Lesson

18
Refrigeration System
Components:
Compressors
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
The objectives of this lesson are to:
1. Discuss basic components of a vapour compression refrigeration system
(Section 18.1)
2. Present classification of refrigerant compressors based on working
principle and based on the arrangement of compressor motor or external
drive (Section 18.2.1)
3. Describe the working principle of reciprocating compressors (Section 18.3)
4. Discuss the performance aspects of ideal reciprocating compressors with
and without clearance (Section 18.3.1)

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. List important components of a vapour compression refrigeration system

2. Classify refrigerant compressors based on their working principle and
based on the arrangement of compressor motor/external drive
3. Enumerate salient features of positive displacement type compressors,
dynamic compressors, open and hermetic compressors
4. Draw the schematic of a reciprocating compressor and explain its working
principle
5. Define an ideal reciprocating compressor without clearance using
pressure-volume and pressure-crank angle diagrams
6. Calculate the required displacement rate and power input of an ideal
compressor without clearance
7. Define an ideal reciprocating compressor with clearance using pressure-
volume and pressure-crank angle diagrams
8. Calculate the volumetric efficiency and power input of an ideal compressor
with clearance, and
9. Discuss the effects of compression ratio and index of compression on the
volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor with clearance

18.1. Introduction
A typical refrigeration system consists of several basic components such
as compressors, condensers, expansion devices, evaporators, in addition to
several accessories such as controls, filters, driers, oil separators etc. For
efficient operation of the refrigeration system, it is essential that there be a proper
matching between various components. Before analyzing the balanced
performance of the complete system, it is essential to study the design and
performance characteristics of individual components. Except in special
applications, the refrigeration system components are standard components
manufactured by industries specializing in individual components. Generally for
large systems, depending upon the design specifications, components are
selected from the manufacturers’ catalogs and are assembled at site. Even
though most of the components are standard off-the-shelf items, sometimes
components such as evaporator may be made to order. Small capacity
refrigeration systems such as refrigerators, room and package air conditioners,

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 2

water coolers are available as complete systems. In this case the manufacturer
himself designs or selects the system components, assembles them at the
factory, tests them for performance and then sells the complete system as a unit.

18.2. Compressors
A compressor is the most important and often the costliest component
(typically 30 to 40 percent of total cost) of any vapour compression refrigeration
system (VCRS). The function of a compressor in a VCRS is to continuously draw
the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator, so that a low pressure and low
temperature can be maintained in the evaporator at which the refrigerant can boil
extracting heat from the refrigerated space. The compressor then has to raise the
pressure of the refrigerant to a level at which it can condense by rejecting heat to
the cooling medium in the condenser.

18.2.1. Classification of compressors

Compressors used in refrigeration systems can be classified in several

ways:

a) Based on the working principle:

i. Positive displacement type

ii. Roto-dynamic type

In positive displacement type compressors, compression is achieved by

trapping a refrigerant vapour into an enclosed space and then reducing its
volume. Since a fixed amount of refrigerant is trapped each time, its pressure
rises as its volume is reduced. When the pressure rises to a level that is slightly
higher than the condensing pressure, then it is expelled from the enclosed space
and a fresh charge of low-pressure refrigerant is drawn in and the cycle
continues. Since the flow of refrigerant to the compressor is not steady, the
positive displacement type compressor is a pulsating flow device. However, since
the operating speeds are normally very high the flow appears to be almost steady
on macroscopic time scale. Since the flow is pulsating on a microscopic time
scale, positive displacement type compressors are prone to high wear, vibration
and noise level. Depending upon the construction, positive displacement type
compressors used in refrigeration and air conditioning can be classified into:

i. Reciprocating type
ii. Rotary type with sliding vanes (rolling piston type or multiple vane type)
iii. Rotary screw type (single screw or twin-screw type)
iv. Orbital compressors, and
v. Acoustic compressors

In roto-dynamic compressors, the pressure rise of refrigerant is achieved

by imparting kinetic energy to a steadily flowing stream of refrigerant by a rotating
mechanical element and then converting into pressure as the refrigerant flows
through a diverging passage. Unlike positive displacement type, the roto-dynamic
type compressors are steady flow devices, hence are subjected to less wear and

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 3

vibration. Depending upon the construction, roto-dynamic type compressors can
be classified into:

i. Radial flow type, or

ii. Axial flow type

Centrifugal compressors (also known as turbo-compressors) are radial flow

type, roto-dynamic compressors. These compressors are widely used in large
capacity refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Axial flow compressors are
normally used in gas liquefaction applications.

b) Based on arrangement of compressor motor or external drive:

i. Open type
ii. Hermetic (or sealed) type
iii. Semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) type

In open type compressors the rotating shaft of the compressor extends

through a seal in the crankcase for an external drive. The external drive may be
an electrical motor or an engine (e.g. diesel engine). The compressor may be belt
driven or gear driven. Open type compressors are normally used in medium to
large capacity refrigeration system for all refrigerants and for ammonia (due to its
incompatibility with hermetic motor materials). Open type compressors are
characterized by high efficiency, flexibility, better compressor cooling and
serviceability. However, since the shaft has to extend through the seal, refrigerant
leakage from the system cannot be eliminated completely. Hence refrigeration
systems using open type compressors require a refrigerant reservoir to take care
of the refrigerant leakage for some time, and then regular maintenance for
charging the system with refrigerant, changing of seals, gaskets etc.

In hermetic compressors, the motor and the compressor are enclosed in

the same housing to prevent refrigerant leakage. The housing has welded
connections for refrigerant inlet and outlet and for power input socket. As a result
of this, there is virtually no possibility of refrigerant leakage from the compressor.
All motors reject a part of the power supplied to it due to eddy currents and
friction, that is, inefficiencies. Similarly the compressor also gets heated-up due to
friction and also due to temperature rise of the vapor during compression. In
Open type, both the compressor and the motor normally reject heat to the
surrounding air for efficient operation. In hermetic compressors heat cannot be
rejected to the surrounding air since both are enclosed in a shell. Hence, the cold
suction gas is made to flow over the motor and the compressor before entering
the compressor. This keeps the motor cool. The motor winding is in direct contact
with the refrigerant hence only those refrigerants, which have high dielectric
strength, can be used in hermetic compressors. The cooling rate depends upon
the flow rate of the refrigerant, its temperature and the thermal properties of the
refrigerant. If flow rate is not sufficient and/or if the temperature is not low enough
the insulation on the winding of the motor can burn out and short-circuiting may
occur. Hence, hermetically sealed compressors give satisfactory and safe
performance over a very narrow range of design temperature and should not be
used for off-design conditions.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 4

 The COP of the hermetic compressor based systems is lower than that of the
open compressor based systems since a part of the refrigeration effect is lost in
cooling the motor and the compressor. However, hermetic compressors are
almost universally used in small systems such as domestic refrigerators, water
coolers, air conditioners etc, where efficiency is not as important as customer
convenience (due to absence of continuous maintenance). In addition to this, the
use of hermetic compressors is ideal in systems, which use capillary tubes as
expansion devices and are critically charged systems. Hermetic compressors are
normally not serviceable. They are not very flexible as it is difficult to vary their
speed to control the cooling capacity.

In some (usually larger) hermetic units, the cylinder head is usually removable
so that the valves and the piston can be serviced. This type of unit is called a
semi-hermetic (or semi-sealed) compressor.

18.3. Reciprocating compressors

Reciprocating compressor is the workhorse of the refrigeration and air
conditioning industry. It is the most widely used compressor with cooling
capacities ranging from a few Watts to hundreds of kilowatts. Modern day
reciprocating compressors are high speed (≈ 3000 to 3600 rpm), single acting,
single or multi-cylinder (upto 16 cylinders) type.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 5

Figure 18.1 shows the schematic of a reciprocating compressor. Reciprocating
compressors consist of a piston moving back and forth in a cylinder, with suction
and discharge valves to achieve suction and compression of the refrigerant
vapor. Its construction and working are somewhat similar to a two-stroke engine,
as suction and compression of the refrigerant vapor are completed in one
revolution of the crank. The suction side of the compressor is connected to the
exit of the evaporator, while the discharge side of the compressor is connected to

Fig 18.1: Schematic of a reciprocating compressor

the condenser inlet. The suction (inlet) and the discharge (outlet) valves open
and close due to pressure differences between the cylinder and inlet or outlet
manifolds respectively. The pressure in the inlet manifold is equal to or slightly
less than the evaporator pressure. Similarly the pressure in the outlet manifold is
equal to or slightly greater than the condenser pressure. The purpose of the
manifolds is to provide stable inlet and outlet pressures for the smooth operation
of the valves and also provide a space for mounting the valves.

