HERBALISM THROUGH THE

AGES
by Ralph Whiteside Kerr
 © 1969, 1997 and 2015 Supreme Grand Lodge Of The Ancient and
Mystical Order Rosae Crucis. All Rights Reserved.
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 CONTENTS
Foreword
PART ONE - LEGEND, ANTIQUITY, AND EARLY HISTORY

1. From the Dawn of Civilization

2. Aromas for the Gods
3. Mysterious Stonehenge
4. God’s Gift to Man
PART TWO - FOLKLORE AND TRANSITION
5. “Everything Is Becoming”
6. Herbs in the Colonies
7. Indian Culture Regions
8. Indian Herbal Rituals
9. The Earliest Agriculturists
PART THREE - THE AMERICAN HERITAGE
10. Herbs Are Health Builders
11. Nature Knows Best
12. Food, Medicine, and Pleasure
PART FOUR - EPILOGUE
13. For Reference and Information
 FOREWORD
TRADITION, FOLKLORE, LITERATURE, History, Science, and the arts
all play a vital part in the study of herbs. I first became intensely interested in
Herbalism years ago, when I was doing my University Postgraduate work at
the University of Montana. One of the courses was Research Work in
Systematic Botany. The basic text and reference work was. Rydberg’s Flora
of the Rocky Mountain States and Adjacent Plains. Combined with this
fascinating field work in Nature’s laboratory was a consideration of Plant and
Animal Ecology —how plants affect each other and the mutual influence of
plants and animals, including man.
In the very beginning of the human race, we find the Bible reference: “And
God said, ‘Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, that is upon the
face of the earth.” (Genesis 1:29) Herbs have been an integral part of all life,
human, animal, and vegetable, since time began.
Much of the material covered by this book is the result of knowledge
gained through the years since 1925, when I first became deeply interested in
the study of Herbs, in my University work. In addition to study, this included
much research work and experimentation. Some of the references read or
consulted are listed:
For accurate, systematic Botanical knowledge, Rydberg’s monumental
work mentioned above is recommended. For Historical and Traditional
information, study Dioscorides of Ancient Greece; Culpepper (1653); John
Gerrard, London, 1597; William Coles, 1657; Funk & Wagnalls’ New
Standard Encyclopedia; The Encyclopaedia Britannica; the writings of Pliny;
and FLORA (1799-Author unknown). Other references included
FOLKLORE AND ODYSSEY OF FOOD AND MEDICINAL PLANTS, by
the Lehners: HERBS AND THE FRAGRANT GARDEN, by Brownlow;
STALKING THE HEALTHFUL HERBS, by Euell Gibbons; HERBS, by
Dorothy Childs Hogner; HERBS, by Webster; PLANT DRUGS THAT
CHANGED THE WORLD, by Norman Taylor; ALL THE PLANTS OF
THE BIBLE, by Walker; HERBAL, by Krutch; THE SCIENCE AND ART
OF PERFUMERY, by Sagarin; THE FRAGRANT PATH, by Louise Beebee
Wilder; SEEDS AND SPROUTS FOR LIFE and other books by Dr. Bernard
Jensen of Hidden Valley Health Ranch, Lake Wohlford, R.F.D. #4,
Escondido, California. Our gratitude goes to Dr. Jensen for many courtesies
afforded during frequent visits, observations, and researches at Hidden
Valley, where Herbalism reigns supreme.
In every instance where a direct quotation has been made from any
published work, permission has been secured and grateful acknowledgment is
made. We are especially thankful for the outstanding, valuable research work
and excellent suggestions by Miss Muriel Daniels, of Oakdale, Long Island,
New York. Gratitude is also expressed to the staff of the Escondido Public
Library for their cooperation and encouragement.
RALPH WHITESIDE KERR
912 Chestnut Street
Escondido, California 92025
 PART ONE

LEGEND, ANTIQUITY, AND

EARLY HISTORY
 Chapter One

FROM THE DAWN OF

CIVILIZATION
THE STORY OF herbs is anything but a simple one. It involves an
excursion into the realm of evolution. It considers the changing factors that
influenced the development of religious practices in various nations of the
world. It is linked with problems in mythology and history. It may be said to
be the forerunner of the modern sciences of medicine and chemistry,
particularly organic chemistry. An understanding of Nature’s Alchemy
derived from a study of herbs and herbal products leads us into a keener
appreciation of aesthetic influences in anthropology.
Mysticism is a striving to learn and understand the nature and operation of
the primal cause, the Universal Mind, the Creative Power of which all
humanity is an integral part. The study of herbs and herbal products furnishes
an entry into knowledge that is interrelated, demonstrating the universality of
creation. As the Philosopher Hegel has stated, “All knowledge is one. If we
can know everything about any one thing, we will know all.”
The dictionary defines an herb as “A seed plant devoid of woody tissue
which dies completely or to the ground after flowering; an herbaceous plant
valued for medicinal properties or for its sweet smell or taste.”
Even before the dawn of history, artifacts and other evidences discovered
by archeologists and researchers prove that herbs and herbal products played
an important part in the individual and communal life of the human beings
who were developing the use of the God-given characteristic of creativity.
From legends and the earliest records, we learn that herbs and herbal
products were used as incense. Sweet-smelling substances were burned to
please or appease the gods, under the direction of the ancient priests, whose
power, in many instances, surpassed even that of the leaders of the tribes.
Their increasing awareness soon convinced them that the herbal products
from which incense was made possessed curative powers as well as pleasing
aromas and the priests became “medicine men” as well as religious leaders of
the people. From this primitive beginning the modem science of healing
developed.
Probably the most ancient authentic records that exist regarding the use of
herbs, herbal products, and related materials, as incense, for medicinal
purposes and for perfume essences have been discovered in the hieroglyphic
records in royal tombs and temples on the west bank of the Nile River near
the site of the ancient city of Thebes, in Egypt. It has been estimated that
these tombs were constructed several thousand years before the Christian Era.
