CHAPTER
3
Single-Stage Amplifiers
Amplification is an essential function in most analog (and many digital) circuits. We amplify an analog
or digital signal because it may be too small to drive a load, overcome the noise of a subsequent stage,
or provide logical levels to a digital circuit. Amplification also plays a critical role in feedback systems
(Chapter 8).
In this chapter, we study the low-frequency behavior of single-stage CMOS amplifiers. Analyzing
both the large-signal and the small-signal characteristics of each circuit, we develop intuitive techniques
and models that prove useful in understanding more complex systems. An important part of a designer’s
job is to use proper approximations so as to create a simple mental picture of a complicated circuit. The
intuition thus gained makes it possible to formulate the behavior of most circuits by inspection rather
than by lengthy calculations.
Following a brief review of basic concepts, we describe in this chapter four types of amplifiers:
common-source and common-gate topologies, source followers, and cascode configurations. In each
case, we begin with a simple model and gradually add second-order phenomena such as channel-length
modulation and body effect.
3.1 Applications
Do you carry an amplifier? In all likelihood, yes. Your mobile phone, laptop, and digital camera all
incorporate various types of amplifiers. The receiver in your phone must sense and amplify small signals
received by the antenna, thus requiring a “low-noise” amplifier (LNA) at the front end (Fig. 3.1). As the
signal travels down the receive chain, it must be further amplified by additional stages so as to reach an
acceptably high level. This proves difficult because, in addition to the small desired signal, the antenna
picks up other strong signals (“interferers”) that are transmitted by various other users in the same vicinity.
Your phone’s transmitter, too, employs amplifiers: to amplify the signal generated by the microphone and,
eventually, the signal delivered to the antenna. The “power amplifier” (PA) necessary for such delivery
draws the most energy from the battery and still presents interesting challenges.
3.2 General Considerations
An ideal amplifier generates an output, y(t), that is a linear replica of the input, x(t):
y(t) = α1 x(t) (3.1)
45
46 Chap. 3 Single-Stage Amplifiers
Desired Interferer
Signal
Receiver
Amplifying Stages
LNA
f
Antenna Downconverter
PA Mike
Upconverter
Transmitter
Figure 3.1 General RF transceiver.
where α1 denotes the gain. Since the output signal is in fact superimposed on a bias (dc operating) point,
α0 , we can write the overall output as y(t) = α0 + α1 x(t). In this case, the input-output (large-signal)
characteristic of the circuit is a straight line [Fig. 3.2(a)]. However, as the signal excursions become larger
and the bias point of the transistor(s) is disturbed substantially, the gain (the slope of the characteristic)
begins to vary [Fig. 3.2(b)]. We approximate this nonlinear characteristic by a polynomial:
y(t) = α0 + α1 x(t) + α2 x 2 (t) + · · · + αn x n (t) (3.2)
A nonlinear amplifier distorts the signal of interest or creates unwanted interactions among several signals
that may coexist at the input. We return to the problem of nonlinearity in Chapter 14.
y y
α1
α0
x x1 x2 x
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 Input-output characteristic of a (a) linear and (b) nonlinear system.
What aspects of the performance of an amplifier are important? In addition to gain and speed, such
parameters as power dissipation, supply voltage, linearity, noise, or maximum voltage swings may be
important. Furthermore, the input and output impedances determine how the circuit interacts with the
preceding and subsequent stages. In practice, most of these parameters trade with each other, making the
design a multidimensional optimization problem. Illustrated in the “analog design octagon” of Fig. 3.3,
such trade-offs present many challenges in the design of high-performance amplifiers, requiring intuition
and experience to arrive at an acceptable compromise.
Table 3.1 gives a preview of the amplifier topologies studied in this chapter, indicating the much wider
use of the common-source (CS) stage than other circuit configurations. For these amplifiers, we must (1)
set up proper bias conditions so that each transistor provides the necessary transconductance and output
resistance with certain quiescent currents and voltages, and (2) analyze the circuit’s behavior as the input
and output signals cause small or large departures from the bias input (small-signal and large-signal
analyses, respectively). We deal with the latter task here and defer the former to Chapter 5.