The valves used are of reed or plate type, which are either floating or
clamped. Usually, backstops are provided to limit the valve displacement and
springs may be provided for smooth return after opening or closing. The piston
speed is decided by valve type. Too high a speed will give excessive vapor
velocities that will decrease the volumetric efficiency and the throttling loss will
decrease the compression efficiency.

18.3.1. Performance of reciprocating compressors

For a given evaporator and condenser pressures, the important

performance parameters of a refrigerant compressor are:

a) The mass flow rate (m) of the compressor for a given displacement rate
b) Power consumption of the compressor (Wc)
c) Temperature of the refrigerant at compressor exit, Td, and
d) Performance under part load conditions

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 6

 The mass flow rate decides the refrigeration capacity of the system and for
a given compressor inlet condition, it depends on the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor. The volumetric efficiency, ηV is defined as the ratio of volumetric
flow rate of refrigerant to the maximum possible volumetric flow rate, which is
equal to the compressor displacement rate, i.e.,

.
Volumetric flow rate m .v
ηV = = . e (18.1)
Compressor Displacement rate V
SW
. .
where m and V SW are the mass flow rate of refrigerant (kg/s) and compressor
displacement rate (m3/s) respectively, and vi is the specific volume (m3/kg) of the
refrigerant at compressor inlet.

For a given evaporator and condenser temperatures, one can also use the
volumetric refrigeration capacity (kW/m3) to indicate the volumetric efficiency of
the compressor. The actual volumetric efficiency (or volumetric capacity) of the
compressor depends on the operating conditions and the design of the
compressor.

The power consumption (kW) or alternately the power input per unit
refrigeration capacity (kW/kW) depends on the compressor efficiency (ηC),
efficiency of the mechanical drive (ηmech) and the motor efficiency (ηmotor). For a
refrigerant compressor, the power input (Wc) is given by:

Wideal
WC = (18.2)
η C η mech η motor

where Wideal is the power input to an ideal compressor.

The temperature at the exit of the compressor (discharge compressor)

depends on the type of refrigerant used and the type of compressor cooling. This
parameter has a bearing on the life of the compressor.

The performance of the compressor under part load conditions depends

on the type and design of the compressor.

a) Ideal reciprocating compressor:

An ideal reciprocating compressor is one in which:

i. The clearance volume is zero, i.e., at the end of discharge process, the
volume of refrigerant inside the cylinder is zero.
ii. No pressure drops during suction and compression
iii. Suction, compression and discharge are reversible and adiabatic

Figure 180.2 shows the schematic of an ideal compression process on

pressure-volume and pressure-crank angle (θ) diagrams. As shown in the figures,
the cycle of operations consists of:

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 7

Process D-A: This is an isobaric suction process, during which the piston moves
from the Inner Dead Centre (IDC) to the Outer Dead Centre (ODC). The suction
valve remains open during this process and refrigerant at a constant pressure Pe
flows into the cylinder.
Process A-B: This is an isentropic compression process. During this process, the
piston moves from ODC towards IDC. Both the suction and discharge valves
remain closed during the process and the pressure of refrigerant increases from
Pe to Pc.
Process B-C: This is an isobaric discharge process. During this process, the
suction valve remains closed and the discharge valve opens. Refrigerant at a
constant Pc is expelled from the compressor as the piston moves to IDC.

Pc
B Pc
C B C

P
P
Pe
D
D Pe A A

(0,0) θ
V

L
θ
D

IDC ODC

Fig.18.2. Ideal reciprocating compressor on P-V and P-θ diagrams

Since the clearance volume is zero for an ideal compressor, no gas is left
in the compressor at the end of the discharge stroke, as a result the suction
process D-A starts as soon as the piston starts moving again towards ODC. The
volumetric flow rate of refrigerant at suction conditions is equal to the compressor
displacement rate hence, the volumetric efficiency of the ideal compressor is 100
percent. The mass flow rate of refrigerant of an ideal compressor is given by:

.
. V SW
m= (18.3)
ve

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 8

 Thus for a given refrigeration capacity, the required size of the compressor
will be minimum if the compressor behaves as an ideal compressor.
.
The swept volume V SW of the compressor is given by:

. πD 2
V SW = nN L (18.4)
4
where n = Number of cylinders
N = Rotational speed of compressor, revolutions per second
D = Bore of the cylinder, m
L = Stroke length, m

Work input to the ideal compressor:

The total work input to the compressor in one cycle is given by:

Wid = WD-A + WA-B + WB-C (18.5)

Where,
WD-A = Work done by the refrigerant on the piston during process D-A
= Area under line D-A on P-V diagram = -Pe.VA
WA-B = Work done by the piston on refrigerant during compression A-B
VB
= Area under the curve A-B on P-V diagram = ∫ P.dV
VA
WB-C = Work done by the piston on the refrigerant during discharge B-C
= Area under line B-C = Pc.VB

VB Pc
∴Wid = -Pe.VA + ∫ P.dV + PcVB = Area A-B-C-D on P-V diagram = ∫ V.dP
VA Pe
Thus the work input to the ideal compressor per cycle is equal to the area
of the cycle on P-V diagram.

The specific work input, wid (kJ/kg) to the ideal compressor is given by:

Wid Pc
w id = = ∫ v.dP (18.6)
M r Pe

where Mr is the mass of refrigerant compressed in one cycle and v is the specific
volume of the refrigerant.

The power input to the compressor Wc is given by:

.
. VSW Pc
Wc = m w id = ∫ v.dP (18.7)
ve Pe
The mean effective pressure (mep) for the ideal compressor is given by:

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 9

 Wid 1 Pc
mep = .
= ∫ v.dP (18.8)
V SW v e Pe
The concept of mean effective pressure is useful for real compressors as
the power input to the compressor is a product of mep and the swept volume
rate.

Thus the power input to the compressor and its mean effective pressure
can be obtained from the above equation if the relation between v and P during
the compression process A-B is known. The above equation is valid for both
isentropic and non-isentropic compression processes, however, the compression
process must be reversible, as the path of the process should be known for the
integration to be performed.

For the isentropic process, Pvk = constant, hence the specific work of
compression wid can be obtained by integration, and it can be shown to be equal
to:

⎡ k −1
⎤
Pc
⎛ k ⎞ ⎢⎛ Pc ⎞ k
w id = ∫ v.dP = Pe v e ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ (18.9)
Pe ⎝ k − 1 ⎠ ⎢⎝ Pe ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

In the above equation, k is the index of isentropic compression. If the

refrigerant behaves as an ideal gas, then k = γ. In general, the value of k for
refrigerants varies from point to point, and if its value is not known, then an
approximate value of it can be obtained from the values of pressure and specific
ln(Pc / Pe )
volume at the suction and discharge states as k ≈ .
ln( v e / v c )

The work of compression for the ideal compressor can also be obtained by
applying energy balance across the compressor, Fig.18.3. Since the process is
assumed to be reversible and adiabatic and if we assume changes in potential
and kinetic energy to be negligible, then from energy balance across the
compressor:
Wc
w id = .
= (h c − h e ) (18.10)
m
The above expression can also be obtained from the thermodynamic relation:

Tds = dh − vdP ⇒ dh = vdP (∵ds = 0 for isentropic process)

Pc Pc
(18.11)
∴w id = ∫ vdP = ∫ dh = (h d − h e )
Pe Pe

The above expression is valid only for reversible, adiabatic compression.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 10

 Qc

m, Pe, Te, he, se m, Pc, Td, hd, sd

Wc

Fig.18.3. Energy balance across a steady flow compressor

b) Ideal compressor with clearance:

In actual compressors, a small clearance is left between the cylinder head

and piston to accommodate the valves and to take care of thermal expansion and
machining tolerances. As a thumb rule, the clearance C in millimetres is given by:

C = (0.005L + 0.5) mm, where L is stroke length in mm (18.12)

This space along with all other spaces between the closed valves and the piston
at the inner dead center (IDC) is called as Clearance volume, Vc. The ratio of the
clearance volume to the swept volume is called as Clearance ratio, ε, i.e.,
Vc
ε= (18.13)
VSW

The clearance ratio ε depends on the arrangement of the valves in the

cylinder and the mean piston velocity. Normally ε is less than 5 percent for well
designed compressors with moderate piston velocities (≈ 3 m/s), however, it can
be higher for higher piston speeds.

