping the interrogation
once in a while either to give advice to the accused that he may either continue,
choose to remain silent or terminate the interview.”
(People v. Espiritu, 302 SCRA 533, Feb. 2, 1999, 3 rd Div. [Panganiban])

228. Can a PAO lawyer be considered an independent counsel within the contemplation of
Section 12, Article III, 1987 Constitution?

Held: In People v. Oracoy and People v. Bandula, the SC has held that a PAO lawyer
can be considered an independent counsel within the contemplation of the Constitution
considering that he is not a special counsel, public or private prosecutor, counsel of the
police, or a municipal attorney whose interest is admittedly adverse to that of the accused-
appellant. Thus, the assistance of a PAO lawyer satisfies the constitutional requirement of a
competent and independent counsel for the accused. (People v. Bacor, 306 SCRA 522,
April 30, 1999, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

229. Is the confession of an accused given spontaneously, freely and voluntarily to the
Mayor admissible in evidence, considering that the Mayor has “operational supervision
and control” over the local police and may arguably be deemed a law enforcement
officer?

Held: While it is true that a municipal mayor has “operational supervision and
control” over the local police and may arguably be deemed a law enforcement officer for
purposes of applying Section 12(1) and (3) of Article III of the Constitution, however,
appellant’s confession to the mayor was not made in response to any interrogation by the
latter. In fact, the mayor did not question the appellant at all. No police authority ordered
appellant to talk to the mayor. It was appellant himself who spontaneously, freely and
voluntarily sought the mayor for a private meeting. The mayor did not know that appellant
was going to confess his guilt to him. When appellant talked with the mayor as a confidant
and not as a law enforcement officer, his uncounselled confession to him did not violate his
constitutional rights. Thus, it has been held that the constitutional procedures on custodial
investigation do not apply to a spontaneous statement, not elicited through questioning by
the authorities, but given in an ordinary manner whereby appellant orally admitted having
committed the crime. What the Constitution bars is the compulsory disclosure of
incriminating facts or confessions. The rights under Section 12 are guaranteed to preclude
the slightest use of coercion by the State as would lead the accused to admit something
false, not to prevent him from freely and voluntarily telling the truth. (People v. Andan,
269 SCRA 95, March 3, 1997)

230. Are confessions made in response to questions by news reporters admissible in

evidence?

Answer: Yes. Confessions made in response to questions by news reporters, not by

the police or any other investigating officer, are admissible. In People v. Vizcarra, where the
accused, under custody, gave spontaneous answers to a televised interview by several press
reporters in the office of the chief of the CIS, it was held that statements spontaneously
made by a suspect to news reporters on a televised interview are deemed voluntary and are
admissible in evidence. In People v. Andan, 269 SCRA 95, March 3, 1997, it was held that
appellant’s confessions to the news reporters were given free from any undue influence
from the police authorities. The news reporters acted as news reporters when they
interviewed appellant. They were not acting under the direction and control of the police.
They did not force appellant to grant them an interview and reenact the commission of the
crime. In fact, they asked his permission before interviewing him. The Supreme Court
further ruled that appellant’s verbal confessions to the newsmen are not covered by Section
12(1) and (3) of Article III of the Constitution and, therefore, admissible in evidence.

231. Discuss why lower court’s should act with extreme caution in admitting in evidence
accused’s videotaped media confessions.

Held: Apropos the court a quo’s admission of accused-appellant’s videotaped

confession, we find such admission proper. The interview was recorded on video and it
showed accused-appellant unburdening his guilt willingly, openly and publicly in the
presence of newsmen. Such confession does not form part of custodial investigation as it
was not given to police officers but to media men in an attempt to elicit sympathy and

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forgiveness from the public. Besides, if he had indeed been forced into confessing, he could
have easily sought succor from the newsmen who, in all likelihood, would have been
sympathetic with him. X x x

X x x However, because of the inherent danger in the use of television as a medium

for admitting one’s guilt, and the recurrence of this phenomenon in several cases, it is
prudent that trial courts are reminded that extreme caution must be taken in further
admitting similar confessions. For in all probability, the police, with the connivance of
unscrupulous media practitioners, may attempt to legitimize coerced extrajudicial
confessions and place them beyond the exclusionary rule by having an accused admit an
offense on television. Such a situation would be detrimental to the guaranteed rights of the
accused and thus imperil our criminal justice system.

We do not suggest that videotaped confessions given before media men by an

accused with the knowledge of and in the presence of police officers are impermissible.
Indeed, the line between proper and invalid police techniques and conduct is a difficult one
to draw, particularly in cases such as this where it is essential to make sharp judgments in
determining whether a confession was given under coercive physical or psychological
atmosphere.

A word of caution then to lower courts: we should never presume that all media
confessions described as voluntary have been freely given. This type of confession always
remains suspect and therefore should be thoroughly examined and scrutinized. Detection of
coerced confessions is admittedly a difficult and arduous task for the courts to make. It
requires persistence and determination in separating polluted confessions from untainted
ones. We have a sworn duty to be vigilant and protective of the rights guaranteed by the
Constitution. (People v. Endino, 353 SCRA 307, Feb. 20, 2001, 2n d Div. [Bellosillo])

232. Discuss the two kinds of involuntary or coerced confessions under Section 12, Article
III of the 1987 Constitution. Illustrate how the Court should appreciate said involuntary
or coerced confessions.

Held: There are two kinds of involuntary or coerced confessions treated in this
constitutional provision: (1) those which are the product of third degree methods such as
torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, which are dealt with in paragraph 2 of Section
12, and (2) those which are given without the benefit of Miranda warnings, which are the
subject of paragraph 1 of the same Section 12.

Accused-appellant claims that his confession was obtained by force and threat. Aside
from this bare assertion, he has shown no proof of the use of force and violence on him. He
did not seek medical treatment nor even a physical examination. His allegation that the fact
that he was made to sign the confession five times is proof that he refused to sign it.

Xxx

We discern no sign that the confession was involuntarily executed from the fact that
it was signed by accused-appellant five times.

Xxx

Extrajudicial confessions are presumed voluntary, and, in the absence of conclusive

evidence showing the declarant’s consent in executing the same has been vitiated, such
confession will be sustained.

Moreover, the confession contains details that only the perpetrator of the crime could
have given. x x x. It has been held that voluntariness of a confession may be inferred from
its being replete with details which could possibly be supplied only by the accused, reflecting
spontaneity and coherence which cannot be said of a mind on which violence and torture
have been applied. When the details narrated in an extrajudicial confession are such that
they could not have been concocted by one who did not take part in the acts narrated,
where the claim of maltreatment in the extraction of the confession is unsubstantiated and
where abundant evidence exists showing that the statement was voluntarily executed, the
confession is admissible against the declarant. There is greater reason for finding a
confession to be voluntary where it is corroborated by evidence aliunde which dovetails with
the essential facts contained in such confession.

But what renders the confession of accused-appellant inadmissible is the fact that
accused-appellant was not given the Miranda warnings effectively. Under the Constitution,
an uncounseled statement, such as it is called in the United States from which Article III,

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Section 12(1) was derived, is presumed to be psychologically coerced. Swept into an
unfamiliar environment and surrounded by intimidating figures typical of the atmosphere of
police interrogation, the suspect really needs the guiding hand of counsel.

Now, under the first paragraph of this provision, it is required that the suspect in
custodial interrogation must be given the following warnings: (1) he must be informed of his
right to remain silent; (2) he must be warned that anything he says can and will be used
against him; and (3) he must be told that he has a right to counsel, and that if he is indigent,
a lawyer will be appointed to represent him.

Xxx

There was thus only a perfunctory reading of the Miranda rights to accused-appellant
without any effort to find out from him whether he wanted to have counsel and, if so,
whether he had his own counsel or he wanted the police to appoint one for him. This kind of
giving of warnings, in several decisions of this Court, has been found to be merely
ceremonial and inadequate to transmit meaningful information to the suspect. Especially in
this case, care should have been scrupulously observed by the police investigator that
accused-appellant was specifically asked these questions considering that he only finished
the fourth grade of the elementary school. x x x

Moreover, Article III, Section 12(1) requires that counsel assisting suspects in
custodial interrogations be competent and independent. Here, accused-appellant was
assisted by Atty. De los Reyes, who, though presumably competent, cannot be considered
an “independent counsel” as contemplated by the law for the reason that he was station
commander of the WPD at the time he assisted accused-appellant. x x x.