In these records, honey is mentioned as a food and for its curative properties.
This knowledge regarding the use of herbs and herbal products in various
ways as related in the temple and tomb records of the country of the Pharaohs
did not come into being spontaneously at this particular time. It is logical to
conclude, then, that the established practice and application of the many
properties of the herbs and their derivatives, which may be termed herbal
products, can trace their beginnings, through legend and folklore, into many
lands, since the development and dawn of civilization.
An understanding of this will emphasize the realization that the study of
Herbalism is truly an excursion into the field of Nature’s Alchemy.
From legendary times, long before the earliest records can be regarded as
historical, very few artifacts have been discovered that indicate the
development of aesthetic emotions among the representatives of Homo
sapiens. Neanderthal Man and his predecessors probably were too busy
defending themselves against natural enemies to think of anything except
brute force against the hazards of existence. In the drawings and carvings in
caves which have been attributed to the Cro-Magnon Era, however, certain
signs can be interpreted as the burning of incense and use of sweet-smelling
products of herbal substances.
Some esoteric researchers hold a theory that the Cro-Magnons may have
been descendants of the survivors of Atlantis, which would account for the
sudden increase in the aesthetic practices of the people. A factor that favors
the belief is that, according to the earliest historical evidence, the inhabitants
of the territory surrounding the Mediterranean—the Carthaginians, the people
in Northern Africa, Egyptians, Arabians, Israelites, Phoenicians, Greeks, and
Romans—were the earliest-recorded users of herbal products as incense,
perfumes, and medicines.
 It is logical to assume that from the use of incense and perfume and the
application of herbal products to curative purposes and the healing arts, it is
but a short step to their utilization as food and in the embellishment of foods,
to make them more palatable. Although no tangible proof is available, it is
not only possible but even probable that herbal products were instinctively
used as food, even before the beginnings of so-called civilization.
In every phase of human existence, from the earliest times to the intricacy
of modern life, we find that herbs and herbal products have been and are vital
in the economy of living.
Herbs and herbal products are not uniformly identical. In the plant world
Nature provides an intricately organized and systematically controlled
alchemical and chemical laboratory.
Chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants, may be called the “Chief
Engineer” in the alchemical process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS, which means
the chemical combination of the oxygen in the air, under the motivation of
the energy of light, with the water from the soil to form starch and cellulose,
the basic ingredients of all plant and animal tissues.
Each species or variety of plant has its own special “liking” for the
particular chemical elements or compounds that it stores within its cells along
with the starch and cellulose. The term herbal products may be said to refer
to those individually stored compounds, whether or not the plant has
developed woody tissue as part of its general metabolism. The broad study of
HERBALISM, then, will include an investigation of plant products in
relation to the economy of living and to the benefit of human welfare.
It is probable that in addition to the use of plants as food, in every country
on earth when the people had developed to the awareness of worship of some
deity, herbs and plant products were burned as incense or offered in sacrifice
to the heathen gods. Of all nations, however, Ancient Egypt was undoubtedly
the first to expand that practice to include many of the related functions of
which we have familiar examples today.
The early science and art of perfumery and perfume manufacturing began
in Ancient Egypt. It is questionable whether the Egyptians were the first to
use herbal products as medicines in alleviating pain or curing diseases,
because that is so closely related to the early priestly activities—votary
offerings to please or appease the Gods.
Earliest Chinese records describe the use of incense and odorous materials
among Oriental people. It was ritualistic, relating to religious ceremonies,
weddings, and funerals.
However, the hieroglyphic records from the early Egyptian culture have
provided the only continuous account of the evolution of what may be called
the “odor industry” and its continuous growth to its present multi-billion
dollar, universal status.
The country of the Pharaohs has furnished not only its hieroglyphic record
which has increased interest among historians, but also material evidence to
corroborate the written or pictured descriptions. When the tomb of Pharaoh
Tutankhamen was discovered and opened late in the year 1922, among the
treasures in the burial chamber were vessels that indubitably were designed to
hold incense and perfumes. Of course during the period of more than three
thousand years since his mummy had been placed there, the perfumes had
evaporated, but the odor remained in the receptacles as indisputable proof of
the materials they once had contained.
It has been determined from records and factual evidence that the
“heavenly odors” of perfumes were somehow linked with the hope of
immortality, and perhaps that is why perfumes and other herbal products
were always buried with the mummy. Herbal products were also used in the
mummification process.
Can honey be considered an herbal product? The answer, of course, is
“Yes.” Honey originates in the pollen and nectar of plants and flowers—in
the chemical laboratory of Nature’s vast storehouse. The bees are the
engineers and operators who take the raw materials, the nectar, pollen, and
juices of the plants and in the marvelous alchemical laboratories of their
bodies predigest these substances to form the perfect product which has so
many uses, even beyond its value as food.
A legend as fabulous as a fairy tale tells of the ancient cave man who was
returning from the hunt late in the afternoon of a warm day in summer. He
came to an open glade in the forest. The ground around him was covered with
beautiful flowers of many colors.
Unlike many of his fellow inhabitants of the caves, this man, whose name
may have been “Oooomah,” was beginning to differentiate between the
“danger odors” and the “delightful smells.” So he stopped to rest for a few
minutes to enjoy the pleasant aroma and to notice the many-hued carpet of
blossoms.
 An insect lit on his arm. He felt a sharp pain. Then the insect flew, to join a
swarm of others on the trunk of a nearby tree. Oooomah was curious. He
investigated. There was some kind of nest there, and a sticky material was
oozing from the cakelike object. He reached up to feel it and another bee
sting was his reward. Angered, he put the finger into his mouth to ease the
pain, and his facial expression changed, as if the god of pleasure were smiling
on him. That sticky stuff tasted wonderful! At the risk of more insect stings,
he reached for more and tore the cake from its fastenings on the tree. This
was something he must share with his mate and neighbors in the caves.