Sec. 3.3 Common-Source Stage 47
Noise Linearity
Power Gain
Dissipation
Input/Output Supply
Impedance Voltage
Voltage
Speed
Swings Figure 3.3 Analog design octagon.
Table 3.1 Amplifier categories.
Common-Source Stage Source Follower Common-Gate Stage Cascode
With Resistive Load With Resistive Bias With Resistive Load Telescopic
With Diode-Connected Load With Current-Source Bias With Current-Source Load Folded
With Current-Source Load
With Active Load
With Source Degeneration
3.3 Common-Source Stage
3.3.1 Common-Source Stage with Resistive Load
By virtue of its transconductance, a MOSFET converts changes in its gate-source voltage to a small-signal
drain current, which can pass through a resistor to generate an output voltage. Shown in Fig. 3.4(a), the
common-source stage performs such an operation.1 We study both the large-signal and the small-signal
behavior of the circuit. Note that the input impedance of the circuit is very high at low frequencies.
If the input voltage increases from zero, M1 is off and Vout = VD D [Fig. 3.4(b)]. As Vin approaches
VT H , M1 begins to turn on, drawing current from R D and lowering Vout . Transistor M1 turns on in
saturation regardless of the values of VD D and R D (why?), and we have
1 W
Vout = VD D − R D μn Cox (Vin − VT H )2 (3.3)
2 L
where channel-length modulation is neglected. With further increase in Vin , Vout drops more, and the tran-
sistor continues to operate in saturation until Vin exceeds Vout by VT H [point A in Fig. 3.4(b)]. At this point,
1 W
Vin1 − VT H = VD D − R D μn Cox (Vin1 − VT H )2 (3.4)
2 L
from which Vin1 − VT H and hence Vout can be calculated.
For Vin > Vin1 , M1 is in the triode region:
1 W
Vout = VD D − R D μn Cox 2(Vin − VT H )Vout − Vout
2
(3.5)
2 L
1 The common-source topology is identified as receiving the input at the gate and producing the output at the drain.
48 Chap. 3 Single-Stage Amplifiers
VTH
VDD Vout
RD VDD M1
Vout A
Vin M1
VTH Vin1 Vin
(a) (b)
VDD
Vout
RD
Vin V1 gmV1 RD
Vout
Vin Ron
M1
(c) (d)
Figure 3.4 (a) Common-source stage, (b) input-output characteristic, (c) equivalent circuit in the deep triode
region, and (d) small-signal model for the saturation region.
If Vin is high enough to drive M1 into the deep triode region, Vout 2(Vin − VT H ), and, from the
equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.4(c),
Ron
Vout = VD D (3.6)
Ron + R D
VD D
= (3.7)
W
1 + μn Cox R D (Vin − VT H )
L
Since the transconductance drops in the triode region, we usually ensure that Vout > Vin − VT H , and
hence the current operates to the left of point A in Fig. 3.4(b). Using (3.3) as the input-output characteristic
and viewing its slope as the small-signal gain, we have
∂ Vout
Av = (3.8)
∂ Vin
W
= −R D μn Cox (Vin − VT H ) (3.9)
L
= −gm R D (3.10)
This result can be directly derived from the observation that M1 converts an input voltage change Vin
to a drain current change gm Vin , and hence an output voltage change −gm R D Vin . The small-signal
model of Fig. 3.4(d) yields the same result: Vout = −gm V1 R D = −gm Vin R D . Note that, as mentioned in
Chapter 2, Vin , V1 , and Vout in this figure denote small-signal quantities.
Even though derived for small-signal operation, the equation Av = −gm R D predicts certain effects
if the circuit senses a large signal swing. Since gm itself varies with the input signal according to
Sec. 3.3 Common-Source Stage 49
gm = μn Cox (W/L)(VG S − VT H ), the gain of the circuit changes substantially if the signal is large. In
other words, if the gain of the circuit varies significantly with the signal swing, then the circuit operates in
the large-signal mode. The dependence of the gain upon the signal level leads to nonlinearity (Chapter 14),
usually an undesirable effect.
A key result here is that to minimize the nonlinearity, the gain equation must be a weak function of
signal-dependent parameters such as gm . We present several examples of this concept in this chapter and
in Chapter 14.