This is error. As observed in People v. Bandula, the independent counsel required by

Article III, Section 12(1) cannot be special counsel, public or private prosecutor, municipal
attorney, or counsel of the police whose interest is admittedly adverse to the accused. In
this case, Atty. De los Reyes, as PC Captain and Station Commander of the WPD, was part of
the police force who could not be expected to have effectively and scrupulously assisted
accused-appellant in the investigation. To allow such a happenstance would render illusory
the protection given to the suspect during custodial investigation. (People v. Obrero, 332
SCRA 190, 220 – 208, May 17, 2000, 2nd Div. [Mendoza])

233. What are the requirements for an extra-judicial confession of an accused to be

admissible in evidence?

Held: 1. In jurisprudence, no confession can be admitted in evidence unless it is

given:

1) Freely and voluntarily, without compulsion, inducement or trickery;

2) Knowingly based on an effective communication to the individual under custodial
investigation of his constitutional rights; and
3) Intelligently with full appreciation of its importance and comprehension of its
consequences.

Once admitted, the confession must inspire credibility or be one which the normal
experience of mankind can accept as being within the realm of probability.

A confession meeting all the foregoing requisites constitutes evidence of a high order
since it is supported by the strong presumption that no person of normal mind will
knowingly, freely and deliberately confess that he is the perpetrator of a crime unless
prompted by truth and conscience. When all these requirements are met and the
confession is admitted in evidence, the burden of proof that it was obtained by undue
pressure, threat or intimidation rests upon the accused. (People v. Fabro, 277 SCRA 19,
Aug. 11, 1997 [Panganiban])

2. Numerous decisions of this Court rule that for an extrajudicial confession to be

admissible, it must be: 1) voluntary; 2) made with the assistance of competent and
independent counsel; 3) express; and 4) in writing.

The mantle of protection afforded by the above-quoted constitutional provision

covers the period from the time a person is taken into custody for the investigation of his
possible participation in the commission of a crime or from the time he is singled out as a
suspect in the commission of the offense although not yet in custody. The exclusionary rule
is premised on the presumption that the defendant is thrust into an unfamiliar atmosphere

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running through menacing police interrogation procedures where the potentiality for
compulsion, physical or psychological is forcefully apparent.

However, the rule is not intended as a deterrent to the accused from confessing guilt
if he voluntarily and intelligently so desires but to protect the accused from admitting what
he is coerced to admit although untrue. (People v. Base, 329 SCRA 158, 169-171,
March 30, 2000, 1st Div. [Ynares-Santiago])

234. Is the choice of a lawyer by a person under custodial investigation who cannot afford
the services of a counsel exclusive as to preclude other equally competent and
independent attorneys from handling his defense?

Held: It must be remembered in this regard that while the right to counsel is
immutable, the option to secure the services of counsel de parte is not absolute. Indeed –

The phrase “competent and independent” and “preferably of his own choice”
were explicit details which were added upon the persistence of human rights lawyers
in the 1986 Constitutional Commission who pointed out cases where, during the
martial law period, the lawyers made available to the detainee would be one
appointed by the military and therefore beholden to the military. (Citing I Record of
the Constitutional Commission 731-734; I Bernas, The Constitution of the Republic of
the Philippines, 1987 1st ed., p. 347)

Xxx xxx xxx

Withal, the word “preferably” under Section 12(1), Article 3 of the 1987
Constitution does not convey the message that the choice of a lawyer by a person
under investigation is exclusive as to preclude other equally competent and
independent attorneys from handling his defense. If the rule were otherwise, then,
the tempo of a custodial investigation will be solely in the hands of the accused who
can impede, nay, obstruct the progress of the interrogation by simply selecting a
lawyer who for one reason or another, is not available to protect his interest. This
absurd scenario could not have been contemplated by the framers of the charter.

While the initial choice in cases where a person under custodial investigation cannot
afford the services of a lawyer is naturally lodged in the police investigators, the accused
really has the final choice as he may reject the counsel chosen for him and ask for another
one. A lawyer provided by the investigators is deemed engaged by the accused where he
never raised any objection against the former’s appointment during the course of the
investigation and the accused thereafter subscribes to the veracity of his statement before
the swearing officer.

Verily, to be an effective counsel “[a] lawyer need not challenge all the questions
being propounded to his client. The presence of a lawyer is not intended to stop an accused
from saying anything which might incriminate him but, rather, it was adopted in our
Constitution to preclude the slightest coercion as would lead the accused to admit
something false. The counsel, however, should never prevent an accused from freely and
voluntarily telling the truth.” (People v. Base, 329 SCRA 158, 169-171, March 30,
2000, 1st Div. [Ynares-Santiago])

235. Should courts be allowed to distinguish between preliminary questioning and

custodial investigation proper when applying the exclusionary rule?

Held: The exclusionary rule sprang from a recognition that police interrogatory
procedures lay fertile grounds for coercion, physical and psychological, of the suspect to
admit responsibility for the crime under investigation. It was not intended as a deterrent to
the accused from confessing guilt, if he voluntarily and intelligently so desires but to protect
the accused from admitting what he is coerced to admit although untrue. Law enforcement
agencies are required to effectively communicate the rights of a person under investigation
and to insure that it is fully understood. Any measure short of this requirement is
considered a denial of such right. Courts are not allowed to distinguish between preliminary
questioning and custodial investigation proper when applying the exclusionary rule. Any
information or admission given by a person while in custody which may appear harmless or
innocuous at the time without the competent assistance of an independent counsel should
be struck down as inadmissible. It has been held, however, that an admission made to news
reporters or to a confidant of the accused is not covered by the exclusionary rule.

The admission allegedly made by the appellant is not in the form of a written extra-
judicial confession; the admission was allegedly made to the arresting officer during an

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“informal talk” at the police station after his arrest as a prime suspect in the rape and killing
of x x x. The arresting policeman testified that the appellant admitted that he was with the
victim on the evening of January 12, 1994, the probable time of the commission of the crime
and that he carried her on his shoulder but that he was too drunk to remember what
subsequently happened. The arresting policeman admitted that he did not inform the
appellant of his constitutional rights to remain silent and to counsel. We note that the
alleged admission is incriminating because it places the accused in the company of the
victim at the time the crime was probably committed.

The exclusionary rule applies.

The accused was under arrest for the rape and killing of x x x and any statement
allegedly made by him pertaining to his possible complicity in the crime without prior
notification of his constitutional rights is inadmissible in evidence. The policeman’s apparent
attempt to circumvent the rule by insisting that the admission was made during an “informal
talk” prior to custodial investigation prior is not tenable. The appellant was not invited to
the police station as part of a general inquiry for any possible lead to the perpetrators of the
crime under investigation. At the time the alleged admission was made the appellant was in
custody and had been arrested as the prime suspect in the rape and killing of x x x. The
exclusionary rule presumes that the alleged admission was coerced, the very evil the rule
stands to avoid. Supportive of such presumption is the absence of a written extra-judicial
confession to that effect and the appellant’s denial in court of the alleged oral admission.
The alleged admission should be struck down as inadmissible. (People v. Bravo, 318
SCRA 812, Nov. 22, 1999, En Banc [Gonzaga-Reyes])

236. Explain the procedure for out-of-court identification of suspects and the test to
determine the admissibility of such identification.

Held: 1. In People v. Teehankee, Jr., the Court x x x explained the procedure for
out-of-court identification and the test to determine the admissibility of such identification.
It listed the following ways of identifying the suspects during custodial investigation: show-
up, mug shots and line-ups. The Court there ruled:

“x x x. Out-of-court identification is conducted by the police in various ways.

It is done thru show-ups where the suspect alone is brought face to face with the
witness for identification. It is done thru mug shots where photographs are shown to
the witness to identify the suspect. It is also done thru line ups where a witness
identifies the suspect from a group of persons lined up for the purpose. Since
corruption of out-of-court identification contaminates the integrity of in court
identification during the trial of the case, courts have fashioned out rules to assure its
fairness and its compliance with the requirements of constitutional due process. In
resolving the admissibility of and relying on out-of- court identification of suspects,
courts have adopted the totality of circumstances test where they consider the
following factors, viz: (1) the witness’ opportunity to view the criminal at the time of
the crime; (2) the witness’ degree of attention at that time; (3) the accuracy of any
prior description given by the witness; (4) the level of certainty demonstrated by the
witness at the identification; (5) the length of time between the crime and the
identification; and (6) the suggestiveness of the identification procedure.” (People
v. Timon, 281 SCRA 577, Nov. 12, 1997 [Panganiban])

2. x x x. The totality test has been fashioned precisely to assure fairness as well as
compliance with constitutional requirements of due process in regard to out-of-court
identification. These cited factors must be considered to prevent contamination of the
integrity of in-court identifications better. (People v. Gamer, 326 SCRA 660, Feb. 29,
2000, 2nd Div. [Quisumbing])

237. Does the prohibition for custodial investigation conducted without the assistance of
counsel extend to a person in a police line-up? Consequently, is the identification by
private complainant of accused who was not assisted by counsel during police line-up
admissible in evidence?