Due to the presence of the clearance volume, at the end of the discharge
stroke, some amount of refrigerant at the discharge pressure Pc will be left in the
clearance volume. As a result, suction does not begin as soon as the piston
starts moving away from the IDC, since the pressure inside the cylinder is higher
than the suction pressure (Pc > Pe). As shown in Fig. 18.4, suction starts only
when the pressure inside the cylinder falls to the suction pressure in an ideal
compressor with clearance. This implies that even though the compressor swept
volume, VSW = VA-VC, the actual volume of the refrigerant that entered the
cylinder during suction stroke is VA-VD. As a result, the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor with clearance, ηV,cl is less than 100 percent, i.e.,

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 11

 Actual volume of refrigerant compressed ⎛ VA − VD ⎞
η V ,cl = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (18.14)
Swept volume of the compressor ⎝ A
V − VC ⎠

C B C B C

P
P
D A
D A θ

Fig.18.4. Ideal reciprocating compressor with clearance

From Fig.18.4, the clearance volumetric efficiency can be written as:

⎛ V − VD ⎞ (VA − VC ) + (VC − VD ) ⎛ (V − VD ) ⎞
η V ,cl = ⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟ = =1 + ⎜⎜ C ⎟⎟ (18.15)
⎝ A
V − VC ⎠ ( VA − V C ) ⎝ A
( V − VC ⎠
)

Vc VC V
Since the clearance ratio, ε = = ⇒ (VA − VC ) = C (18.16)
VSW VA − VC ε

Substituting the above equation in the expression for clearance volumetric

efficiency; we can show that:
⎛ (V − VD ) ⎞ ε(VC − VD ) ⎛V ⎞
η V ,cl = 1 + ⎜⎜ C ⎟⎟ =1 + =1 + ε − ε⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟ (18.17)
⎝ (VA − VC ) ⎠ VC ⎝ VC ⎠

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 12

 Since the mass of refrigerant in the cylinder at points C and D are same,
we can express the ratio of cylinder volumes at points D and C in terms of ratio of
specific volumes of refrigerant at D and C, i.e.,
⎛ VD ⎞ ⎛ v D ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (18.18)
⎝ C ⎠ ⎝ vC ⎠
V

Hence, the clearance volumetric efficiency is given by:

⎛V ⎞ ⎛v ⎞
η V ,cl = 1 + ε − ε⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟ =1 + ε − ε⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟ (18.19)
⎝ VC ⎠ ⎝ vC ⎠

If we assume the re-expansion process also to follow the equation

Pvk=constant, then:

1/ k 1/ k
⎛ v D ⎞ ⎛ PC ⎞ ⎛P ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ (18.20)
⎝ v C ⎠ ⎝ PD ⎠ ⎝ Pe ⎠

Hence the clearance volumetric efficiency is given by:

[ ]
1/ k
⎛P ⎞
η V ,cl = 1 + ε − ε⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ =1 − ε rp −1
1/ k
(18.21)
⎝ Pe ⎠
where rp is the pressure ratio, Pc/Pe.

The above expression holds good for any reversible compression process
with clearance. If the process is not reversible, adiabatic (i.e., non-isentropic) but
a reversible polytropic process with an index of compression and expansion
equal to n, then k in the above equation has to be replaced by n, i.e., in general
for any reversible compression process;

[ ]
1/ n
⎛P ⎞
η V ,cl = 1 + ε − ε⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ =1 − ε rp −1
1/ n
(18.22)
⎝ Pe ⎠

The above expression shows that ηV,cl ↓ as rp↑ and ε↑ as shown in Fig.18.5. It
can also be seen that for a given compressor with fixed clearance ratio ε, there is
a limiting pressure ratio at which the clearance volumetric efficiency becomes
zero. This limiting pressure ratio is obtained from the equation:

[
η V ,cl = 1 − ε rp
1/ n
]
−1 = 0
⎡1 + ε ⎤
n
(18.23)
⇒ rp ,max = ⎢
⎣ ε ⎥⎦

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 13

 .
The mass flow rate of refrigerant compressed with clearance m cl is given by:
.
. V SW
m cl = η V ,cl (18.24)
ve

Thus the mass flow rate and hence the refrigeration capacity of the system
decreases as the volumetric efficiency reduces, in other words, the required size
of the compressor increases as the volumetric efficiency decreases.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 14

 ηV,cl

0,1
rp
Fig.18.5. Effect of pressure ratio (rp) and index of compression (n) on
clearance volumetric efficiency (ηV cl)

Work input to the compressor with clearance:

If we assume that both compression and expansion follow the same

equation Pvn = constant (i.e., the index of compression is equal to the index of
expansion), then the extra work required to compress the vapour that is left in the
clearance volume will be exactly equal to the work output obtained during the re-
expansion process. Hence, the clearance for this special case does not impose
any penalty on work input to the compressor. The total work input to the
compressor during one cycle will then be equal to the area A-B-C-D-A on P-V
diagram.

The specific work with and without clearance will be given by the same
expression:

⎡ n −1
⎤
Pc
⎛ n ⎞ ⎢⎛ Pc ⎞ n
w id = ∫ v.dP = Pe v e ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ (18.25)
Pe ⎝ − ⎠ ⎢⎝ Pe ⎠
n 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

However, since the mass of refrigerant compressed during one cycle is different
with and without clearance, the power input to the compressor will be different
with and without clearance. The power input to the compressor and mean
effective pressure (mep) with clearance are given by:

⎛ .
⎞
Wc = m w id = ⎜⎜ η V ,cl ⎟w
. V SW
(18.26)
⎜ ve ⎟⎟ id
⎝ ⎠

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 15

 w id
mep = η V ,cl (18.27)
ve

Thus the power input to the compressor and mep decrease with clearance
due to decrease in mass flow rate with clearance.

If the process is reversible and adiabatic (i.e., n = k), then the power input
to the compressor with clearance is given by:

⎛ .
⎞ ⎛ .
⎞
⎜
Wc = = ⎜ η V ,cl
V SW ⎟(h − h ) = ⎜ η V SW ⎟ Δh (18.28)
⎜ ve ⎟⎟ B A ⎜⎜ V ,cl v ⎟⎟ c ,s
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ e
⎠

where Δhc,s is the isentropic work of compression (kJ/kg)

Questions and answers:

1. Which of the following is not positive displacement type compressor?

a. Rotary vane compressor

b. Rotary screw type compressor
c. Centrifugal compressor
d. Acoustic compressor

Ans.: c)

2. Compared to a hermetic compressor, an open type compressor:

a. Offers higher efficiency

b. Offers lower noise
c. Offers better compressor cooling
d. Offers serviceability and flexibility

Ans.: a), c) and d)

3. Hermetic compressors are used mainly in smaller systems as they:

a. Yield higher COP

b. Do not require frequent servicing
c. Offer the flexibility of using any refrigerant
d. Can be used under different load conditions efficiently

Ans.: b)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 16

4. In reciprocating compressors, clearance is provided:

a. To improve the volumetric efficiency of the compressor

b. To accommodate valves
c. To account for thermal expansion due to temperature variation
d. To reduce power consumption of the compressor

Ans.: b) and c)

5. The clearance volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor depends on:

a. Properties of the refrigerant

b. Operating temperatures
c. Clearance volume
d. All of the above

Ans.: d)

6. A spacer is used in reciprocating compressors to introduce clearance volume.

A refrigerant manufacturer wishes to standardize the components of a
reciprocating compressor for refrigeration systems of capacities of 2 kW and 2.5
kW by varying only the spacer. Both the systems use the same refrigerant, which
has an isentropic index of compression of 1.116 and operate over a pressure
ratio of 5. The operating temperatures are also same for both the systems. If the
required clearance factor for the 2.5 kW system is 0.03, what should be the
clearance factor for the 2.0 kW system?