Leaving the product of his hunting—the carcass of a young creodont in the
flower-bedecked meadow, he hurried through the forest to the home caves,
carrying the precious honeycomb.
He greeted his mate and children with gestures and signs and grins. What a
wonderful discovery he had made! Their grunts of satisfaction and
exclamations of joy told him that they agreed the sweet-tasting sticky stuff
was delightful.
Attracted by their cries of happiness, the denizens of neighboring caves
flocked around, to see what all the excitement was about. Oooomah
explained, with many guttural words and much waving of hands and arms.
Then there was enough honey left so that each one could have a taste.
A general stampede followed. They all went into the forest to find some of
that delightful sticky stuff for themselves. A happy epoch in food and
nutrition had been inaugurated. Since that time, in legend and history, honey
has proved itself to be one of the most useful and beneficial products of
Nature’s Alchemy.
In the Old Testament, in the Bible, the “Promised Land”—the goal of the
Israelites after their captivity in Egypt—the Land of Canaan, is referred to as
“a land flowing with milk and honey.” Milk is often called a perfect food,
and we find that honey is not only a wonderful food, but throughout history
and in the folklore of many nations, it is valued for its healing properties, its
medicinal qualities as well.
The human mind is a vast storehouse. “Everything is becoming.” When
one or more of our human senses is affected by a change in Nature, we have a
SENSATION. A sensation repeated many times furnishes recognition, or
PERCEPTION. Memory’s contemplation views these percepts in the light of
past experiences and we have APPERCEPTIONS, and it is these
apperceptions which furnish the raw materials of which IMAGINATION is
built. The combined apperceptions of the people in a tribe or community give
rise to legends or folk tales that in their origins are based on factual
experiences. One observed fact is added to another, the benefits of their
application become fully appreciated, a tribal custom is born, and the
evolution of folklore is on the way.
In every nation and every land, these primeval customs and so-called
superstitions have merged into the historical records that provide the data for
the study of anthropology. In the light of modern scientific knowledge and
research, many facts have been verified, which were formerly thought to be
“old wives’ tales,” or pure superstition.
Facts gleaned from the study of the folk legends of the various nations
show a close agreement in many particulars in connection with the use of
herbs and herbal products. This is especially true with regard to honey. The
legendary discovery of honey and its use as food is reputedly mentioned in
some of the earliest historical records.
In recent years our so-called civilization has largely replaced honey as a
table sweet, but the indisputable fact remains that this natural product of
Nature’s Alchemy is the only food that offers many health-giving qualities,
both physiological and nutritional, as well as its satisfying sweetness.
It is an accepted conclusion that honey was used by the ancient Egyptians
as a curative agent in addition to its function in food and nutrition. In the
folklore of various nations references have been found to verify this
characteristic of Nature’s Alchemical product. In the United States in recent
years, the research departments of several Universities have conducted
experiments to show that disease germs cannot live in the presence of honey,
which is an abundant source of the element, potassium. Biochemists have
determined that the potassium in honey withdraws the moisture that is
essential to the existence of bacterial growth.
Bulletin No. 252, published by the Colorado Agricultural College, gives an
interesting report of the results of one of these early experiments. Many
disease-producing germs were placed, each, in a culture of pure honey. The
bacillus of typhoid fever died in less than 48 hours. The germ of paratyphoid,
which is found in bowel movements and water, died in five hours. The
bacteria that are responsible for the disease bronchopneumonia and chronic
bronchitis died after three days. Many other specific types of
microorganisms, each producing diseased conditions in the human body, are
listed, with the same result. Within a few hours or a few days, the bacteria
died. These results have been duplicated and verified in other Universities,
and by the Bureau of Entomology in Washington, D.C. This proof cannot be
disputed. Disease-producing microorganisms cannot live in the presence of
honey.
Biochemical research shows that for perfect human metabolism certain
chemical elements are required. These elements must be present in the food
we eat, in a form available for assimilation.
Chemical analysis shows that honey contains mineral elements that often
are short in food. Aluminum, calcium, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese,
magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, silicon, and sodium, all or any of which
may be lacking in the “processed” food the average family buys in today’s
markets, are all present in honey. Amounts of each element may vary,
because some soils may be deficient in certain elements that plants need, but
they are all in honey in the infinitesimal quantity necessary for human
metabolism.
Legend and folklore associate another product with honey. While apple-
cider vinegar is not strictly an herbal product, its beneficial effects are so
closely connected with, and complementary to those of honey in ameliorating
many ailments that may be caused by diet deficiencies that it is worth noting.
It has been related by some that a mixture of honey and apple-cider vinegar
in a glass of water has furnished the mineral elements, particularly potassium,
to provide a healthy condition in the body and also to promote restful sleep.
The germicidal property of honey has been proved. The folklore of the
people of many nationalities, from rural New England, Canada, the Middle
West, the descendants of the early French and Spanish settlers of New
Orleans, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, California, the North Pacific states
have mentioned the beneficial qualities of honey and the mixture with apple-
cider vinegar in relieving the unpleasantness of many common ailments,
particularly respiratory congestions.
Several reports have been received regarding the use of honey as applied to
skin infections. According to the statements, the results were amazing.
Within two days, the infection disappeared and in less than a week healing
was complete.
Honey was recognized for its medicinal value in addition to its use as food,
even in Ancient Egypt and the Mediterranean countries. Through the ages
since that time, many people have used and are using honey for its curative
power.
 Chapter Two

AROMAS FOR THE GODS

WITH THE POSSIBLE exceptions of the American Indians, people of the
various nations, in their progress toward full awareness of their environment,
attributed anthropomorphic characteristics to the deities they worshipped.
That is, they considered their gods as superhumans in exalted form, with
greater powers, advanced accomplishments, and increased capacities for
exercise of their emotions. That these manifestations often were anything but
godlike is evidenced by many legends in Classical Mythology. Gods of
Ancient Greece and Rome and other Mediterranean countries often exhibited
human frailties in aggravated form. Their jealousy, anger, vindictiveness, and
covetousness had to be propitiated in some manner, or woe betide their
human subjects!