Held: The prohibition x x x does not extend to a person in a police line-up because
that stage of an investigation is not yet a part of custodial investigation. It has been
repeatedly held that custodial investigation commences when a person is taken into custody
and is singled out as a suspect in the commission of the crime under investigation and the
police officers begin to ask questions on the suspect’s participation therein and which tend
to elicit an admission. The stage of an investigation wherein a person is asked to stand in a
police line-up has been held to be outside the mantle of protection of the right to counsel
because it involves a general inquiry into an unsolved crime and is purely investigatory in

147
nature. It has also been held that an uncounseled identification at the police line-up does
not preclude the admissibility of an in-court identification. The identification made by the
private complainant in the police line-up pointing to Pavillare as one of his abductors is
admissible in evidence although the accused-appellant was not assisted by counsel. x x x
(People v. Pavillare, 329 SCRA 684, 694-695, April 5, 2000, En Banc [Per Curiam])

238. Petitioner in a case “x x x posits the theory that since he had no counsel during the
custodial investigation when his urine sample was taken and chemically examined,
Exhibits “L” and “M,” x x x are also inadmissible in evidence since his urine sample was
derived in effect from an uncounselled extra-judicial confession. Petitioner claims that
the taking of his urine sample allegedly violates Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution x
x x.” Should his contentions be upheld?

Held: We are not persuaded. The right to counsel begins from the time a person is
taken into custody and placed under investigation for the commission of a crime, i.e., when
the investigating officer starts to ask questions to elicit information and/or confession or
admissions from the accused. Such right is guaranteed by the Constitution and cannot be
waived except in writing and in the presence of counsel. However, what the Constitution
prohibits is the use of physical or moral compulsion to extort communication from the
accused, but not an inclusion of his body in evidence, when it may be material. In fact, an
accused may validly be compelled to be photographed or measured, or his garments or
shoes removed or replaced, or to move his body to enable the foregoing things to be done,
without running afoul of the proscription against testimonial compulsion. The situation in
the case at bar falls within the exemption under the freedom from testimonial compulsion
since what was sought to be examined came from the body of the accused. This was a
mechanical act the accused was made to undergo which was not meant to unearth
undisclosed facts but to ascertain physical attributes determinable by simple observation.
In fact, the record shows that petitioner and his co-accused were not compelled to give
samples of their urine but they in fact voluntarily gave the same when they were requested
to undergo a drug test. (Gutang v. People, 335 SCRA 479, July 11, 2000, 2 nd Div. [De
Leon])

The Right to Bail

239. In bail application where the accused is charged with a capital offense, will it be
proper for the judge to grant bail without conducting hearing if the prosecutor interposes
no objection to such application? Why?

Held: Jurisprudence is replete with decisions compelling judges to conduct the

required hearings in bail applications, in which the accused stands charged with a capital
offense. The absence of objection from the prosecution is never a basis for the grant of bail
in such cases, for the judge has no right to presume that the prosecutor knows what he is
doing on account of familiarity with the case. “Said reasoning is tantamount to ceding to
the prosecutor the duty of exercising judicial discretion to determine whether the guilt of the
accused is strong. Judicial discretion is the domain of the judge before whom the petition for
provisional liberty will be decided. The mandated duty to exercise discretion has never been
reposed upon the prosecutor.”

Imposed in Baylon v. Sison was this mandatory duty to conduct a hearing despite the
prosecution's refusal to adduce evidence in opposition to the application to grant and fix
bail. (Joselito V. Narciso v. Flor Marie Sta. Romana-Cruz, G.R. No. 134504, March
17, 2000, 3rd Div. [Panganiban])

240. What are the duties of the judge in cases of bail applications where the accused is
charged with capital offense?

Held: Basco v. Rapatalo enunciated the following duties of the trial judge in such
petition for bail:

1) Notify the prosecutor of the hearing of the application for bail or require him to
submit his recommendation;
2) Conduct a hearing of the application for bail regardless of whether or not the
prosecution refuses to present evidence to show that the guilt of the accused is
strong for the purpose of enabling the court to exercise its sound discretion;
3) Decide whether the evidence of guilt of the accused is strong based on the
summary of evidence of the prosecution;
4) If the guilt of the accused is not strong, discharge the accused upon the approval
of the bailbond. Otherwise, petition should be denied.

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 The Court added: “The above-enumerated procedure should now leave no room for
doubt as to the duties of the trial judge in cases of bail applications. So basic and
fundamental is it to conduct a hearing in connection with the grant of bail in the proper
cases that it would amount to judicial apostasy for any member of the judiciary to disclaim
knowledge or awareness thereof.”

Additionally, the court's grant or refusal of bail must contain a summary of the
evidence for the prosecution, on the basis of which should be formulated the judge's own
conclusion on whether such evidence is strong enough to indicate the guilt of the accused.
The summary thereof is considered an aspect of procedural due process for both the
prosecution and the defense; its absence will invalidate the grant or the denial of the
application for bail. (Joselito V. Narciso v. Flor Marie Sta. Romana-Cruz, G.R. No.
134504, March 17, 2000, 3rd Div. [Panganiban])

241. Should the accused who remained at large after their conviction be allowed
provisional liberty? Can the bail bond that the accused previously posted be used during
the entire period of appeal?

Held: Despite an order of arrest from the trial court and two warnings from the
Court of Appeals, petitioners had remained at large. It is axiomatic that for one to be
entitled to bail, he should be in the custody of the law, or otherwise, deprived of liberty. The
purpose of bail is to secure one’s release and it would be incongruous to grant bail to one
who is free. Petitioners’ Compliance and Motion x x x came short of an unconditional
submission to respondent court’s lawful order and to its jurisdiction.

The trial court correctly denied petitioners’ motion that they be allowed provisional
liberty after their conviction, under their respective bail bonds. Apart from the fact that they
were at large, Section 5, Rule 114 of the Rules of Court, as amended by Supreme Court
Administrative Circular 12-94, provides that:

Xxx

The Court, in its discretion, may allow the accused to continue on provisional liberty
under the same bail bond during the period to appeal subject to the consent of the
bondsman.

The bail bond that the accused previously posted can only be used during the 15-day
period to appeal (Rule 122) and not during the entire period of appeal. This is consistent
with Section 2(a) of Rule 114 which provides that the bail “shall be effective upon approval
and remain in force at all stages of the case, unless sooner cancelled, until the promulgation
of the judgment of the Regional Trial Court, irrespective of whether the case was originally
filed in or appealed to it.” This amendment, introduced by SC Administrative Circular 12-94
is a departure from the old rules which then provided that bail shall be effective and remain
in force at all stages of the case until its full determination, and thus even during the period
of appeal. Moreover, under the present rule, for the accused to continue his provisional
liberty on the same bail bond during the period to appeal, consent of the bondsman is
necessary. From the record, it appears that the bondsman x x x filed a motion in the trial
court x x x for the cancellation of petitioners’ bail bond for the latter’s failure to renew the
same upon its expiration. Obtaining the consent of the bondsman was, thus, foreclosed.
(Maguddatu v. Court of Appeals, 326 SCRA 362, Feb. 23, 2000, 1 st Div. [Kapunan])

242. Is a condition in an application for bail that accused be first arraigned before he could
be granted bail valid?

Held: In requiring that petitioner be first arraigned before he could be granted bail,
the trial court apprehended that if petitioner were released on bail he could, by being
absent, prevent his early arraignment and thereby delay his trial until the complainants got
tired and lost interest in their cases. Hence, to ensure his presence at the arraignment,
approval of petitioner’s bail bonds should be deferred until he could be arraigned. After
that, even if petitioner does not appear, trial can proceed as long as he is notified of the
date of the hearing and his failure to appear is unjustified, since under Art. III, Sec. 14(2) of
the Constitution, trial in absencia is authorized. This seems to be the theory of the trial
court in its x x x order conditioning the grant of bail to petitioner on his arraignment.

This theory is mistaken. In the first place x x x in cases where it is authorized, bail
should be granted before arraignment, otherwise the accused may be precluded from filing
a motion to quash. For if the information is quashed and the case is dismissed, there would
then be no need for the arraignment of the accused. In the second place, the trial court

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could ensure the presence of petitioner at the arraignment precisely by granting bail and
ordering his presence at any stage of the proceedings, such as arraignment. Under Rule
114, Sec. 2(b) of the Rules on Criminal Procedure, one of the conditions of bail is that “the
accused shall appear before the proper court whenever so required by the court or these
Rules,” while under Rule 116, Sec. 1(b) the presence of the accused at the arraignment is
required.