Ans.: Given:

Pressure ratio, rp = 5 and index of compression γ = 1.116 for both the

compressors. The clearance factor for the 2.5 kW compressor ε2.5 = 0.03

When all other parameters are same except the capacity, then:

(Qe,2.5/Qe,2.0) = 2.5/2.0 = 1.25 = (mr,2.5/mr,2.0) = (ηv,2.5/ηv,2.0)

where Qe is the refrigeration capacity, mr is the refrigerant mass flow rate and ηv
is the clearance volumetric efficiency of the compressor.

Substituting the expression for volumetric efficiency;

η V ,2.5 1 − ε 2.5 ( rp 1 / γ − 1)
η V ,2.0
= =
(
1 − ε 2.0 rp 1 / γ − 1 ) = 1.25
substituting the values of pressure ratio, index of compression and the clearance
factor of 2.5 kW compressor in the above expression, we obtain:

ε2.0 = 0.086 (Ans.)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 17

7. Water is used in a Standard Single Stage (SSS) vapour compression
refrigeration system. The system operates at an evaporator temperature of 4.5oC
(pressure = 0.8424 kPa) and a condenser temperature of 38oC (pressure = 6.624
kPa). Assume that the water vapour behaves as an ideal gas with cp/cv = 1.322
and calculate the discharge temperature if compression is isentropic. Also
calculate COP and volumic refrigeration effect if the refrigeration effect is 2355
kJ/kg. Molecular weight of water = 18 kg/kmol, Universal gas constant = 8.314
kJ/kmol.K

Ans.: Given:

Evaporator temperature, Te = 4.5oC = 277.5 K

Evaporator pressure, Pe = 0.8424 kPa
Condenser temperature, Te = 38oC = 311 K
Condenser pressure, Pc = 6.624 kPa
Isentropic index of compression, γ = cp/cv = 1.322
Refrigeration effect, qe = 2355 kJ/kg

Gas constant, R = 8.314/18 = 0.462 kJ/kg.K

⎛ RT ⎞
Specific volume of refrigerant at compressor inlet, v e = ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ = 152.19 m 3 / kg
⎝ Pe ⎠

a) Discharge temperature, Td:

γ −1
⎛P ⎞ γ
Td = Te ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ = 458.6 K
⎝ Pe ⎠
b) Work of compression, wc:
⎡ γ −1 ⎤
⎛ γ ⎞ ⎢⎛ Pc ⎞ γ ⎥
w c = RTe ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ = 343.45 kJ / kg
⎝ γ − 1⎠ ⎢⎝ Pe ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
c) COP:
q
COP = e = 6.86
wc
d) Volumic refrigeration effect, qv:
⎛q ⎞
q v = ⎜ e ⎟ = 15.4 kJ / m 3
⎝ v ⎠

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 18

8. An ammonia based refrigeration system with a refrigeration capacity of 100TR
(1TR=3.5167 kW) operates at an evaporating temperature of –36oC (saturation
pressure = 0.8845 bar) and a condensing temperature of 30oC (saturation
pressure = 11.67 bar). Assume the system to operate on a single stage saturated
(SSS) cycle. The compression process may be assumed to be isentropic. Under
these conditions, the following property data are available:

Enthalpy of saturated vapour at the exit of evaporator, h1 = 1414 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of saturated liquid at the exit of condenser,h4 = 341.8 kJ/kg
Isentropic index of compression, γ = 1.304
The compressor is an 8-cylinder, reciprocating type with a clearance ratio of 0.05
and speed of 1750 RPM. The stroke-to-bore ratio is 0.8. In the absence of
superheat data, the refrigerant vapour may be assumed to behave as a perfect
gas. The molecular weight of ammonia is 17.03 kg/kmol. Fnd:

a) Power input to the compressor

b) COP and cycle (second law) efficiency
c) Compressor discharge temperature, and
d) Compressor dimensions (diameter and stroke length)

Ans.: Given:

Refrigeration capacity, Qe = 100 TR = 351.67 kW

Evaporator temperature, Te = –36oC = 237 K
Evaporator pressure, Pe = 0.8845 bar = 88.45 kPa
Condenser temperature, Te = –36oC = 237 K
Condenser pressure, Pc = 11.67 bar = 1167 kPa
Molecular weight , M = 17.04 kg/kmol
Gas constant, R = 8.314/17.04 = 0.4882 kJ/kg.K
Speed of compressor, N = 1750 RPM
Clearance factor, ε = 0.05
No. of cylinders, n = 8
Stroke-to-bore (L/D) ratio,θ = 0.8

a) Power input to compressor, Wc:

Wc = mr .w c

where the mass flow rate mr is given by:

⎛ Qe ⎞
mr = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.328 kg / s
⎝ h1 − h 4 ⎠

work of compression, wc is given by:

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 19

 ⎡ γ −1 ⎤
⎛ γ ⎞ ⎢⎛ Pc ⎞ γ ⎥
w c = RTe ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ = 409.6 kJ / kg
⎝ γ − 1⎠ ⎢⎝ Pe ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Substituting these values, we find that the power input to the compressor is given
by:
Wc = 134.35 kW

b) COP and second law efficiency

Qe
COP = = 2.618
Wc
Second law efficiency, ηII:

COP ⎛ T − Te ⎞
η II = = COP⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ = 0.729
COPCarnot ⎝ Te ⎠
c) Discharge temperature, Td:

γ −1
⎛P ⎞ γ
Td = Te ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ = 432.7 K
⎝ Pe ⎠

d) Compressor dimensions, L and D

Swept volume, Vsw is given by:

π 2 π V
Vsw = D L.N.n = D 3 .θ.N.n = e
4 4 ηv

The volumetric efficiency ηv is given by:

⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢⎛ Pc ⎞ γ ⎥
η v = 1 − ε ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ = 0.6885
⎢⎝ Pe ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

The actual volumetric flow rate of refrigerant at compressor inlet, Ve is given by:

RTe
Ve = mr .v e = mr . = 0.4293 m 3 / s
Pe

Substituting these values in the expression for swept volume Vsw, we obtain:

Vsw = 0.6235 m3/s, and

D = 0.162 m and L = 0.8D = 0.1296 m (ans.)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 20

 Lesson
19
Performance Of
Reciprocating
Compressors
Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 1
The specific objectives of this lecture are to:
1. Discuss the performance aspects of ideal reciprocating compressors with
clearance, specifically:

a) Effect of evaporator temperature on system performance at a fixed

condenser temperature (Section 19.1.1)
b) Effect of condenser temperature on system performance at a fixed
evaporator temperature (Section 19.1.1)
c) Effects of pressure ratio and type of refrigerant on compressor
discharge temperature (Section 19.1.3)

2. Discuss the performance aspects of actual compressor processes by

considering:

a) Effect of heat transfer in the suction line and compressor (Section

19.2.1)
b) Effects of pressure drops in the suction and discharge lines and across
suction and discharge valves of compressor (Section 19.2.2)
c) Effect of refrigerant leakage (Section 19.2.3)

3. Describe various methods of capacity control (Section 19.3)

4. Discuss methods of compressor lubrication (Section 19.4)

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Describe qualitatively the effects of evaporator and condenser

temperatures on performance of reciprocating compressors

2. Discuss the effects of heat transfer, pressure drops and refrigerant leakage
on performance of actual compressors

3. Explain various methods of regulating the capacity of reciprocating

compressors, and

4. Discuss aspects of compressor lubrication

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 2

19.1. Ideal compressor with clearance:
19.1.1. Effect of evaporator temperature:

The effect of evaporator temperature on performance of the system is

obtained by keeping the condenser temperature (pressure) and compressor
displacement rate and clearance ratio fixed. To simplify the discussions, it is
further assumed that the refrigeration cycle is an SSS cycle.

a) On Volumetric efficiency and refrigerant mass flow rate:

The volumetric of the compressor with clearance is given by:

[ ]
1/ n
⎛P ⎞
η V , cl = 1 + ε − ε⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟ = 1 − ε rp 1 / n − 1 (19.1)
⎝ Pe ⎠
For a given condensing temperature (or pressure), the pressure ratio rp
increases as the evaporator temperature (or evaporator pressure) decreases.
Hence, from the expression for clearance volumetric efficiency, it is obvious
that the volumetric efficiency decreases as evaporator temperature
decreases. This is also explained with the help of Fig.19.1, which shows the
P-V diagram for different evaporator pressures. As shown, as the evaporator
pressure decreases, the volume of refrigerant compressed decreases
significantly, since the compressor displacement remains same the clearance
volumetric efficiency decreases as evaporator temperature decreases. In fact,
as explained in the earlier lecture, at a limiting pressure ratio, the volumetric
efficiency becomes zero.