Since these gods possessed the emotions and sense perceptions of people,
what would please men and women probably would give satisfaction to the
gods. People enjoy the fragrance of flowers and aromatic herbs. Therefore,
sweet odors of burning plants would delight the gods. If they were angry, it
would appease their ire; if they were in joyful mood, they would appreciate
that their human subjects were thoughtful of their pleasure.
Only a few of the more enlightened individuals may have reasoned that
they, themselves, might benefit by this act of homage. From that beginning
the esoteric significance of incense has developed through the ages.
The Bible is full of references in the Old Testament, about the use of
incense by the ancient Hebrews. While they did not worship a multiplicity of
gods, as did the neighboring countries surrounding them, all evidence seems
to indicate that their conception of Jehovah was anthropomorphic; that His
wrath could be appeased by sacrifices and burnt offerings, and by the lavish
use of sweet-smelling incense.
Many anthropologists believe that the human race evolved through
graduated stages or eras. First came the hunting stage, when the food was
predominantly flesh food, from animals, the products of the chase. In those
very early times, each individual was a law unto himself, or, since the mating
instinct is a fundamental law of Nature, the family became the unit of
existence. It probably was during this era of developing knowledge that
certain herbs were discovered to be palatable adjuncts to the daily food
ration. Then, with the discovery of fire, both herbs and meat began to be
prepared in a more elaborate way. The ingrained feeling of dependence on
some higher power than himself gave rise to the idea of votive offerings to
these deities.
The gregarious instinct, the natural desire for companionship led families
to group together, and the clan or tribe appeared. The individual offerings to
the gods gradually became systematized into an organized, definite form or
custom. It is significant that the folklore and legendary stories that have come
down to the present from all nations follow the same general pattern; that the
offerings to the gods were flesh, fowl, and plant—a food sacrifice, which
would please the gods because food was valuable and sometimes hard to
obtain.
Among the many herbs and herbal products mentioned in the earlier and
later legends and literature of the Mediterranean lands, as ingredients of
incense, perfumes, and beautifying oils, were aloes, myrrh, spikenard, and
frankincense. These were all indigenous to the lands surrounding the
Mediterranean. They were highly prized, sometimes rare, and very costly.
Spikenard, very aromatic, used in incense and perfumes, comes from a shrub,
native to Northern India and Tibet, in the Himalayas. Its botanical name is
Nardostachys jatamansi, an herb of the Valerian family. Myrrh is an aromatic
gum resin, obtained from a tree, Cummiphora abyssinica, a native of Africa
and Arabia. It is a mixture of resin, gum, and the essential oil, myrrhol. This
gum resin has a bitter, pungent taste, but when used in incense and perfume,
it imparts a heavenly odor, and is highly valued.
Aloe, or aloes, is the name applied to any member of the Genus Aloe, an
Old World shrub belonging to the Lily family. It is a true herb, and is the
source of various drugs and incense materials and perfume products. The
American Aloe is the century plant. Frankincense is a gum resin from various
trees found in East Africa. It is very aromatic and is used in incense and in
medicine. It is also an ingredient of certain perfumes, particularly of the
oriental type.
In the development of incense and perfumes from herbal products, the
Oriental people, Chinese, Japanese, and the inhabitants of the Malay states
probably reached what to them was a degree of perfection even earlier than
the inhabitants of the Mediterranean countries. It is questionable, however, if
any country preceded Egypt in that respect. While the East Indian and
Japanese incense is much superior to that from most other sources, there is a
wide difference between it and the typically Chinese incense and perfumes.
The early Chinese reputedly discovered and used musk, both in incense and
perfumes, and while musk is a valuable adjunct to the perfumer’s art, it is an
animal product, and not herbal in its origin. But the Chinese odors both in
incense and perfumes seem to be stronger or even obnoxious, compared to
the other Oriental types.
It is significant that the science of odors as related to personal adornment
and religious practices, as well as the deeper esoteric development,
apparently had its origin in Egypt and in the neighboring countries on the
south shore of the Mediterranean and in Asia Minor and Phoenicia. From that
source the custom spread through the Balkans, Greece, Rome, and all of
Southern Europe. The earliest historical records indicate that the culture of
Ancient Egypt was extremely high and exceeded by many years those of
several of the inhabited neighboring lands. That fact poses a natural question:
Does it have a bearing on the theory that the survivors of the Atlantean
disaster settled in the Valley of the Nile and brought their reputed culture
with them? If there is a connection, it would explain many things.
There is a widely accepted theory that the geography of a country would
act as a strong determinant in the historical development of that nation.
Natural land barriers, and even water barriers, will tend to limit emigration or
immigration, to a certain extent, at least. In the study of history, it is evident
that great changes in the autonomy of a nation came about only after invasion
or conquest nullified these natural barriers. That may explain why the use of
incense and perfume by the central Europeans seems to have developed later
than in the Mediterranean countries.
The ancient city of Carthage, on the north coast of Africa, near the site of
the present Tunis, was reputedly founded by the semilegendary Queen Dido,
but in all probability was an outgrowth of small trading posts that were
established by Phoenicians about 900 B.C. Probably the beginnings were
small, but since the culture of the ancient Phoenicians was well developed,
even these small beginnings felt the influence of the Phoenician worship of
many gods. Like the Phoenicians, the inhabitants of Carthage practiced fire
worship, with votary offerings to their principal gods, chief among whom
was Moloch, or Baal-Ammon, symbolical of the destructive power of the
sun. In addition to the burning of strong incense, there was reputed to be a
fiery furnace in the Temples of Moloch, where human sacrifices were offered
on occasion to appease the terrible wrath of this bloodthirsty god. Of the
more beneficent deities, the Moon Goddess, Ashtoreth, patterned after the
Greek Astarte, later became known in Carthage as Tanith. She required the
offerings of sweet-smelling incense and perfumes only. Another important
member of the Carthaginian hierarchy was Melkart, who appears to resemble
the Hercules of the Greeks. Great honor was attributed to him, and especial
gifts were transmitted to his temples, even as far as Tyre, in Phoenicia. The
Carthaginian God of the sea, whose name has become lost in recorded story,
was undoubtedly similar to the Greek Poseidon, and the fish-god Dagon of
the Philistines. All of these gods could be worshipped and placated by votary
offerings of incense. However, none of them except Moloch required human
sacrifices.