On the other hand, to condition the grant of bail to an accused on his arraignment
would be to place him in a position where he has to choose between (1) filing a motion to
quash and thus delay his release on bail because until his motion to quash can be resolved,
his arraignment cannot be held, and (2) foregoing the filing of a motion to quash so that he
can be arraigned at once and thereafter be released on bail. These scenarios certainly
undermine the accused’s constitutional right not to be put on trial except upon valid
complaint or information sufficient to charge him with a crime and his right to bail.
(Lavides v. CA, 324 SCRA 321, Feb. 1, 2000, 2 nd Div. [Mendoza])

243. Is respondent Mark Jimenez entitled to bail during the pendency of the Extradition
Proceeding?

Held: We agree with petitioner. As suggested by the use of the word “conviction,”
the constitutional provision on bail x x x, as well as Section 4 of Rule 114 of the Rules of
Court, applies only when a person has been arrested and detained for violation of Philippine
criminal laws. It does not apply to extradition proceedings, because extradition courts do
not render judgments of conviction or acquittal.

Moreover, the constitutional right to bail “flows from the presumption of innocence in
favor of every accused who should not be subjected to the loss of freedom as thereafter he
would be entitled to acquittal, unless his guilt be proved beyond reasonable doubt.” It
follows that the constitutional provision on bail will not apply to a case like extradition,
where the presumption of innocence is not an issue.

The provision in the Constitution stating that the right to bail shall not be impaired
even when the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus is suspended” does not detract from
the rule that the constitutional right to bail is available only in criminal proceedings. It must
be noted that the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus finds application
“only to persons judicially charged for rebellion or offenses inherent in or directly connected
with invasion.” (Sec. 18, Article VII, Constitution) Hence, the second sentence in the
constitutional provision on bail merely emphasizes the right to bail in criminal proceedings
for the aforementioned offenses. It cannot be taken to mean that the right is available even
in extradition proceedings that are not criminal in nature.

That the offenses for which Jimenez is sought to be extradited are bailable in the
United States is not an argument to grant him one in the present case. To stress,
extradition proceedings are separate and distinct from the trial for the offenses for which he
is charged. He should apply for bail before the courts trying the criminal cases against him,
not before the extradition court. (Government of the United States of America v. Hon.
Guillermo Purganan, G.R. No. 148571, Sept. 24, 2002, En Banc [Panganiban])

244. What is the exception to the “No Bail” Rule in Extradition Proceedings?

Held: The rule x x x is that bail is not a matter of right in extradition cases.
However, the judiciary has the constitutional duty to curb grave abuse of discretion and
tyranny, as well as the power to promulgate rules to protect and enforce constitutional
rights. Furthermore, we believe that the right to due process is broad enough to include the
grant of basic fairness to extraditees. Indeed, the right to due process extends to the “life,
liberty or property” of every person. It is “dynamic and resilient, adaptable to every
situation calling for its application.”

Accordingly and to best serve the ends of justice, we believe and so hold that, after a
potential extraditee has been arrested or placed under the custody of the law, bail may be
applied for and granted as an exception, only upon a clear and convincing showing (1) that,
once granted bail, the applicant will not be a flight risk or a danger to the community; and
(2) that there exist special, humanitarian and compelling circumstances including, as a
matter of reciprocity, those cited by the highest court in the requesting state when it grants
provisional liberty in extradition cases therein.

Since this exception has no express or specific statutory basis, and since it is derived
essentially from general principles of justice and fairness, the applicant bears the burden of
proving the above two-tiered requirement with clarity, precision and emphatic forcefulness.

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The Court realizes that extradition is basically an executive, not a judicial, responsibility
arising from the presidential power to conduct foreign relations. In its barest concept, it
partakes of the nature of police assistance amongst states, which is not normally a judicial
prerogative. Hence, any intrusion by the courts into the exercise of this power should be
characterized by caution, so that the vital international and bilateral interests of our country
will not be unreasonably impeded or compromised. In short, while this Court is ever
protective of “the sporting idea of fair play,” it also recognizes the limits of its own
prerogatives and the need to fulfill international obligations. (Government of the United
States of America v. Hon. Guillermo Purganan, G.R. No. 148571, Sept. 24, 2002,
En Banc [Panganiban])

245. Are there special circumstances compelling enough for the Court to grant Mark
Jimenez’s request for provisional release on bail?

Held: Along this line, Jimenez contends that there are special circumstances that
are compelling enough for the Court to grant his request for provisional release on bail. We
have carefully examined these circumstances and shall now discuss them.

1. Alleged Disenfranchisement

While his extradition was pending, Respondent Jimenez was elected as a member of
the House of Representatives. On that basis, he claims that his detention will disenfranchise
his Manila district of 600,000 residents. We are not persuaded. In People v. Jalosjos, the
Court has already debunked the disenfranchisement argument x x x.

It must be noted that even before private respondent ran for and won a
congressional seat in Manila, it was already of public knowledge that the United States was
requesting his extradition. Hence, his constituents were or should have been prepared for
the consequences of the extradition case against their representative, including his
detention pending the final resolution of the case. Premises considered and in line with
Jalosjos, we are constrained to rule against his claim that his election to public office is by
itself a compelling reason to grant him bail.

2. Anticipated Delay

Respondent Jimenez further contends that because the extradition proceedings are
lengthy, it would be unfair to confine him during the pendency of the case. Again we are not
convinced. We must emphasize that extradition cases are summary in nature. They are
resorted to merely to determine whether the extradition petition and its annexes conform to
the Extradition Treaty, not to determine his guilt or innocence. Neither is it, as a rule,
intended to address issues relevant to the constitutional rights available to the accused in a
criminal action.

We are not overruling the possibility that petitioner may, in bad faith, unduly delay
the proceedings. This is quite another matter that is not at issue here. Thus, any further
discussion of this point would be merely anticipatory and academic.

However, if the delay is due to maneuverings of respondent, with all the more reason
would the grant of bail not be justified. Giving premium to delay by considering it as a
special circumstance for the grant of bail would be tantamount to giving him the power to
grant bail to himself. It would also encourage him to stretch out and unreasonably delay the
extradition proceedings even more. This we cannot allow.

3. Not a Flight Risk?

Jimenez further claims that he is not a flight risk. To support this claim, he stresses
that he learned of the extradition request in June 1999; yet, he has not fled the country.
True, he has not actually fled during the preliminary stages of the request for his extradition.
Yet, this fact cannot be taken to mean that he will not flee as the process moves forward to
its conclusion, as he hears the footsteps of the requesting government inching closer and
closer. That he has not yet fled from the Philippines cannot be taken to mean that he will
stand his ground and still be within reach of our government if and when it matters; that is,
upon the resolution of the Petition for Extradition.

In any event, it is settled that bail may be applied for and granted by the trial court at
anytime after the applicant has been taken into custody and prior to judgment, even after
bail has been previously denied. In the present case, the extradition court may continue
hearing evidence on the application for bail, which may be granted in accordance with the

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guidelines in this Decision. (Government of the United States of America v. Hon.
Guillermo Purganan, G.R. No. 148571, Sept. 24, 2002, En Banc [Panganiban])

The Right to be Informed of the Nature and Cause of Accusation against the
Accused

246. What are the objectives of the right to be informed of the nature and cause of
accusations against the accused?

Held: Instructive in this regard is Section 6, Rule 110 of the Rules of Court x x x.

The purpose of the above-quoted rule is to inform the accused of the nature and
cause of the accusation against him, a right guaranteed by no less than the fundamental law
of the land (Article III, Section 14[2], 1987 Constitution). Elaborating on the defendant’s
right to be informed, the Court held in Pecho v. People that the objectives of this right are:

1) To furnish the accused with such a description of the charge against him as will
enable him to make the defense;
2) To avail himself of his conviction or acquittal for protection against a further
prosecution for the same cause; and
3) To inform the court of the facts alleged, so that it may decide whether they are
sufficient in law to support a conviction, if one should be had.

It is thus imperative that the Information filed with the trial court be complete – to the
end that the accused may suitably prepare for his defense. Corollary to this, an indictment
must fully state the elements of the specific offense alleged to have been committed as it is
the recital of the essentials of a crime which delineates the nature and cause of accusation
against the accused.