P
3 2” 2’ 2
Pc

4
Pe,1 1
4’
Pe,2 1’
Pe,3 1”
4”

VC V4 V4’ V4” VA V
Fig.19.1. P-V diagram for different evaporator pressures and a fixed
condenser pressure

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 3

 .
The mass flow rate of refrigerant m is given by:
.
. V SW
m = η V , cl (19.2)
ve
As the evaporator temperature decreases the clearance volumetric efficiency
decreases and the specific volume of refrigerant at compressor inlet ve
increases. As a result of these two effects, the mass flow rate of refrigerant
through the compressor decreases rapidly as the evaporator temperature
decreases as shown in Fig.19.2.

Tc = Constant

ηV,cl
ηV,cl m

Te

Fig.19.2. Effect of evaporator temperature on clearance volumetric

efficiency and refrigerant mass flow rate

b) On refrigeration effect and refrigeration capacity:

A compressor alone cannot provide refrigeration capacity. By

refrigeration capacity of compressor what we mean is the capacity of a
refrigeration system that uses the compressor under discussion. Figure 19.3
(a) shows the SSS cycle on P-h diagram at different evaporator temperatures.
It can be seen from the figure that the refrigeration effect, qe (qe = h1-h4)
increases marginally as the evaporator temperature is increased. This is due
to the shape of the saturation vapour curve on P-h diagram. The effect of Te
on refrigerant effect is also shown in Fig.19.3(b).

The refrigeration capacity of the compressor Qe is given by:

.
Q e = m .q e (19.3)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 4

 P

3 2 2’ 2”

1
4
1’
4’
1”
4”

h
Fig.19.3(a): Effect of evaporator temperature on refrigeration effect on
P-h diagram

Since mass flow rate of refrigerant increases rapidly and refrigerant

effect also increases, though marginally with increase in evaporator
temperature, the refrigeration capacity increases sharply with increase in
evaporator temperature as shown in Fig.19.3(b).

Tc = Constant

qe
qe Qe

Qe

Te

Fig.19.3(b): Effect of evaporator temperature on refrigeration effect and

refrigeration capacity

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 5

c) On work of compression and power requirement:

At a constant condenser temperature as evaporator temperature

increases the work of compression, Δhc (= h2-h1) decreases as shown in
Fig.19.3(a). This is due to the divergent nature of isentropes in the
superheated region. The work of compression becomes zero when the
evaporator temperature becomes equal to the condenser temperature (Te=Tc)
as shown in Fig. 19.4.

The power input to the compressor is given by:

.
Wc = m .Δhc (19.4)

As discussed before, for a given clearance ratio and condenser temperature,

the volumetric efficiency and hence the mass flow rate becomes zero at a
lower limiting value of evaporator temperature (Te = Te,lim). Since the work of
compression becomes zero when the evaporator temperature equals the
condenser temperature, the power input to the compressor, which is a product
of mass flow rate and work of compression is zero at a low evaporator
temperature (at which the mass flow rate is zero). And the power input also
becomes zero when evaporator temperature equals condenser temperature
(at which the work of compression becomes zero). This implies that as
evaporator temperature is increased from the limiting value, the power curve
increases from zero, reaches a peak and then becomes zero as shown in
Fig.19.4.

Tc = Constant

Δhc Wc
Δhc
Wc

Te=Te,lim Te Te=Tc

Fig.19.4: Effect of evaporator temperature on work of compression (Δhc)

and power input to compressor (Wc)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 6

 The variation of compressor power input with evaporator temperature
has a major practical significance. As a mentioned before, there is an
evaporator temperature at which the power reaches a maximum value. If the
design evaporator temperature of the refrigeration system is less than the
evaporator temperature at which the power is maximum, then the design
power requirement is lower than the peak power input. However, during the
initial pull-down period, the initial evaporator temperature may lie to the left of
the power peak. Then as the system runs steadily the evaporator temperature
reduces and the power requirement passes through the peak point. If the
motor is designed to suit the design power input then the motor gets
overloaded during every pull-down period as the peak power is greater than
the design power input. Selecting an oversized motor to meet the power peak
is not an energy efficient solution, as the motor will be underutilized during the
normal operation. One way of overcoming the problem is to throttle the
suction gas during the pull-down so that the refrigerant mass flow rate is
reduced and the motor does not pass through the power peak. In multi-
cylinder compressors, some of the cylinders can be unloaded during the pull-
down so as to reduce the power requirement.

d) On COP and volume flow rate per unit capacity:

The COP of the system is defined as:

Q q
COP = e = e (19.5)
Wc Δhc

As discussed before, as the evaporator temperature increases the

refrigeration effect, qe increases marginally and the work of compression, Δhc
reduces sharply. As a result the COP of the system increases rapidly as the
evaporator temperature increases as shown in Fig.19.5.

The volume flow rate per unit capacity, V is given by:

.
η V , cl . V SW v
V= = e (19.6)
Qe qe

As evaporator temperature increases the specific volume of the

refrigerant at compressor inlet reduces rapidly and the refrigerant effect
increases marginally. Due to the combined effect of these two, the volume
flow rate of refrigerant per unit capacity reduces sharply with evaporator
temperature as shown in Fig. 19.5. This implies that for a given refrigeration
capacity, the required volumetric flow rate and hence the size of the
compressor becomes very large at very low evaporator temperatures.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 7

 Tc = Constant

COP V
V (m3/kW.s)
COP

Te

Fig.19.5: Effect of evaporator temperature on COP and volume flow rate per
unit capacity (V)

19.1.2. Effect of condenser temperature:

Atmospheric air is the cooling medium for most of the refrigeration

systems. Since the ambient temperature at a location can vary over a wide
range, the heat rejection temperature (i.e., the condensing temperature) may
also vary widely. This affects the performance of the compressor and hence
the refrigeration system. The effect of condensing temperature on compressor
performance can be studied by keeping evaporator temperature constant.

a) On volumetric efficiency and refrigerant mass flow rate:

Figure 19.6 shows the effect of condensing temperature on clearance

volumetric efficiency and mass flow rate of refrigerant. At a constant
evaporator temperature as the condensing temperature increases, the
pressure ratio increases, hence, both the volumetric efficiency and mass flow
rate decrease as shown in the figure. However, the effect of condensing
temperature on mass flow rate is not as significant as the evaporator
temperature as the specific volume of refrigerant at compressor inlet is
independent of condensing temperature.

b) On refrigeration effect and refrigeration capacity:

At a constant evaporator temperature as the condensing temperature

increases, then the enthalpy of refrigerant at the inlet to the evaporator
increases. Since the evaporator enthalpy remains constant at a constant
evaporator temperature, the refrigeration effect decreases with increase in
condensing temperature as shown in Fig. 19.7. The refrigeration capacity
(Qe) also reduces with increase in condensing temperature as both the mass
flow rate and refrigeration effect decrease as shown in Fig.19.7.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 8

 Te = Constant

ηV,cl
ηV,cl
m m

Tc

Fig.19.6. Effect of condenser temperature on clearance volumetric efficiency

and mass flow rate of refrigerant

Te = Constant

qe
Qe
qe

Qe

Tc

Fig.19.7. Effect of condenser temperature on refrigeration effect and

refrigeration capacity

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 9

c) On work of compression and power requirement:

The work of compression is zero when the condenser temperature is

equal to the evaporator temperature, on the other hand at a limiting
condensing temperature the mass flow rate of refrigerant becomes zero as
the clearance volumetric efficiency becomes zero as explained before. Hence,
similar to the effect of evaporator temperature on power curve, the
compressor power input increases from zero (work of compression is zero),
reaches a peak and then again becomes zero at a high value of condensing
temperature as shown in Fig.19.8. However, the peak power in this case is
not as critical as with evaporator temperature since the chances of condenser
operating at such a high temperatures are rare.

d) On COP and volume flow rate per unit capacity:

As condensing temperature increases the refrigeration effect reduces

marginally and work of compression increases, as a result the COP reduces
as shown in Fig.19.9. Even though the specific volume at compressor inlet is
independent of condensing temperature, since the refrigeration effect
decreases with increase in condensing temperature, the volume flow rate of
refrigerant per unit capacity increases as condenser temperature increases as
shown in Fig.19.9.