▲ Example 3.1
Sketch the drain current and transconductance of M1 in Fig. 3.4(a) as a function of the input voltage.
Solution
The drain current becomes significant for Vin > VT H , eventually approaching Nanometer Design Notes
V D D /R D if Ron1 R D [Fig. 3.5(a)]. Since in saturation, gm = μn Cox (W/L)(Vin −
How does the CS stage behave in
VT H ), the transconductance begins to rise for Vin > VT H . In the triode region,
nanometer technologies? The figure
gm = μn Cox (W/L)V DS , falling as Vin exceeds Vin1 [Fig. 3.5(b)]. Starting with plots the simulated input-output char-
Eq. (3.5), the reader can show that acteristic for W/L = 2 μm/40 nm,
RD = 2 k, and VD D = 1 V. We observe
∂ Vout −μn Cox (W/L)R D Vout that the circuit provides a gain of about
Av = = (3.11) 3 in the input range of 0.4 V to 0.6 V. The
∂ Vin 1 + μn Cox (W/L)R D (Vin − VT H − Vout )
output swing is limited to about 0.3 V–0.8
V for the gain not to drop significantly.
which reaches a maximum if Vout = Vin − VT H (point A).
1
ID gm 0.8
VDD
A
RD
0.6
Vout (V)
0.4
0.2
VTH Vin VTH Vin1 Vin
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vin (V)
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5
▲ Example 3.2
A CS stage is driven by a sinusoid, Vin = V1 cos ω1 t + V0 , where V0 is the bias value and V1 is large enough to drive
the transistor into the off and triode regions. Sketch the gm of the transistor as a function of time.
Solution
Let us first sketch the output voltage (Fig. 3.6), noting that when Vin = V1 + V0 , Vout is low, M1 is in the triode region,
and gm assumes a small value. As Vin falls and Vout and gm rise, M1 enters saturation at t = t1 (when Vin − Vout =
VT H ) and gm reaches its maximum (why?). As Vin falls further, so do I D and gm . At t = t2 , gm reaches zero.
We observe that (a) since the voltage gain is approximately equal to −gm R D , it experiences the same variation
as the gm , and (b) gm varies periodically.2
2 We even express gm as a Fourier series in more advanced courses.
50 Chap. 3 Single-Stage Amplifiers
V1 + V0 Vin
V0
VDD t
Vout
RD
Vout
Vin M1
t
gm
t1 t2 t
Figure 3.6
▲
How do we maximize the voltage gain of a common-source stage? Writing (3.10) as
W VR D
Av = − 2μn Cox ID (3.12)
L ID
where VR D denotes the voltage drop across R D , we have
W VR D
Av = − 2μn Cox √ (3.13)
L ID
Thus, the magnitude of Av can be increased by increasing W/L or VR D or decreasing I D if other parameters
are constant. It is important to understand the trade-offs resulting from this equation. A larger device size
leads to greater device capacitances, and a higher VR D limits the maximum voltage swings. For example,
if VD D − VR D = Vin − VT H , then M1 is at the edge of the triode region, allowing only very small swings at
the output (and input). If VR D remains constant and I D is reduced, then R D must increase, thereby leading
to a greater time constant at the output node. In other words, as noted in the analog design octagon, the
circuit exhibits trade-offs between gain, bandwidth, and voltage swings. Lower supply voltages further
tighten these trade-offs.
For large values of R D , the effect of channel-length modulation in M1 becomes significant. Modifying
(3.3) to include this effect,
1 W
Vout = VD D − R D μn Cox (Vin − VT H )2 (1 + λVout ) (3.14)
2 L
we have
∂ Vout W
= −R D μn Cox (Vin − VT H )(1 + λVout )
∂ Vin L
1 W ∂ Vout
−R D μn Cox (Vin − VT H )2 λ (3.15)
2 L ∂ Vin
Sec. 3.3 Common-Source Stage 51
We recognize that (1/2)μn Cox (W/L)(Vin − VT H )2 λ = 1/r O and
RD
Av = −R D gm − Av (3.16)
rO
Thus,
rO RD
Av = −gm (3.17)
rO + RD
The small-signal model of Fig. 3.7 gives the same result with much less effort. That is, since
gm V1 (r O R D ) = −Vout and V1 = Vin , we have Vout /Vin = −gm (r O R D ).