Xxx

In the case under scrutiny, the information does not allege the minority of the victim
x x x although the same was proven during the trial x x x. The omission is not merely formal
in nature since doctrinally, an accused cannot be held liable for more than what he is
indicted for. It matters not how conclusive and convincing the evidence of guilt may be, but
an accused cannot be convicted of any offense, not charged in the Complaint or Information
on which he is tried or therein necessarily included. He has a right to be informed of the
nature of the offense with which he is charged before he is put on trial. To convict an
accused of an offense higher than that charged in the Complaint or Information on which he
is tried would constitute unauthorized denial of that right. (People v. Bayya, 327 SCRA
771, March 10, 2000, En Banc [Purisima])

The Right to a Fair Trial

247. What is the purpose of the rule barring trial or sentence of an insane person? What
are the reasons underlying it?

Held: The rule barring trial or sentence of an insane person is for the protection of
the accused, rather than of the public. It has been held that it is inhuman to require an
accused disabled by God to make a just defense for his life or liberty. To put a legally
incompetent person on trial or to convict and sentence him is a violation of the
constitutional rights to a fair trial; and this has several reasons underlying it. For one, the
accuracy of the proceedings may not be assured, as an incompetent defendant who cannot
comprehend the proceedings may not appreciate what information is relevant to the proof
of his innocence. Moreover, he is not in a position to exercise many of the rights afforded a
defendant in a criminal case, e.g., the right to effectively consult with counsel, the right to
testify in his own behalf, and the right to confront opposing witnesses, which rights are
safeguards for the accuracy of the trial result. Second, the fairness of the proceedings may
be questioned, as there are certain basic decisions in the course of a criminal proceeding
which a defendant is expected to make for himself, and one of these is his plea. Third, the
dignity of the proceedings may be disrupted, for an incompetent defendant is likely to
conduct himself in the courtroom in a manner which may destroy the decorum of the court.
Even if the defendant remains passive, his lack of comprehension fundamentally impairs the
functioning of the trial process. A criminal proceeding is essentially an adversarial
proceeding. If the defendant is not a conscious and intelligent participant, the adjudication
loses its character as a reasoned interaction between an individual and his community and
becomes an invective against an insensible object. Fourth, it is important that the
defendant knows why he is being punished, a comprehension which is greatly dependent

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upon his understanding of what occurs at trial. An incompetent defendant may not realize
the moral reprehensibility of his conduct. The societal goal of institutionalized retribution
may be frustrated when the force of the state is brought to bear against one who cannot
comprehend its significance. (People v. Estrada, 333 SCRA 699, 718-719, June 19,
2000, En Banc [Puno])
The Right to an Impartial Trial

248. What are the two principal legal and philosophical schools of thought on how to deal
with the rain of unrestrained publicity during the investigation and trial of high profile
cases?

Held: There are two (2) principal legal and philosophical schools of thought on how
to deal with the rain of unrestrained publicity during the investigation and trial of high profile
cases. The British approach the problem with the presumption that publicity will prejudice a
jury. Thus, English courts readily stay and stop criminal trials when the right of an accused
to fair trial suffers a threat. The American approach is different. US courts assume a
skeptical approach about the potential effect of pervasive publicity on the right of an
accused to a fair trial. They have developed different strains of tests to resolve this issue,
i.e., substantial probability of irreparable harm, strong likelihood, clear and present danger,
etc. (Estrada v. Desierto, G.R. Nos. 146710-15, March 2, 2001, En Banc [Puno])
249. Should the Ombudsman be stopped from conducting the investigation of the cases
filed against petitioner (former President) Estrada due to the barrage of prejudicial
publicity on his guilt?

Held: Petitioner x x x contends that the respondent Ombudsman should be stopped

from conducting the investigation of the cases filed against him due to the barrage of
prejudicial publicity on his guilt. He submits that the respondent Ombudsman has
developed bias and is all set to file the criminal cases in violation of his right to due process.

Xxx

This is not the first time the issue of trial by publicity has been raised in this Court to
stop the trials or annul convictions in high profile criminal cases. In People v. Teehankee, Jr.,
later reiterated in the case of Larranaga v. Court of Appeals, et al., we laid down the doctrine
that:

“We cannot sustain appellant’s claim that he was denied the right to impartial
trial due to prejudicial publicity. It is true that the print and broadcast media gave
the case at bar pervasive publicity, just like all high profile and high stake criminal
trials. Then and now, we rule that the right of an accused to a fair trial is not
incompatible to a free press. To be sure, responsible reporting enhances an
accused’s right to a fair trial for, as well pointed out, a responsible press has always
been regarded as the handmaiden of effective judicial administration, especially in
the criminal field x x x. The press does not simply publish information about trials
but guards against the miscarriage of justice by subjecting the police, prosecutors,
and judicial processes to extensive public scrutiny and criticism.

Pervasive publicity is not per se prejudicial to the right of an accused to fair

trial. The mere fact that the trial of appellant was given a day-to-day, gavel-to-gavel
coverage does not by itself prove that the publicity so permeated the mind of the
trial judge and impaired his impartiality. For one, it is impossible to seal the minds of
members of the bench from pre-trial and other off-court publicity of sensational
criminal cases. The state of the art of our communication system brings news as
they happen straight to our breakfast tables and right to our bedrooms. These news
form part of our everyday menu of the facts and fictions of life. For another, our idea
of a fair and impartial judge is not that of a hermit who is out of touch with the world.
We have not installed the jury system whose members are overly protected from
publicity lest they lose their impartiality. x x x. Our judges are learned in the law
and trained to disregard off-court evidence and on-camera performances of parties to
a litigation. Their mere exposure to publications and publicity stunts does not per se
fatally infect their impartiality.

At best, appellant can only conjure possibility of prejudice on the part of the
trial judge due to the barrage of publicity that characterized the investigation and
trial of the case. In Martelino, et al. v. Alejandro, et al., we rejected this standard of
possibility of prejudice and adopted the test of actual prejudice as we ruled that to
warrant a finding of prejudicial publicity, there must be allegation and proof that the
judges have been unduly influenced, not simply that they might be, by the barrage of
publicity. In the case at bar, the records do not show that the trial judge developed

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 actual bias against appellant as a consequence of the extensive media coverage of
the pre-trial and trial of his case. The totality of circumstances of the case does not
prove that the trial judge acquired a fixed opinion as a result of prejudicial publicity
which is incapable of change even by evidence presented during the trial. Appellant
has the burden to prove this actual bias and he has not discharged the burden.”

We expounded further on this doctrine in the subsequent case of Webb v. Hon. Raul
de Leon, etc. and its companion cases, viz.:

“Again, petitioners raise the effect of prejudicial publicity on their right to due
process while undergoing preliminary investigation. We find no procedural
impediment to its early invocation considering the substantial risk to their liberty
whole undergoing a preliminary investigation.

Xxx

The democratic settings, media coverage of trials of sensational cases cannot

be avoided and oftentimes, its excessiveness has been aggravated by kinetic
developments in the telecommunications industry. For sure, few cases can match
the high volume and high velocity of publicity that attended the preliminary
investigation of the case at bar. Our daily diet of facts and fiction about the case
continues unabated even today. Commentators still bombard the public with views
not too many of which are sober and sublime. Indeed, even the principal actors in
the case – the NBI, the respondents, their lawyers and their sympathizers – have
participated in this media blitz. The possibility of media abuses and their threat to a
fair trial notwithstanding, criminal trials cannot be completely closed to the press and
public. In the seminal case of Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia, it was wisely
held:

‘x x x

(a) The historical evidence of the evolution of the criminal trial in

Anglo-American justice demonstrates conclusively that at the time this Nation’s
organic laws were adopted, criminal trials both here and in England had long been
presumptively open, thus giving assurance that the proceedings were conducted
fairly to all concerned and discouraging perjury, the misconduct of participants, or
decisions based on secret bias or partiality. In addition, the significant community
therapeutic value of public trials was recognized: when a shocking crime occurs, a
community reaction of outrage and public protest often follows, and thereafter the
open processes of justice serve an important prophylactic purpose, providing an
outlet for community concern, hostility, and emotion. To work effectively, it is
important that society’s criminal process ‘satisfy the appearance of justice,’ Offutt v.
United States, 348 US 11, 14, 99 L Ed 11, 75 S Ct 11, which can best be provided by
allowing people to observe such process. From this unbroken, uncontradicted
history, supported by reasons as valid today as in centuries past, it must be
concluded that a presumption of openness inheres in the very nature of a criminal
trial under this Nation’s system of justice, Cf., e.g., Levine v. United States, 362 US
610, 4 L Ed 2d 989, 80 S Ct 1038.

(b) The freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, expressly

guaranteed by the First Amendment, share a common core purpose of assuring
freedom of communication on matters relating to the functioning of government. In
guaranteeing freedoms such as those of speech and press, the First Amendment can
be read as protecting the right of everyone to attend trials so as give meaning to
those explicit guarantees; the First Amendment right to receive information and
ideas means, in the context of trials, that the guarantees of speech and press,
standing alone, prohibit government from summarily closing courtroom doors which
had long been open to the public at the time the First Amendment was adopted.
Moreover, the right of assembly is also relevant, having been regarded not only as an
independent right but also as a catalyst to augment the free exercise of the other
First Amendment rights with which it was deliberately linked by the draftsmen. A
trial courtroom is a public place where the people generally – and representatives of
the media – have a right to be present, and where their presence historically has
been thought to enhance the integrity and quality of what takes place.