Te = Constant

Wc

Δhc Δhc Wc

Tc

Fig.19.8: Effect of condenser temperature on work of compression and

power input to compressor

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 10

 Te = Constant

COP

V
COP
V

Tc

Fig.19.9: Effect of condensing temperature on COP and volume flow rate

per unit capacity (V)
The above discussion shows that the performance of the system
degrades as the evaporator temperature decreases and condensing
temperature increases, i.e., the temperature lift increases. This is in line with
the effect of these temperatures on reverse Carnot refrigeration system. It is
seen that compared to the condensing temperature, the effect of evaporator
temperature is quiet significant. When the heat sink temperature does not
vary too much then the effect of condensing temperature may not be
significant.

19.1.3. Compressor discharge temperature:

If the compressor discharge temperature is very high then it may result

in breakdown of the lubricating oil, causing excessive wear and reduced life of
the compressor valves (mainly the discharge valve). In hermetic compressors,
the high discharge temperature adversely affects the motor insulation (unless
the insulation is designed for high temperatures). When the temperature is
high, undesirable chemical reactions may take place inside the compressor,
especially in the presence of water. This may ultimately damage the
compressor.

If the compression process is assumed to be isentropic and the

refrigerant vapour is assumed to be have as a perfect gas, then the following
equations apply:
Pv γ = cons tan t and Pv = RT (19.7)

Then the discharge temperature, Td is given by:

γ −1
⎛ Pc ⎞ γ
Td = Te ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (19.8)
⎝ Pe ⎠

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 11

 Thus for a given compressor inlet temperature, Te, the discharge
temperature Td increases as the pressure ratio (Pc/Pe) and specific heat ratio γ
increase. Even though refrigerant vapour may not exactly behave as a perfect
gas, the trends remain same. Figure 19.10 shows the variation of discharge
temperature as a function of pressure ratio for three commonly used
refrigerants, ammonia, R 22 and R 12. As shown in the figure since specific
heat ratio of ammonia is greater than R 22, which in turn is greater than R 12,
at a given pressure ratio, the discharge temperature of ammonia is higher
than R 22, which in turn is higher than R 12. Since the high discharge
temperature of ammonia may damage the lubricating oil, normally ammonia
compressors are cooled externally using water jackets.

NH3
R 22
Td

R 12

(Pc/Pe)

Fig.19.10: Variation of compressor discharge temperature with pressure ratio

for different refrigerants

19.2. Actual compression process

Actual compression processes deviate from ideal compression
processes due to:

i. Heat transfer between the refrigerant and surroundings during

compression and expansion, which makes these processes non-
adiabatic
ii. Frictional pressure drops in connecting lines and across suction and
discharge valves
iii. Losses due to leakage

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 12

19.2.1. Effect of heat transfer:

Heat transfer from the cylinder walls and piston to the refrigerant vapour
takes place during the suction stroke and heat transfer from the refrigerant to
the surroundings takes place at the end of the compression. In hermetic
compressors additional heat transfer from the motor winding to refrigerant
takes place. The effect of this heat transfer is to increase the temperature of
refrigerant, thereby increasing the specific volume. This in general results in
reduced volumetric efficiency and hence reduced refrigerant mass flow rate
and refrigeration capacity. The extent of reduction in mass flow rate and
refrigeration capacity depends on the pressure ratio, compressor speed and
compressor design. As seen before, the discharge temperature and hence the
temperature of the cylinder and piston walls increase with pressure ratio. As
the compressor speed increases the heat transfer rate from the compressor to
the surroundings reduces, which may result in higher refrigerant temperature.
Finally, the type of external cooling provided and compressor design also
affects the performance as it influences the temperature of the compressor.

Since the compression and expansion processes are accompanied by

heat transfer, these processes are not adiabatic in actual compressors.
Hence, the index of compression is not isentropic index but a polytropic index.
However, depending upon the type of the compressor and the amount of
external cooling provided, the compression process may approach an
adiabatic process (as in centrifugal compressors) or a reversible polytropic
process (as in reciprocating compressors with external cooling). The index of
compression may be greater than isentropic index (in case of irreversible
adiabatic compression). When the process is not reversible, adiabatic, then
the polytropic index of compression ‘n’ depends on the process and is not a
property of the refrigerant. Also the polytropic index of compression may not
be equal to the polytropic index of expansion. Since the compression process
in general is irreversible, the actual power input to the compressor will be
greater than the ideal compression work. Sometimes the isentropic efficiency
is used to estimate the actual work of compression. The isentropic efficiency
ηis for the compressor is defined as:
Δh c,is
ηis = (19.9)
Δh c,act
where Δhc,is is the isentropic work of compression and Δhc,act is the actual
work of compression. It is observed that for a given compressor the isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is mainly a function of the pressure ratio.
Normally the function varies from compressor to compressor, and is obtained
by conducting experimental studies on compressors. The actual work of
compression and actual power input can be obtained if the isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is known as the isentropic work of compression
can be calculated from the operating temperatures.

19.2.2. Effect of pressure drops:

In actual reciprocating compressors, pressure drop takes place due to

resistance to fluid flow. Pressure drop across the suction valve is called as

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 13

“wire drawing”. This pressure drop can have adverse effect on compressor
performance as the suction pressure at the inlet to the compressor Ps will be
lower than the evaporator pressure as shown in Fig.19.11. As a result, the
pressure ratio and discharge temperature increases and density of refrigerant
decreases. This in turn reduces the volumetric efficiency, refrigerant mass
flow rate and increases work of compression. This pressure drop depends on
the speed of the compressor and design of the suction valve. The pressure
drop increases as piston speed increases.

Even though the pressure drop across the discharge valve is not as
critical as the pressure drop across suction valve, it still affects the
compressor performance in a negative manner.

The net effect of pressure drops across the valves is to reduce the
refrigeration capacity of the system and increase power input. The pressure
drops also affect the discharge temperature and compressor cooling in an
adverse manner.

Pc

Pe

Ps

V
Fig.19.11: Effects of suction and discharge side pressure drops on P-V
diagram of a reciprocating compressor

19.2.3. Effect of leakage:

In actual compressors, refrigerant leakage losses take place between

the cylinder walls and piston, across the suction and discharge valves and
across the oil seal in open type of compressors. The magnitude of these
losses depends upon the design of the compressor valves, pressure ratio,
compressor speed and the life and condition of the compressor. Leakage
losses increase as the pressure ratio increases, compressor speed decreases
and the life of compressor increases. Due to the leakage, some amount of

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 14

refrigerant flows out of the suction valves at the beginning of compression
stroke and some amount of refrigerant enters the cylinder through the
discharge valves at the beginning of suction stroke. The net effect is to reduce
the mass flow rate of refrigerant. Even though it is possibly to minimize
refrigerant leakage across cylinder walls, eliminating leakages across valves
is not possible as it is not possible to close the valves completely during the
running of the compressor.

As a result of the above deviations, the actual volumetric efficiency of

refrigerant compressors will be lower than the clearance volumetric efficiency.
It is difficult to estimate the actual efficiency from theory alone. Normally
empirical equations are developed to estimate this parameter. The actual
volumetric efficiency can be defined either in terms of volumetric flow rates or
in terms of mass flow rates, i.e.,

actual volumetric flow rate actual mass flow rate

η V ,act = =
Compressor displacement rate max imum possible mass flow rate

In general,
Ts
η V ,act = η V ,th − ξL (19.10)
Tsc
where ηv,th = Theoretical volumetric efficiency obtained from P-V diagram
Ts = Temperature of vapour at suction flange, K
Tsc = Temperature of vapour at the beginning of compression, K
ξL = Leakage loss (fraction or percentage)

Several tests on compressors show that the actual volumetric of a

given compressor is mainly a function of pressure ratio, and for a given
pressure ratio it remains practically constant, irrespective of other operating
conditions. Also, compressors with same design characteristics will have
approximately the same volumetric efficiency, irrespective of the size. It is
shown that for a given compressor, the actual volumetric efficiency can be
obtained from the empirical equation:

η V , act = A − B(rp ) C (19.11)

where A, B and C are empirical constants to be obtained from actual test data
and rp is the pressure ratio.

Depending upon the compressor and operating conditions, the

difference between actual and theoretical volumetric efficiency could be
anywhere between 4 to 20 percent.