The Carthaginians were not a literary people, from all available records.
Their strength lay in merchandising, trading, and in their maritime prowess,
in which they excelled.
The entire history of this fabled nation, Carthage, the City-State, was one
of belligerent warfare and conquest. The more lands they could conquer, the
more trade they would have. Their chief opponents were Greece and Rome,
and their colonization extended as far west as the west coast of Africa and
Spain and to the north into Gaul. It is significant that during periods of
conquest, many of the customs and religious practices of the conquerors seem
to be absorbed and adopted by the conquered.
In the very early days, when Egypt was expanding her power to become
the leaders of the known world, that influence is reflected in the votive
offerings to the gods in Phoenicia. Then came Carthage and Greece, and
finally Rome. A similarity in the practices of the use of herbal products, both
as sacrifices to their gods and in other ways as well, apparently is
progressively evident.
Throughout the series of conquests and defeats known to history as the
Punic Wars, the struggle for supremacy continued. The Latin name for
Phoenicians was POENI, hence the name, Punic. From 264 B.C. until the
utter defeat of the Carthaginians by Publius Cornelius Scipio Æmilianus in
146 B.C., the turbulent City-State continued to wield her influence in lands
surrounding the Mediterranean area. What was left of Carthage became a
Roman province, and its use of herbal products became identified with the
Roman practices. Attempts to restore the City were unsuccessful until 29
B.C., when the Emperor Augustus Caesar, Julius Caesar’s successor, rebuilt
it and it became one of the most prominent cities of the Roman Empire. From
that time, until its complete destruction by the Arabs in A.D. 698, use of
herbal products for personal adornment and food embellishment took
precedence over the votary offerings to the gods.
Mention has been made that the discovery and development of the use of
musk in incense and perfumes has been attributed to the Chinese. Although
musk is not primarily a vegetable product and cannot be classified with herbs,
its use through the ages has been so closely associated with the herbal
products that mention of it is not out of harmony with the scope of this work.
However, there is one outstanding example of a true herb that characterizes
the Chinese picture, dating back more than two thousand years, even before
the days of Confucius. Botanically, this herb belongs to the family
Araliaceae, which has similar characteristics to the family Umbelliferae,
except that the fruit is a one-seeded drupe—similar to a cherry—a soft, fleshy
fruit surrounding a hard-shelled stone, or seed. This family of plants contains
over fifty genera, the principal ones of which are Aralia, represented by many
species, including the Spikenard and Sarsaparillas; Hedera, of which the Ivy
is an example; Echinopanax, the “devil’s club”; and Panax, the ginseng.
The genus Panax includes two specific herbs which are almost fabulous in
their claimed characteristics, and properties and uses. The plant which is
native to China is Panax schinseng, a true herb, often growing to a height of
perhaps two or three feet. It has very small green flowers, berries of a deep
scarlet color, and compound leaves consisting of five leaflets, something like
the five-leafed ivy. It is the roots, however, that are of greatest interest.
The American species, Panax quinquefolia, differs very little from the
Asiatic variety, and the roots of both are identical in their preparation and
use. Certain writings attributed to Confucius praised the roots of this herb for
their curative powers. Since Confucius lived more than 500 years before the
Christian Era, its use by the Chinese antedated that time by probably
hundreds of years. It is still used in Chinese medicine.
The ancient way of preparing the root for use was by a secret process,
known only to Chinese apothecaries. A perfect root, not marred or broken,
was cured to a clear translucency by this secret process. Today, such a root
may bring several hundred dollars per ounce in the Chinese market, many
times the international price of gold.
Prepared in this fashion, encased in fine silk and placed in a small jeweled
casket, a root was considered an appropriate gift for a powerful Chinese
potentate. Through the ages, ginseng has been considered the herbal
“fountain of youth” and particularly beneficial as an aphrodisiac to restore
vitality and vigor to the aged. The Chinese believe that it will prolong life.
Many wonderful cures have been attributed to this root by the Oriental
people.
Back in the eighteenth century, some enterprising Yankee, probably a sea
captain, in the Oriental trade, got an idea. He knew that a similar species of
plant grew in his native New England, and he carried several hundred pounds
of the roots with him on his next trip. The response was tremendous, and the
Yankee’s fortune was made. He returned a rich man. Today, there are
millions of people in Southeast Asia who are eager to buy even more than we
can produce. The boom is continuing, and the price is still spiraling upward.
Pharmacologists have as yet failed to discover any useful properties in the
root, and it is not listed in the United States Pharmacopeia.
It requires five to eight years of growth to produce a root of salable size.
However, with the price as high as it is, and still climbing, some farmers in
the United States have included ginseng quite extensively in their crop
schedule.
To some people, the taste of the ginseng root may seem to be somewhat
unpleasant. It has a faint bitter-sweet tang that is reminiscent of the aftertaste
of licorice.
The Chinese believe that a tea made from ginseng root will cure
tuberculosis, and will cure or prevent many other diseases, including fatigue
of both body and mind. It cannot be classified as a “fad” because of its long
history as a staple article of merchandise and its steadily increasing demand.
No records have been found that show the use of powdered ginseng root in
mixtures of herbs used as incense. It would be an interesting experiment to
add ginseng root, powdered, or the dried leaves or fruit to other herbal
substances and to burn the mixture as incense to discover what effect, if any,
would be evident.