(c) Even though the Constitution contains no provision which by its

terms guarantees to the public the right to attend criminal trials, various fundamental
rights, not expressly guaranteed, have been recognized as indispensable to the
enjoyment of enumerated rights. The right to attend criminal trial is implicit in the

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 guarantees of the First Amendment: without the freedom to attend such trials, which
people have exercised for centuries, important aspects of freedom of speech and of
the press could be eviscerated.’

Be that as it may, we recognize that pervasive and prejudicial publicity under

certain circumstances can deprive an accused of his due process right to fair trial.
Thus, in Martelino, et al. v. Alejandro, et al., we held that to warrant a finding of
prejudicial publicity there must be allegation and proof that the judges have been
unduly influenced, not simply that they might be, by the barrage of publicity. In the
case at bar, we find nothing in the records that will prove that the tone and content
of the publicity that attended the investigation of petitioners fatally infected the
fairness and impartiality of the DOJ Panel. Petitioners cannot just rely on the
subliminal effects of publicity on the sense of fairness of the DOJ Panel, for these are
basically unbeknown and beyond knowing. To be sure, the DOJ Panel is composed of
an Assistant Chief State Prosecutor and Senior State Prosecutors. Their long
experience in criminal investigation is a factor to consider in determining whether
they can easily be blinded by the klieg lights of publicity. Indeed, their 26-page
Resolution carries no indubitable indicia of bias for it does not appear that they
considered any extra-record evidence except evidence properly adduced by the
parties. The length of time the investigation was conducted despite it summary
nature and the generosity with which they accommodated the discovery motions of
petitioners speak well of their fairness. At no instance, we note, did petitioners seek
the disqualification of any member of the DOJ Panel on the ground of bias resulting
from their bombardment of prejudicial publicity.”

Applying the above ruling, we hold that there is not enough evidence to warrant this Court
to enjoin the preliminary investigation of the petitioner by the respondent Ombudsman.
Petitioner needs to offer more than hostile headlines to discharge his burden of proof. He
needs to show more than weighty social science evidence to successfully prove the impaired
capacity of a judge to render a bias-free decision. Well to note, the cases against the
petitioner are still undergoing preliminary investigation by a special panel of prosecutors in
the office of the respondent Ombudsman. No allegation whatsoever has been made by the
petitioner that the minds of the members of this special panel have already been infected by
bias because of the pervasive prejudicial publicity against him. Indeed, the special panel
has yet to come out with its findings and the Court cannot second guess whether its
recommendation will be unfavorable to the petitioner. (Estrada v. Desierto, G.R. Nos.
146710-15, March 2, 2001, En Banc [Puno])

The Right against Self-Incrimination

250. Accused-appellant alleges that while in the custody of police officers, some hair
strands were taken from him without his consent and submitted to the NBI for
investigation, in violation of his right against self-incrimination. Aside from executing a
waiver of the provisions of Article 125 of the Revised Penal Code, accused-appellant
executed a waiver of the provisions of Article III, Section 12 of the Constitution regarding
the rights of an accused during custodial investigation. It appears, however, that the
waivers were executed by the accused without the assistance of a counsel of his own
choice.

Held: The use of evidence against the accused obtained by virtue of his testimony
or admission without the assistance of counsel while under custodial investigation is
proscribed under Sections 12 and 17, Article III of the Constitution x x x.

The aforesaid rules are set forth in the Constitution as a recognition of the fact that
the psychological if not physical atmosphere of custodial investigations in the absence of
procedural safeguards is inherently coercive in nature. However, to paraphrase Justice
Sanchez in the case of Chavez v. Court of Appeals (24 SCRA 663 [1968]), “Compulsion does
not necessarily connote the use of violence; it may be the product of unintentional
statements. Pressure which operates to overbear his will, disable him from making a free
and rational choice or impair his capacity for making rational judgment would be sufficient.
So is moral coercion tending to force testimony from the unwilling lips of the defendant.”
Needless to say, the above-mentioned provisions are an affirmation that “coercion can be
mental as well as physical and that the blood of the accused is not the only hallmark of an
unconstitutional inquisition.” (Blackburn v. Alabama, 361 US 199)

It bears emphasis, however, that under the above-quoted provisions, what is actually
proscribed is the use of physical or moral compulsion to extort communication from the
accused-appellant and not the inclusion of his body in evidence when it may be material.

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For instance, substance emitted from the body of the accused may be received as evidence
in prosecution for acts of lasciviousness (US v. Tan Teng, 23 Phil. 145 [1912]) and morphine
forced out of the mouth of the accused may also be used as evidence against him (US v.
Ong Siu Hong, 36 Phil. 735 [1917]). Consequently, although accused-appellant insists that
hair samples were forcibly taken from him and submitted to the NBI for forensic
examination, the hair samples may be admitted in evidence against him, for what is
proscribed is the use of testimonial compulsion or any evidence communicative in nature
acquired from the accused under duress. (People v. Rondero, 320 SCRA 383, 399-401,
Dec. 9, 1999, En Banc [Per Curiam])

251. Does the right against self-incrimination extend to administrative proceedings?

Held: In Pascual v. Board of Medical Examiners (28 SCRA 344 [1969]), we held that
the right against self-incrimination under Section 17, Article III of the 1987 Constitution
which is ordinarily available only in criminal prosecutions, extends to administrative
proceedings which possess a criminal or penal aspect, such as an administrative
investigation of a licensed physician who is charged with immorality, which could result in
his loss of the privilege to practice medicine if found guilty. The Court, citing the earlier case
of Cabal v. Kapunan (6 SCRA 1059 [1962]), pointed out that the revocation of one’s license
as a medical practitioner, is an even greater deprivation than forfeiture of property.
(Secretary of Justice v. Lantion, 322 SCRA 160, 184, Jan. 18, 2000, En Banc [Melo])

252. May the right against self-incrimination be validly invoked during inquiry in aid of
legislation?

Held: [I]t has been held that “a congressional committee’s right to inquire is
‘subject to all relevant limitations placed by the Constitution on governmental action,’
including ‘the relevant limitations of the Bill of Rights’.”

In another case –

“x x x the mere semblance of legislative purpose would not justify an inquiry

in the face of the Bill of Rights. The critical element is the existence of, and the
weight to be ascribed to, the interest of the Congress in demanding disclosures from
an unwilling witness. We cannot simply assume, however, that every congressional
investigation is justified by a public need that over-balances any private rights
affected. To do so would be to abdicate the responsibility placed by the Constitution
upon the judiciary to insure that the Congress does not unjustifiably encroach upon
an individual’s right to privacy nor abridge his liberty of speech, press, religion or
assembly.” (Watkins v. US, 354 USS 178 citing US v. Rumely, 345 US 41)

One of the basic rights guaranteed by the Constitution to an individual is the right
against self-incrimination. This right construed as the right to remain completely silent may
be availed of by the accused in a criminal case; but it may be invoked by other witnesses
only as questions are asked of them.

This distinction is enunciated by the Court in Romeo Chavez v. The Honorable Court
of Appeals, et al. thus –

“Petitioner, as accused, occupies a different tier of protection from an ordinary

witness. Whereas an ordinary witness may be compelled to take the witness stand
and claim the privilege as each question requiring an incriminating answer is shot at
him, an accused may altogether refuse to take the witness stand and refuse to
answer any and all questions.”

Moreover, this right of the accused is extended to respondents in administrative

investigations but only if they partake of the nature of a criminal proceeding or analogous to
a criminal proceeding. In Galman v. Pamaran, the Court reiterated the doctrine in Cabal v.
Kapunan to illustrate the right of witnesses to invoke the right against self-incrimination not
only in criminal proceedings but also in all other types of suit.

It was held that:

“We did not therein state that since he is not an accused and the case is not a
criminal case, Cabal cannot refuse to take the witness stand and testify, and that he
can invoke his right against self-incrimination only when a question which tends to
elicit an answer that will incriminate him is propounded to him. Clearly then, it is not
the character of the suit involved but the nature of the proceedings that controls.
The privilege has consistently been held to extend to all proceedings sanctioned by

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 law and to all cases in which punishment is sought to be visited upon a witness,
whether a party or not.”

We do not here modify these doctrines. If we presently rule that petitioners may not
be compelled by the respondent Committee to appear, testify and produce evidence
before it, it is only because we hold that the questioned inquiry is not in aid of
legislation and, if pursued, would be violative of the principle of separation of powers
between the legislative and the judicial departments of government, ordained by the
Constitution. (Bengzon, Jr. v. Senate Blue Ribbon Committee, 203 SCRA 767,
Nov. 20, 1991, En Banc [Padilla])
253. What are the two types of immunity statutes? Which has broader scope of
protection?