Vout
Vin V1 gmV1 r0 RD
Figure 3.7 Small-signal model of
CS stage including the transistor output
resistance.
▲ Example 3.3
Assuming that M1 in Fig. 3.8 is biased in saturation, calculate the small-signal voltage gain of the circuit.
VDD
I1
Vout
Vin M1
Figure 3.8
Solution
Since I1 introduces an infinite impedance (R D = ∞), the gain is limited by the output resistance of M1 :
Av = −gm r O (3.18)
Called the “intrinsic gain” of a transistor, this quantity represents the maximum voltage gain that can be achieved
using a single device. In today’s CMOS technology, gm r O of short-channel devices is between roughly 5 and 10.
We usually assume 1/gm r O .
In Fig. 3.8, Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) requires that I D1 = I1 . Then, how can Vin change the current of M1
if I1 is constant? Writing the total drain current of M1 as
1 W
I D1 = μn Cox (Vin − VT H )2 (1 + λVout ) (3.19)
2 L
= I1 (3.20)
we note that Vin appears in the square term and Vout in the linear term. As Vin increases, Vout must decrease such
that the product remains constant. We may nevertheless say “I D1 increases as Vin increases.” This statement simply
refers to the quadratic part of the equation.
▲
52 Chap. 3 Single-Stage Amplifiers
An important conclusion here is that, to maximize the voltage gain, we must maximize the (small-
signal) load impedance. Why can we not replace the load with an open circuit? This is because the circuit
still needs a path from VD D to ground for the bias current of M1 .
▲ Example 3.4
It is possible to use the bulk (back gate) of a MOSFET as the terminal controlling the channel. Shown in Fig. 3.9 is
an example. Determine the voltage gain if λ = 0.
VDD
RD
Vout
Nanometer Design Notes
Vb Vin
How do we design a CS stage for a
M1
given gain and supply voltage? With Figure 3.9
W/L , I D , and RD under our control, we
seem to have a wide design space. A
good starting point is to choose a small Solution
device, W/L = 0.5 μm/40 nm, a low From the small-signal MOS model developed in Chapter 2, we recall that the drain
bias current, I D = 50 μA, and a suffi- current is given by gmb Vin . Thus, Av = −gmb R D .
ciently large load resistance to achieve ▲
the required gain. To this end, we use
simulations to plot the transconductance
of such a device as a function of I D ,
obtaining gm = 0.45 mS. Thus, for a 3.3.2 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load
voltage gain of , say, 10, RD must reach
22.2 k if λ = 0. Is this an acceptable In some CMOS technologies, it is difficult to fabricate resistors with tightly-
design? The answer depends on the controlled values or a reasonable physical size (Chapter 19). Consequently, it
application. In addition to gain, the cir-
is desirable to replace R D in Fig. 3.4(a) with a MOS transistor.
cuit must also satisfy certain bandwidth,
noise, and output swing requirements. A MOSFET can operate as a small-signal resistor if its gate and drain are
shorted [Fig. 3.10(a)]. Called a “diode-connected” device in analogy with its
0.8 bipolar counterpart, this configuration exhibits small-signal behavior similar
0.7
0.6
to that of two-terminal resistor. Note that the transistor is always in saturation
0.5 because the drain and the gate have the same potential. Using the small-signal
gm (mS)
0.4 equivalent shown in Fig. 3.10(b) to obtain the impedance of the device, we
0.3 write V1 = VX and I X = VX /r O + gm VX . That is, the impedance of the diode
0.2
is simply equal to VX /I X = (1/gm )r O ≈ 1/gm . If body effect exists, we can
0.1
0
use the circuit in Fig. 3.11 to write V1 = −VX , Vbs = −VX , and
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
ID (mA)
VX
(gm + gmb )VX + = IX (3.21)
rO
Diode−Connected Device
IX
V1 gmV1 rO VX
(a) (b)
Figure 3.10 (a) Diode-connected NMOS and PMOS devices; (b) small-signal equivalent circuit.