 Chapter Three

MYSTERIOUS STONEHENGE
IT IS PERHAPS natural that a similarity in customs, beliefs, and practices,
particularly in the worship of certain deities, will lead to the conclusion that
there has been a close connection or relationship between two or more widely
separated human societies. Such a comparison exists between the Druids and
some other even more ancient people. Early researchers reported the
resemblance of Druidism to the religion of the Phoenicians, the Chaldeans of
Assyria, and even the Brachmans of Hindustan. The religions of each of these
nations were permeated with sublime precepts, consoling promises, and
reverential awe. One authority even goes so far as to state that the religious
practices of all of these no doubt came from the same origin, the religion of
Noah before the flood!
From all available information, the Druids worshipped one Supreme Being
and other lesser gods. They erected altars of earth or unhewn stone, where
their adoration was characterized by ritual, herbal offerings, and other
sacrifices. They were particularly devoted to the mistletoe, especially when it
grew on oak trees.
While the mistletoe is a parasitic plant, it nevertheless is a true herb. The
European variety, Viscum album, is an evergreen, with yellowish-green
leaves and rather small, inconspicuous flowers, which develop into glutinous
white berries. There is an American variety, Phoradendron flavescens, which
is practically identical. The Druids attributed great healing power to the
mistletoe, especially when it grew on the oak trees. They called it the “All
Heal” plant and it was featured in their religious practices and rituals, which
were held in oak groves, where the mistletoe grew profusely.
Tradition, legends, folklore, and fairy tales all have beginnings. It is
reasonable to suppose that the early stages of these phenomena may be called
truths that promenade in fancy clothing. Behind every folk custom is some
fact or necessity, real or fancied. It is interesting to note that many procedures
that we recognize as folk habits were developed in connection with the use of
herbs or herbal products.
 Many of the practices of the inhabitants of early Britain, the Celts and
Druids, for example, evidently were a development from a combination of
three sources. The first influence apparently was an almost fanatical
adherence to the tenets of their religion. What might be considered their
political economy was next in importance. The third factor that affected their
individual and communal habits was the increasing commercial contacts,
particularly with the Carthaginian colonists and the Phoenicians.
According to all available evidence, the Supreme Being worshipped by the
Druids combined both male and female aspects, and was revealed always to
humans in three different manifestations, which might be considered
prophetic of the belief in the Trinity by the Christian churches of today. This
chief god apparently was not confined to one place, but was universal in all
Nature and could be contacted by using the products of Nature in their
worship. Their principal mystical appeal was in connection with the
mistletoe, but they used other herbs as well, particularly in their healing arts.
Their ritualistic worship of this omnipotent deity was revealed through their
reverence for the mistletoe.
Druidism was not only the religion of the people. It was the controlling
power in the government of the state. The ruler, with absolute authority, was
the Arch Druid. There were three lesser groups in the priesthood, under him,
and answerable to him. The highest were the much-revered and intellectual
philosophers, who controlled and managed the organization and operation of
the state and the activities of the priesthood. They also presided over and
exercised their power in the fundamental, deeply ritualistic mysteries of the
oak groves where the ceremonies were held, and which were linked with the
mistletoe and other herbs and herbal products. The oak tree was sacred to
them, and the name given to these “Keepers of the Oak groves” was
“Derwydd,” from the ancient Celtic language, “Derw” meaning “Oak” and
“ydd,” meaning “to be identified with” or “to be a part of.” It was
pronounced like “Droo-idd.”
The next in authority, under the Arch Druid, were the Bards. They were
the musicians, who recited and sang praises to the Supreme God, and sang
chants during the sacred ceremonies in the Groves. They also were required
to register all genealogies and keep records of historical events. They were
called “The Unspoiled Ones” or “The Pure Ones” and were greatly honored
by the people.
 The third class of the governing priesthood were the beginners, or
neophytes, who were directly responsible to the Druids and of course under
the control of the Arch Druid. Their particular duties were of an investigative
character; that is, they delved into the exact properties of all Nature and
offered the sacrifices on the altar during the ceremonies.
Because this combination of religion and state was absolute and continued
in effect, with possible minor variations, for several hundred years, it is safe
to assume that this dictatorship was a benign one. The Arch Druid did not
succeed to office through political chicanery, but earned the exalted rank by a
long course of exacting study. This included a thorough knowledge of the
sacred tenets of Druidism, and proficiency in the sciences of astronomy,
navigation, and medicine, as well as a working knowledge of mechanical
operations. Proficiency in foreign languages was also stressed.
The Druid state was renowned for its educational culture in the
Mediterranean countries as well as in Gaul as early as the sixth century B.C.
One of the Derwydd, of the Philosopher Class, is said to have visited in
Greece, and to have become a warm friend of Pythagoras, who found him of
similar mind and outlook on life. In fact, many comments were made at the
fluency which marked the use of the Greek language by this man from
beyond the great sea.
The principles of Druidism were said to be all in verse. It has been
estimated that there were more than twenty thousand stanzas. They were all
in triplet form, since apparently the sacred number of the Druidic philosophy
was three. To learn all of those by heart, from the spoken word, would
require many years of deep study.
In their study of medicines and the healing arts, they went back to Nature’s
Alchemy and the health-giving and healing qualities of growing plants, herbs,
and herbal products. Their most potent remedies included the mistletoe in
some form. No wonder they called it the “All Heal” plant.
Some of the herbs used by the Druids, particularly in their healing arts,
included, besides the mistletoe, the common Vervain which is a true herb and
a member of the Verbena family, Verbenaceae and its principal genus,
Verbena. Of this genus there are more than 100 species, natively distributed
over Europe and tropical America. The main European species used by the
Druids was Verbena offecinalis, which grew to a height of about twelve
inches. It bore delicate, small white flowers, which were very fragrant. As
was the case with most of the herbs used by the Druids, there was a ritual
connected with gathering this plant. It was to be picked only under certain
conditions of Nature: When the Dog Star was rising; at night when the sun
did not shine; during the dark of the moon, the vervain must be dug up by the
roots with an iron implement. It must be held in the left hand and waved aloft
in the air, with the proper incantations. The flowers, leaves, stalks, and roots
must be dried separately in the shade. When dry, they must be infused in a
special kind of wine. The principal use of this concoction was to cure the
bites of poisonous insects or serpents.