Held: Our immunity statutes are of American origin. In the United States, there are
two types of statutory immunity granted to a witness. They are the transactional immunity
and the use-and-derivative-use immunity. Transactional immunity is broader in the scope of
its protection. By its grant, a witness can no longer be prosecuted for any offense
whatsoever arising out of the act or transaction. In contrast, by the grant of use-and-
derivative-use immunity, a witness is only assured that his or her particular testimony and
evidence derived from it will not be used against him or her in a subsequent prosecution.
(Mapa, Jr. v. Sandiganbayan, 231 SCRA 783, 797-798, April 26, 1994, En Banc
[Puno])

254. Is the grant of immunity to an accused willing to testify for the government a special
privilege and, therefore, must be strictly construed against the accused?

Held: [W]e reject respondent court’s ruling that the grant of section 5 immunity
must be strictly construed against the petitioners. It simplistically characterized the grant as
a special privilege, as if it was gifted by the government, ex gratia. In taking this posture, it
misread the raison d’ etre and the long pedigree of the right against self-incrimination vis-à-
vis immunity statutes.

The days of inquisition brought about the most despicable abuses against human
rights. Not the least of these abuses is the expert use of coerced confessions to send to the
guillotine even the guiltless. To guard against the recurrence of this totalitarian method, the
right against self-incrimination was ensconced in the fundamental laws of all civilized
countries. Over the years, however, came the need to assist government in its task of
containing crime for peace and order is a necessary matrix of public welfare. To
accommodate the need, the right against self-incrimination was stripped of its absoluteness.
Immunity statutes in varying shapes were enacted which would allow government to compel
a witness to testify despite his plea of the right against self-incrimination. To insulate these
statutes from the virus of unconstitutionality, a witness is given what has come to be known
as transactional or a use-derivative-use immunity x x x. Quite clearly, these immunity
statutes are not a bonanza from government. Those given the privilege of immunity paid a
high price for it – the surrender of their precious right to be silent. Our hierarchy of values
demands that the right against self-incrimination and the right to be silent should be
accorded greater respect and protection. Laws that tend to erode the force of these
preeminent rights must necessarily be given a liberal interpretation in favor of the
individual. The government has a right to solve crimes but it must do it, rightly. (Mapa, Jr.
v. Sandiganbayan, 231 SCRA 783, 805-806, April 26, 1994, En Banc [Puno])
The Right against Double Jeopardy
255. Discuss the two kinds of double jeopardy.

Held: Our Bill of Rights deals with two (2) kinds of double jeopardy. The first
sentence of Clause 20, Section 1, Article III of the Constitution ordains that “no person shall
be twice put in jeopardy of punishment for the same offense.” The second sentence of said
clause provides that “if an act is punishable by a law and an ordinance, conviction or
acquittal under either shall constitute a bar to another prosecution for the same act.” Thus,
the first sentence prohibits double jeopardy of punishment for the same offense whereas,
the second contemplates double jeopardy of punishment for the same act. Under the first
sentence, one may be twice put in jeopardy of punishment of the same act, provided that he
is charged with different offenses, or the offense charged in one case is not included in, or
does not include, the crime charged in the other case. The second sentence applies, even if
the offense charged are not the same, owing to the fact that one constitutes a violation of
an ordinance and the other a violation of statute. If the two charges are based on one and
the same act, conviction or acquittal under either the law or the ordinance shall bar a
prosecution under the other. Incidentally, such conviction or acquittal is not indispensable
to sustain the plea of double jeopardy of punishment or the same offense. So long as
jeopardy has been attached under one of the informations charging said offense, the

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defense may be availed of in the other case involving the same offense, even if there has
been neither conviction nor acquittal in either case.

Elsewhere stated, where the offense charged are penalized either by different
sections of the same statute or by different statutes, the important inquiry relates to the
identity of offenses charged. The constitutional protection against double jeopardy is
available only where an identity is shown to exist between the earlier and the subsequent
offenses charged. The question of identity or lack of identity of offenses is addressed by
examining the essential elements of each of the two offenses charged, as such elements are
set out in the respective legislative definitions of the offenses involved. (People v.
Quijada, 259 SCRA 191, July 24, 1996)

256. What must be proved to substantiate a claim of double jeopardy? When may legal
jeopardy attach?

Held: To substantiate a claim of double jeopardy, the following must be proven:

(1) A first jeopardy must have attached prior to the second; (2) the first jeopardy
must have been validly terminated; (3) the second jeopardy must be for the same offense,
or the second offense includes or is necessarily included in the offense charged in the first
information, or is an attempt to commit the same or is a frustration thereof.

Legal jeopardy attaches only: (1) upon a valid indictment; (b) before a competent
court; (c) after arraignment; (d) when a valid plea has been entered; and (e) the case was
dismissed or otherwise terminated without the express consent of the accused. (Cuison v.
CA, 289 SCRA 159, April 15, 1998 [Panganiban])

257. In its decision in a criminal case, the Judge promulgated only the civil aspect of the
case, but not the criminal. Will the promulgation of the criminal aspect later constitute
double jeopardy?

Held: Petitioner contends that "the promulgation by Judge Ramos on April 4, 1995 of
the Respondent Court's decision of June 30, 1991 by reading its dispositive portion has
effectively terminated the criminal cases against the petitioner x x x." In other words,
petitioner claims that the first jeopardy attached at that point.

The Court is not persuaded. As a rule, a criminal prosecution includes a civil action
for the recovery of indemnity. Hence, a decision in such case disposes of both the criminal
as well as the civil liabilities of an accused. Here, trial court promulgated only the civil
aspect of the case, but not the criminal.

[T]he promulgation of the CA Decision was not complete. In fact and in truth, the
promulgation was not merely incomplete; it was also void. In excess of its jurisdiction, the
trial judge rendered a substantially incomplete promulgation on April 4, 1995, and he
repeated his mistake in his April 12, 1996 Order. We emphasize that grave abuse of
discretion rendered the aforementioned act of the trial court void. Since the criminal cases
have not yet been terminated, the first jeopardy has not yet attached. Hence, double
jeopardy cannot prosper as a defense.

We must stress that Respondent Court's questioned Decision did not modify or
amend its July 30, 1991 Decision. It merely ordered the promulgation of the judgment of
conviction and the full execution of the penalty it had earlier imposed on petitioner.
(Cuison v. CA, 289 SCRA 159, April 15, 1998 [Panganiban])

258. What are the exceptions to the rule that the dismissal of a criminal case resulting in
acquittal made with the express consent of the accused or upon his own motion will not
place the accused in double jeopardy?

Held: In the cases at bar, the order of dismissal based on a violation of the right to
speedy trial was made upon motion by counsel for petitioner before the trial court. It was
made at the instance of the accused before the trial court, and with his express consent.
Generally, the dismissal of a criminal case resulting in acquittal made with the express
consent of the accused or upon his own motion will not place the accused in double
jeopardy. However, this rule admits of two exceptions, namely: insufficiency of evidence
and denial of the right to speedy trial. Double jeopardy may attach when the proceedings
have been prolonged unreasonably, in violation of the accused’s right to speedy trial.
(Almario v. Court of Appeals, 355 SCRA 1, Mar. 22, 2001, 2 nd Div. [Quisumbing]

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259. If the criminal case was dismissed predicated on the right of the accused to speedy
trial, but later the trial court reconsidered its decision and allowed the case to be
reinstated as it noted that the delay in the trial was due to circumstances beyond the
control of the parties and of the trial court, i.e., the presiding judge was promoted to the
Court of Appeals, and his successor as trial judge was not immediately appointed, nor
another judge detailed to his sala, is there violation of the accused’s right against double
jeopardy?

Held: Here we must inquire whether there was unreasonable delay in the conduct of
the trial so that violation of the right to speedy trial of the accused x x x resulted. For it
must be recalled that in the application of the constitutional guaranty of the right to speedy
disposition of cases, particular regard must also be taken of the facts and circumstances
peculiar to each case. Both the trial court and the appellate court noted that after pre-trial
of petitioner’s case was terminated x x x continuous trial was set x x x. The scheduled
hearings, however, were cancelled when the presiding judge was promoted to the Court of
Appeals, and his successor as trial judge was not immediately appointed, nor another judge
detailed to his sala.
Xxx

As observed by respondent appellate court, delay in the trial was due to

circumstances beyond the control of the parties and of the trial court. x x x. Thus, after a
closer analysis of these successive events, the trial court realized that the dates of the
hearings were transferred for valid grounds. Hence, the trial court set aside its initial order
and reinstated the cases against petitioner, which order the appellate court later sustained.