Since heat transfer rate and leakage losses reduce and pressure drops
increase with increase in refrigerant velocity, the actual volumetric efficiency
reaches a maximum at a certain optimum speed. An approximate relation for
optimum speed as suggested by Prof. Gustav Lorentzen is:

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 15

 Vopt
≈ 420 m / s (19.12)
M

where Vopt is the optimum velocity of the refrigerant through the valve port in
m/s and M is the molecular weight of the refrigerant in kg/kmol. This relation
suggests that higher the molecular weight of the refrigerant lower is the
optimum refrigerant velocity.

19.3. Capacity control of reciprocating compressors:

Normally refrigerant compressors are designed to take care of the most
severe operating conditions, which normally occurs when the cooling load is
high and/or the condenser operates at high temperatures due to high heat
sink temperatures. However, when the operating conditions are not so severe,
i.e., when the cooling load is low and/or the heat sink temperature is low, then
the compressor designed for peak load conditions becomes oversized. If no
control action is taken, then the compressor adjusts itself by operating at
lower evaporator temperature, which may affect the refrigerated space
temperature. The temperature of the evaporator during part load conditions
reduces as the rate at which the compressor removes refrigerant vapour from
the evaporator exceeds the rate of vaporization in the evaporator. As a result
the evaporator pressure, and hence the evaporator temperature reduces.
Operating at low evaporator temperature may lead to other problems such as
low air humidity, frosting of evaporator coils and freezing of the external fluid.
To avoid these problems, the capacity of the compressor has to be regulated
depending upon the load. Various methods available in practice for controlling
the capacity of compressors are:

a) Cycling or on-off control

b) Back pressure regulation by throttling of suction gas
c) Hot gas by-pass
d) Unloading of cylinders in multi-cylinder compressors, and
e) Compressor speed control

The cycling or on-off control is normally used in very small capacity

refrigeration systems such as domestic refrigerators, room air conditioners,
water coolers etc. The on-off control is achieved with the help of a thermostat,
which normally senses the temperature inside the refrigerated space or
evaporator temperature. As long as the temperature is greater than a set
temperature (cut-out point) the compressor runs, and when the temperature
falls below the cut-out temperature the thermostat switches-off the
compressor. The temperature at which the compressor is switched-on again
is known as cut-in temperature. The difference between the cut-in and cut-out
temperatures is called as differential of the thermostat, which can be adjusted
internally. The level of temperature at which the thermostat operates is called
as the range of the thermostat, which can also be adjusted by the customer
by turning a knob. For example, a thermostat may have a cut-in temperature
of 10oC and a cut-out temperature of 9oC, in which case the differential is 1oC.
By turning the thermostat knob, the same thermostat can be made to operate,

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 16

say at 7oC of cut-in temperature and 6oC of cut-out temperature. In this
example, the differential has been kept fixed at 1oC, while the range has been
varied. As mentioned, it is also possible to vary the differential so that the
thermostat can operate at a cut-in temperature of 10oC and a cut-out
temperature of 8oC, with a differential of 2oC. Thus the temperature in the
refrigerated space varies between the cut-out and cut-in values. In stead of a
thermostat which takes control action based on temperatures, it is also
possible to use a pressure sensing device to initiate on-off control. This type
of device is called a pressostat, and is designed to take control action by
sensing the evaporator pressure. The on-off control is satisfactory in
applications where the fluctuation in product temperatures due to on-off
control is acceptable. Thus it is suitable when the thermal capacity of the
product or the refrigerated space is large so that small variation in it can give
sufficient variation in evaporator temperature. On-off control is not good when
the temperature has to be regulated within a small range, in which case the
compressor has to start and stop very frequently. Small compressor motors
can be cycled for about 10 cycles per hour, whereas large compressor motors
are normally not allowed to start and stop for more than one or two times in an
hour.

Back-pressure regulation by throttling the suction gas reduces the

refrigeration capacity of the compressor. However, this method is not
normally used for regular capacity control as it does not reduce the
compressor power input proportionately, consequently it is energy inefficient.
This method is normally used during the pull-down period so as to avoid the
power peak.

Hot gas bypass to suction side is an effective method of controlling the

capacity. In this method, when the evaporator pressure falls below a
predetermined value, a hot gas bypass valve is opened and hot refrigerant
from the discharge side flows back into the suction side of the compressor. A
constant pressure expansion valve can be used as a hot gas bypass valve.
Though by this method the capacity of the compressor can be regulated quite
closely, this method suffers from some disadvantages such as little or no
reduction in compressor power consumption at reduced refrigeration
capacities, excessive superheating of the suction gas resulting in overheating
of the compressors. Hence, this method is normally used in small
compressors. However, in conjunction with other efficient methods, hot gas
bypass is used when it is required to regulate the capacity down to 0 percent
or for unloaded starting. Overheating of the compressor can be reduced by
sending the hot bypass gas to the evaporator inlet. This also maintains
sufficiently high refrigerant velocity in the evaporator so that oil return to the
compressor can be improved during low cooling loads. Figure 19.12 shows
the schematic of a refrigeration system with a hot gas bypass arrangement. In
the figure, the solid line is for the system in which the by-passed hot gas
enters the inlet of the compressor, while the dashed line is for the system in
which the by-passed hot gas enters at the inlet to the evaporator.

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 17

 Condenser

Hot gas bypass

Exp. device
Compressor
Evaporator

Fig.19.12: A vapour compression refrigeration system with hot gas

bypass arrangement

Unloading of cylinders in multi-cylinder compressors is another effective

method of regulating compressor capacity. This is achieved usually by
keeping the suction valves of some of the cylinders open during the
compression stroke. As a result, the suction vapour drawn into these cylinders
during suction stroke is returned to the suction line during the compression
stroke. This is done with the help of pressure sensing switch, which senses
the low pressure in the evaporator
porator and opens some of the suction valves. In
addition to capacity regulation, this method is also used during pull-down so
that the peak power point can be skipped. This method is efficient as the
required power input reduces with reduced cooling load, though not in the
same proportion. Hence, this is one of the methods commonly employed in
large systems.

Controlling the capacity of the compressor by regulating its speed is one of

the most efficient methods as the required power input reduces almost in the
same proportion with cooling load. However, for complete control a variable
frequency drive may be required, which increases the cost of the system. In
addition, reducing the speed too much may effect the compressor cooling and
oil return.

19.4. Compressor lubrication:

Reciprocating compressors require lubrication to reduce wear between
several parts, which rub against each other during the operation. Normally
lubricating oil is used to lubricate the compressors. The lubricating oil usually
comes in contact with the refrigerant and mixes with it, hence, it is essential to
select a suitable oil in refrigerant compressors. The important properties that
must be considered while selecting lubricating oil in refrigerant compressors
are:

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 18

 a) Chemical stability
b) Pour and/or floc points
c) Dielectric strength, and
d) Viscosity

In addition to the above, the nature of the refrigerant used, type and
design of the compressor, evaporator and compressor discharge
temperatures have to be considered while selecting suitable lubricating oils.

The oil should not undergo any chemical changes for many years of
operation. This aspect is especially critical in hermetic compressor where, oil
is not supposed to be changed for ten years or more. Since the discharge
temperature is normally high in these compressors, the oil should not
decompose even under very high temperatures. The chemical stability of the
oil is inversely proportional to the number of unsaturated hydrocarbons
present in the oil. For refrigerant compressors, oils with low percentage of
unsaturated hydrocarbons are desirable.

The pour point of the oil may be defined as the lowest temperature at
which the oil can flow or pour, when tested under specific conditions. The
pour point is important for systems working at low evaporator temperatures.
The pour point depends upon the wax content, higher the wax content, higher
will be the pour point. Hence, for low temperature applications oils with low
wax content should be used, otherwise the oil may solidify inside the
evaporator tubes affecting the system performance and life of the
compressor. The temperature at which the wax in the oil begins to precipitate
is called as the cloud point. The floc point of the oil is the temperature at
which wax will start to precipitate from a mixture of 90% R 12 and 10% oil by
volume. In case of refrigerants such as R 12, viscosity of oil is reduced, as the
refrigerant is soluble in oil. The floc point of the oil is a measure of the
tendency of the oil to separate wax when mixed with an oil-soluble refrigerant.
Hence it is an important parameter to be considered while selecting
lubricating oils for these refrigerants. Since the tendency for wax to separate
increases with amount of oil in refrigerant, the concentration of oil in
refrigerant should normally be kept below 10 percent with these refrigerants.
Floc point is not important in case of refrigerants that are not soluble in oil
(e.g. ammonia).