The white vervain, Verbena urticaefolia, found in tropical America, is a
perennial herb about seven inches in height. It bears scented white flowers.
Another species, which blooms with purplish or blue flowers, and grows to
a height of about fifteen inches, is native to Chile and Brazil. Its botanical
name is Verbena erinoides, and its common name is Moss Verbena.
Verbena canadensis is native to Southern Mexico. It often reaches a height
of sixteen to eighteen inches and its flowers may be white or rose-colored or
possibly lilac-tinted. It is sometimes called the Clump Verbena.
Many of the verbena plants that are common in our gardens, particularly in
“old-fashioned” gardens, are hybrid varieties, cultivated artificially. Whether
or not they would show the mystical qualities attributed to the ancient Druid
usage in incense or infusions would be an interesting field for
experimentation.
The red-flowered herb, Verbena chamaedryfolia, is native to several
locations in central South America. Both Verbena phlogiflora, which bears
rose-colored flowers, and Verbena incisa, whose flowers are purple, grow
profusely in the southern part of South America. The flowers of Verbena
teucrioides are usually white or tinged with lemon yellow or pink. It also is
native to South America.
The common garden hybrid probably most familiar of all is Verbena
hortensis and its flowers may be varied, sometimes of one color, often striped
or with an “eye” in the center. It blooms through the summer until late in the
fall.
With all the vervains, there must be some quality, either aroma, taste, or
other effect which attracts insect pests. The natural question arises: Was it
that quality that motivated the mystical ritual of gathering the plants and their
use for insect stings by the ancient Druids?
 The plant known by the common name “Selago” really belongs to the
family of club mosses, the Selaginaceae. The genus, Selaginella, contains
over seven hundred species of what may be called “Fern allies,” and grows in
many parts of the world.
To the ancient Druids, it was a charm as well as a medicine, and like other
herbal products, its gathering was strictly according to the prescribed ritual. A
member of the Ovades, or Neophyte Priests, must dress all in white, then
bathe his feet in running water and offer sacrifices of bread and wine. Then
he was required to wrap the skirt of his white robe around his right hand, and
using a hook made of brass he would dig up the entire plant by the roots and
immediately cover it with a white cloth. It was used as a charm to ward off
evil spirits, and in medicine, combined with certain herbs of the mint family
and with the mistletoe, it would cure various diseases.
The SAMOLUS—(Samolus floribundus) grew in damp places and is
known today by the common name, Water Pimpernel, or Brookweed. Its
white flowers are in bloom from June to August. The Priests who gathered
this herb must conform to a rigid ritual. First they must go without food for
several days. While fasting, they must approach the plant and without looking
behind them, they must dig it up by the roots with the left hand. Then the
plants were laid in a trough where cattle drank. After it was thoroughly
bruised, it was supposed to be a cure for several kinds of ailments,
distempers, and weaknesses.
The herb whose common names are CARPENTER WEED or SELF-
HEAL or HEAL-ALL, and whose Botanical name is Prunella vulgaris, was
highly prized by the Druids. Its flowers are either purple or white, and grow
in a spikelike cluster toward the end of the stem. It belongs to the Mint
family, Lamiaceae. The ritual accompanying its gathering was similar to that
used with the vervains. Its dried flowers were mixed with other herbs and
burned as incense, and it found many uses in medicinal mixtures, as well.
Clinopodium vulgaris, the common name of which is BASIL, was often in
use. It is also a member of the LAMIACEAE, or Mint family. It was a
perennial herb that grew in thickets or waste places, and attained a height of
from four to sixteen inches. Its flowers were either white or purple, and both
flowers and leaves were used as an offering to their chief god and the lesser
hero-gods. This herb has a rootstock, which also was used in their worship
and probably all of the plant was used as a food adjunct as well.
 Another Mint that these herb-loving people used in their worship was the
WATER HOREHOUND—Lycopus communis, which was almost odorless,
but which was used in their vegetable offerings to their gods. It also had a
rootstock. Moisture loving, it grew in wet places in the woods. Its small
flowers were shaped like an opened bell.
A plant which grew in moist flat places, also a member of the Mint family,
seems, in description, to resemble Trichostema oblongum, whose common
name is BLUE CURLS. It grew to a height of from four to twelve inches.
The small flowers were clustered in the axils of the leaves, where they joined
the stem. Ordinarily of a sky-blue color, occasionally they were purple or
pink, and bell-shaped. According to legend, the plant, which bloomed in June
and July, often was woven into garlands used in certain ritualistic rites.
A plant which was similar to the common FIGWORT, Scrofularia
occidentalis, grew on low ground in thickets and woods. It had small,
greenish-colored flowers, with numerous seeds, and was used in their healing
preparations.
Another herb of the Figwort family that seems to resemble Pentstemmon
virens, with deep blue flowers, was in use by the Druids.
Another herb belonging to the Mint family, growing to a height of twelve
to sixteen inches, was the common SPEARMINT or PEPPERMINT, Mentha
spicata. As with ours today, the leaves were very fragrant, with the clean,
refreshing odor of peppermint. The flowers also were pleasing, with their
whorls forming a spike at the end of the stem. These spikes of flowers were
usually of a rose-pink color. The herb had a rootstock, and the entire plant
was dried in the shade, and used both in incense and medicines, and possibly
as an embellishment in food preparation as well. It grew in open fields and
waste places.