That there was no unreasonable delay of the proceedings is apparent from the
chronology of the hearings with the reasons for their postponements or transfers. x x x

There being no oppressive delay in the proceedings, and no postponements

unjustifiably sought, we concur with the conclusion reached by the Court of Appeals that
petitioner’s right to speedy trial had not been infringed. Where the right of the accused to
speedy trial had not been violated, there was no reason to support the initial order of
dismissal.

It follows that petitioner cannot invoke the constitutional right against double
jeopardy when that order was reconsidered seasonably. For as petitioner’s right to speedy
trial was not transgressed, this exception to the fifth element of double jeopardy – that the
defendant was acquitted or convicted, or the case was dismissed or otherwise terminated
without the express consent of the accused – was not met. The trial court’s initial order of
dismissal was upon motion of petitioner’s counsel, hence made with the express consent of
petitioner. That being the case, despite the reconsideration of said order, double jeopardy
did not attach. As this Court had occasion to rule in People v. Tampal, reiterated in People
v. Leviste, where we overturned an order of dismissal by the trial court predicated on the
right to speedy trial –

It is true that in an unbroken line of cases, we have held that the dismissal of
cases on the ground of failure to prosecute is equivalent to an acquittal that would
bar further prosecution of the accused for the same offense. It must be stressed,
however, that these dismissals were predicated on the clear right of the accused to
speedy trial. These cases are not applicable to the petition at bench considering that
the right of the private respondents to speedy trial has not been violated by the
State. For this reason, private respondents cannot invoke their right against double
jeopardy.

Both the trial court and the Court of Appeals were thus not in error when they
allowed reinstatement of the cases against petitioner. (Almario v. Court of Appeals, 355
SCRA 1, Mar. 22, 2001, 2nd Div. [Quisumbing]

260. Is there double jeopardy when an accused was acquitted in a criminal case for
reckless imprudence but the civil aspect of the case was elevated to the Court of
Appeals and the latter found him liable for indemnity and damages?

Held: Petitioner opines that the Court of Appeals should not have disturbed the
findings of the trial court on the lack of negligence or reckless imprudence under the guise
of determining his civil liability. He argues that the trial court’s finding that he was neither
imprudent nor negligent was the basis for his acquittal, and not reasonable doubt. He
submits that in finding him liable for indemnity and damages, the appellate court not only
placed his acquittal in suspicion, but also put him in “double jeopardy.”

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 Private respondents contend that while the trial court found that petitioner’s guilt had
not been proven beyond reasonable doubt, it did not state in clear and unequivocal terms
that petitioner was not recklessly imprudent or negligent. Hence, impliedly the trial court
acquitted him on reasonable doubt. Since civil liability is not extinguished in criminal cases,
if the acquittal is based on reasonable doubt, the Court of Appeals had to review the findings
of the trial court to determine if there was a basis for awarding indemnity and damages.

Preliminarily, petitioner’s claim that the decision of the appellate court awarding
indemnity placed him in double jeopardy is misplaced. x x x. When a person is charged
with an offense and the case is terminated either by acquittal or conviction or in any manner
without the consent of the accused, the latter cannot again be charged with the same or
identical offense. This is double jeopardy. For double jeopardy to exist, the following
elements must be established: (1) a first jeopardy must have attached prior to the second;
(2) the first jeopardy must have terminated; and (3) the second jeopardy must be for the
same offense as the first. In the instant case, petitioner had once been placed in jeopardy
by the filing of Criminal Case No. 066 and the jeopardy was terminated by his discharge.
The judgment of acquittal became immediately final. Note, however, that what was
elevated to the Court of Appeals by private respondents was the civil aspect of Criminal
Case No. 066. Petitioner was not charged anew in CA-G.R. CV No. 19240 with a second
criminal offense identical to the first offense. The records clearly show that no second
criminal offense was being imputed to petitioner on appeal. In modifying the lower court’s
judgment, the appellate court did not modify the judgment of acquittal. Nor did it order the
filing of a second criminal cases against petitioner for the same offense. Obviously,
therefore, there was no second jeopardy to speak of. Petitioner’s claim of having been
placed in double jeopardy is incorrect.

Our law recognizes two kinds of acquittal, with different effects on the civil liability of
the accused. First is an acquittal on the ground that the accused is not the author of the act
or omission complained of. This instance closes the door to civil liability, for a person who
has been found to be not the perpetrator of any act or omission cannot and can never be
held liable for such or omission. There being no delict, civil liability ex delicto is out of the
question, and the civil action, if any, which may be instituted must be based on grounds
other than the delict complained of. This is the situation contemplated in Rule 111 of the
Rules of Court. The second instance is an acquittal based on reasonable doubt on the guilt
of the accused. In this case, even if the guilt of the accused has not been satisfactorily
established, he is not exempt from civil liability which may be proved by preponderance of
evidence only. This is the situation contemplated in Article 29 of the Civil Code, where the
civil action for damages is “for the same act or omission.” Although the two actions have
different purposes, the matters discussed in the civil case are similar to those discussed in
the criminal case. However, the judgment in the criminal proceeding cannot be read in
evidence in the civil action to establish any fact there determined, even though both actions
involve the same act or omission. The reason for this rule is that the parties are not the
same and secondarily, different rules of evidence are applicable. Hence, notwithstanding
herein petitioner’s acquittal, the Court of Appeals in determining whether Article 29 applied,
was not precluded from looking into the question of petitioner’s negligence or reckless
imprudence. (Manantan v. Court of Appeals, 350 SCRA 387, Jan. 29, 2001, 2 nd Div.
[Quisumbing])

The Right against Ex Post Facto Law and Bill of Attainder

261. What is a bill of attainder? Is P.D. 1866 a bill of attainder?

Held: [T]he Court, in People v. Ferrer, defined a bill of attainder as a legislative act
which inflicts punishment on individuals or members of a particular group without a judicial
trial. Essential to a bill of attainder are a specification of certain individuals or a group of
individuals, the imposition of a punishment, penal or otherwise, and the lack of judicial trial.
This last element, the total lack of court intervention in the finding of guilt and the
determination of the actual penalty to be imposed, is the most essential. P.D. No. 1866 does
not possess the elements of a bill of attainder. It does not seek to inflict punishment without
a judicial trial. Nowhere in the measure is there a finding of guilt and an imposition of a
corresponding punishment. What the decree does is to define the offense and provide for
the penalty that may be imposed, specifying the qualifying circumstances that would
aggravate the offense. There is no encroachment on the power of the court to determine
after due hearing whether the prosecution has proved beyond reasonable doubt that the
offense of illegal possession of firearms has been committed and that the qualifying
circumstances attached to it has been established also beyond reasonable doubt as the
Constitution and judicial precedents require. (Misolas v. Panga, 181 SCRA 648, 659-
660, Jan. 30, 1990, En Banc [Cortes])

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262. What is an ex post facto law? Is R.A. No. 8249 an ex post facto law?

Held: Ex post facto law, generally, prohibits retrospectivity of penal laws. R.A. 8249
is not a penal law. It is a substantive law on jurisdiction which is not penal in character.
Penal laws are those acts of the Legislature which prohibit certain acts and establish
penalties for their violations; or those that define crimes, treat of their nature, and provide
for their punishment. R.A. 7975, which amended P.D. 1606 as regards the Sandiganbayan’s
jurisdiction, its mode of appeal and other procedural matters, has been declared by the
Court as not a penal law, but clearly a procedural statute, i.e., one which prescribes rules of
procedure by which courts applying laws of all kinds can properly administer justice. Not
being a penal law, the retroactive application of R.A. 8249 cannot be challenged as
unconstitutional.

Petitioner’s and intervenors’ contention that their right to a two-tiered appeal which
they acquired under R.A. 7975 has been diluted by the enactment of R.A. 8249, is incorrect.
The same contention has already been rejected by the court several times considering that
the right to appeal is not a natural right but statutory in nature that can be regulated by law.
The mode of procedure provided for in the statutory right of appeal is not included in the
prohibition against ex post facto laws. R.A. 8249 pertains only to matters of procedure, and
being merely an amendatory statute it does not partake the nature of an ex post facto law.
It does not mete out a penalty and, therefore, does not come within the prohibition.
Moreover, the law did not alter the rules of evidence or the mode of trial. It has been ruled
that adjective statutes may be made applicable to actions pending and unresolved at the
time of their passage.

At any rate, R.A. 8249 has preserved the accused’s right to appeal to the Supreme
Court to review questions of law. On the removal of the intermediate review of facts, the
Supreme Court still has the power of review to determine if the presumption of innocence
has been convincingly overcome. (Panfilo M. Lacson v. The Executive Secretary, et.
al., G.R. No. 128096, Jan. 20, 1999 [Martinez])

GOD BLESS Ǖ Ǖ Ǖ

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