Dielectric strength of the oil is a measure of its resistance to the flow of

electric current. It is normally expressed in terms of the voltage required to
cause an electric arc across a gap of 0.1 inch between two poles immersed in
oil. Since impurities such as moisture, dissolved solids (metallic) reduce the
dielectric strength of oil, a high dielectric strength is an indication of the purity
of the oil. This parameter is very important in case of hermetic compressors
as an oil with low dielectric strength may lead to shorting of the motor
windings.

The viscosity of the oil is an important parameter in any lubricating system.

The viscosity of the oil should be maintained within certain range for the
lubrication system to operate effectively. If the viscosity is too low then the

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 19

wear between the rubbing surfaces will be excessive, in addition to this it may
not act as a good sealing agent to prevent refrigerant leakage. However, if the
viscosity is too high then fluid friction will be very high and the oil may not fill
the small gaps between the rubbing surfaces, again leading to excessive
wear. The problem is complicated in refrigerant compressors as the viscosity
of the oil varies considerably with temperature and refrigerant concentration.
The oil viscosity increases as temperature and concentration of refrigerant
decrease and vice versa.

Both mineral oils as well as synthetic oils have been used as lubricating
oils in refrigeration. The mineral oils have to be refined to improve their
chemical stability and reduce their pour and/or floc points. Synthetic oils have
been developed to provide high chemical stability, good lubricity, good
refrigerant solubility, lower pour/floc points and required viscosity.

19.4.1. Methods of lubrication:

Lubrication can be either splash type or force feed type. Normally small
compressors (upto 10 kW input) are splash lubricated. Larger compressors
use forced feed type lubrication. In splash type lubrication, the compressor
crankcase which acts as an oil sump is filled with oil to a certain level. As the
crankshaft rotates, the connecting rod and crankshaft dip into the oil sump
causing the oil to be splashed on the rubbing surfaces. In some compressors,
small scoops or dippers are attached to the connecting rod, which pick the oil
and throws it onto the rubbing surfaces. In small, high-speed compressors,
flooded type splash lubrication is used. In these modified type, slinger rings
are screws are used for lifting the oil above crankshaft or main bearings, from
where the oil floods over the rubbing surfaces. This prevents excessive oil
carryover due to violent splashing in high-speed compressors.

In the forced feed method of lubrication an oil pump is used to circulate

the oil to various rubbing surfaces under pressure. The oil drains back into the
oil sump due to gravity and is circulated again.

If the refrigerants are not soluble in lubricating oil, then there is

possibility of oil being carried away from the compressor and deposited
elsewhere in the system. To prevent this, oil separators are used on the
discharge side of the compressor, from where the oil is separated from the
refrigerant vapour and is sent back to the compressor.

Questions and answers:

1. The refrigeration capacity of a reciprocating compressor increases:

a) As the evaporator temperature increases and condenser temperature

decreases
b) As the evaporator temperature decreases and condenser temperature
increases
c) As the evaporator and condenser temperatures increase
d) As the evaporator and condenser temperatures decrease

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 20

Ans. a)

2. For a given refrigeration capacity, the required size of the compressor

increases as:

a) As the evaporator temperature increases and condenser temperature

decreases
b) As the evaporator temperature decreases and condenser temperature
increases
c) As the evaporator and condenser temperatures increase
d) As the evaporator and condenser temperatures decrease

Ans. b)

3. During every pull-down, the reciprocating compressor is likely to be

overloaded as:

a) The initial refrigerant mass flow rate is high and work of compression is
low
b) The initial refrigerant mass flow rate is low and work of compression is
high
c) Both the mass flow rate and work of compression are high in the initial
period
d) None of the above

Ans. a)

4. Ammonia compressors normally have water jackets for cooling as:

a) The latent heat of ammonia is high compared to synthetic refrigerants

b) The boiling point of ammonia is high
c) The critical temperature of ammonia is high
d) The index of compression of ammonia is high

Ans. d)

5. The actual volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor is smaller

than the clearance volumetric efficiency due to:

a) Pressure drop across suction line and suction valve

b) Pressure drop across discharge line and discharge valve
c) Heat transfer in suction line
d) Leakage of refrigerant across valves
e) All of the above

Ans. e)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 21

6. When the compression process is reversible, polytropic with heat transfer
from compressor, then:

a) The index of compression will be smaller than the isentropic index of

compression
b) The index of compression will be higher than the isentropic index of
compression
c) Power input will be smaller than that of a reversible, isentropic process
d) Discharge temperature will be higher than isentropic discharge
temperature

Ans. a) and c)

7. As the speed of the compressor increases:

a) Heat transfer rate from compressor increases

b) Heat transfer rate from compressor decreases
c) Pressure drops increase and leakage losses decrease
d) Pressure drops decrease and leakage losses increase

Ans. b) and c)

8. On-off control is generally used only in small refrigeration capacity systems

as:

a) Variation in refrigerated space temperature may be acceptable in

smaller systems
b) Frequent start-and-stops can be avoided in small systems
c) It is simple and inexpensive
d) All of the above

Ans. a) and c)

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 22

9. Hot gas bypass to compressor inlet:

a) Provides an effective means of capacity control

b) Is an energy efficient method
c) Leads to increased discharge temperature
d) Provides effective cooling in hermetic compressor

Ans. a) and c)

3. A reciprocating compressor is to be designed for a domestic refrigerator of

100 W cooling capacity. The refrigerator operates at an evaporator
temperature of –23.3oC and a condensing temperature of 54.4oC. The
refrigeration effect at these conditions is 87.4 kJ/kg. At the suction flange the
temperature of the refrigerant is 32oC and specific volume is 0.15463 m3/kg.
Due to heat transfer within the compressor the temperature of the refrigerant
increases by 15oC. The indicated volumetric efficiency of the compressor is
0.85 and the leakage loss factor is 0.04. The rotational speed of the
compressor is 2900 RPM. Find a) The diameter and stroke of the compressor
in cms; b) Find the COP of the system if the actual mean effective pressure of
the compressor is 5.224 bar.

Given: Cooling capacity, Qe = 100 W = 0.1 kW

Evaporator Temperature, Te = -23.3oC
Refrigeration effect, qe = 87.4 kJ/kg
Temperature at suction flange, Ts = 32oC
Sp. vol. of vapour at flange, vs = 0.15463 m3/kg
Temperature rise in compressor = 15oC
Indicated volumetric efficiency, ηV,th = 0.85
Leakage losses, ξL = 0.04
Mean effective pressure, mep = 5.224 bar
Rotational speed of compressor, N = 2900 rpm

Find: a) Diameter and stroke length of compressor

b) COP

Ans:

a) The mass flow rate of refrigerant, m

m = refrigeration capacity/refrigeration effect

= (0.1/87.4) = 1.1442 X 10-3 kg/s

Volumetric flow rate at suction flange, Vr

Vr = m X vs = 1.7693 X 10-4 m3/s

Required compressor displacement rate, VSW = Vr/ηV,act

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 23

Actual volumetric efficiency, ηV,act:

Ts (273.15 + 32)
η V , act = η V , th − ξ L = 0.85 − 0.04 = 0.77
Tsc (273.15 + 32 + 15)

Required compressor displacement rate, VSW = Vr/ηV,act = 1.7693 X 10-4/0.77

= 2.298 X 10-4 m3/s

The compressor displacement rate is equal to:

. ⎛ πD2L ⎞⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ πD3 θ ⎞⎛ N ⎞
V SW = n⎜ ⎟ = n⎜ ⎟
⎜ 4 ⎟⎜⎝ 60 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 4 ⎟⎜⎝ 60 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

where n is the number of cylinders and θ is the stroke-to-bore ratio (L/D)

Since the refrigeration capacity is small, we can assume a single cylinder

compressor, i.e., n = 1

Assuming a stroke-to-bore ratio θ of 0.8 and substituting the input values in

the above expression, we obtain:

Diameter of cylinder, D = 0.01963 m = 1.963 cm, and

Stroke length, L = 0.8D = 1.5704 cm

b) COP:

Actual power input to the compressor, Wc

Wc = mep X displacement rate = 5.224X100X2.298X10-4 = 0.12 kW

Hence, COP = (0.1/0.12) = 0.833

Version 1 ME, IIT Kharagpur 24