Although in legend and history emphasis has been placed on all the
religious and mystical aspects of the Druid society, it must not be thought
that all members were of the priestly orders. In what may be called the
“Governing Class” the Arch Druid was the absolute ruler. Under him were
the Derwydd, or Philosophers, then the Bards-musicians, singers, and
advocates of the Arts-and the Ovades, or priests, who were the actual
“operators” of the ritualistic acts. Ordinarily they dressed in white but their
robes were green when they were performing their sacerdotal duties at the
altars in the groves.
 Those in the Druidistic society who were not members of one of the
priestly groups were the workers who received the benefits of the philosophy
and learning. There was little or no poverty. One of the fundamentals of
Druidism was to help the unfortunates and to furnish training in the work that
may be assigned to them by the Arch Druid and the Derwydd. The Bards and
the Ovades figured largely in the application of this training.
Among the lay members were engineers, construction workers, merchants,
those who assisted the philosophers (Derwydd), the ones who were
associated with the Astronomers, and others who might be classified as
laborers in various categories. But all were versed in the benefits and
mysteries of the various herbs and herbal products which were used not only
in their religious rituals, but in their daily life as well.
One practice of the ancient Britons, including the Celts and Druids, was
the tattooing of their bodies with mystical designs, by cutting the skin and
rubbing into the lines so cut a strong infusion of Woad. This was an herb
belonging to the Mustard family (Brassicaceae). This herb was native to
Europe and grew in waste places to a height of from four to twelve inches. Its
botanical name is Isatis tinctoria. The blue-green leaves were lance-shaped,
sometimes slightly toothed. The yellow flowers were in the form of a raceme,
at the end of the stems. The leaves of this herb, when soaked or steeped in
water, furnish an intense blue dye. Imported from Europe, this herb can now
be found in desert places in the United States, particularly in Utah.
In every phase of human existence, from the earliest days of legend and
folklore to the present enlightenment and experimentation, the contribution of
herbs and herbal products furnishes a fascinating study of Nature’s Alchemy.
 Chapter Four

GOD’S GIFT TO MAN

A STUDY OF historical geology reveals the fact that the earliest living
things on the earth, both in the sea and on land, were plants-first, the simplest
forms of one-celled organisms. Then, with the increasing complexity of
physiological division of labor, the various species of multicelled plants
developed as environments provided changing patterns for existence.
Available evidences seem to indicate that the early Hebrews lived on the
fruits of the field and the herbs of the earth. They were vegetarians. That is,
their use of animals in their worship was for sacrificial purposes only.
In both the Old and the New Testament in the Bible, there are many
references to the use of herbs, in incense and ritual and also as food. Some of
these applications are definitely traceable to Egyptian influence, while others
are more like the Phoenician or Carthaginian customs.
Herbs, as used for food, may be classified as Green Herbs and Potherbs. In
the first category, we consider all the herbs and herbal products that are eaten
raw or used raw in salads or as garnishes. Certain oils that are herbal products
also may be mentioned under the heading of Green Herbs.
Potherbs are those that are cooked, usually boiled, or used to flavor boiled
foods. The fact that they are classified as potherbs does not mean they are
never eaten raw. On the contrary, many of them are even more palatable raw
than cooked.
No references have been found that would indicate that the early
inhabitants of Palestine, before the time of Noah and the Biblical flood ever
used animal food. In the King James Version of the Bible, in Genesis 1: 11
and 12, “And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed,
and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the
earth: and it was so. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed
after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his
kind: and God saw that it was good.”
Animals were used in their worship as sacrifices and burnt offerings, but
there is no mention of the eating of flesh up to the time of the repopulation of
the earth after the waters of the traditional deluge receded. There is ample
evidence, however, that herbs and herbal products formed a major portion of
the food of the ancient Hebrews both before and after Noah’s time.
There are at least twenty Biblical citations that relate specific instances of
the use of green herbs as food, by name. Some of these are repeated many
times. Undoubtedly the Hebrew housewife concocted many different and
new mixtures of herbs to please the tastes of her family. We find in the Book
of Second Kings, in Chapter 4:39, a notation about green herbs and potherbs
as well:
“One went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild vine, and
gathered thereof wild gourds his lap full, and came and shred them into the
pot of pottage: for they knew them not.” In the same Chapter barley meal and
corn are mentioned.
In almost every book in the Bible there is mention of both green herbs and
potherbs as food for the people. In the Second Book of Samuel, Chapter
Seventeen, Verses 28 and 29, we read, “ ... wheat, and barley, and flour, and
parched corn, and beans, and lentils, and parched pulse, and honey, ... for
David, and for the people that were with him, to eat: for they said, The people
is hungry and weary and thirsty, in the wilderness.”
Wild Thyme (Thymus serpyllum) was used both as a green herb and a
potherb for flavoring, in cookery, its mintlike quality adding zest to the
mixture of foods to which it was added. Other members of the Mint family
were among the “appetizers” in the preparation of foods.
Pepper, mustard, garlic, several varieties of paprika or red pepper, parsley
(Petroselinum latifolium), tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) which is a
member of the Thistle family-and many other aromatic herbs garnished the
food of the ancient Hebrews, even as these and other condiments are used
today to add flavor.
After the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, we find radishes mentioned
in connection with their food. Radishes were known in Egypt from the
earliest days, so it is safe to assume that their use by the Hebrew people
began during the so-called captivity.
Artichokes, as we know them today, undoubtedly were developed by the
Ancient Romans from the original member of the Thistle family of herbs.
The genus Helianthus, of the Family CARDUACEAE, includes the
Sunflower, and what is known as the Ground Artichoke. The delicate
‘’hearts” were among the green herbs in Palestine and also were mixed with
others in their “pottage.”
The leaves of many herbs were eaten as “Greens,” either raw in salads with
salt and other spices or boiled in their pottage. Among others, the Israelites
knew Leontodon erythospermun, or Leontodon taraxacom, both of which are
varieties of the common Dandelion, and both of which were imported into the
United States from Europe and the Near East. This herb belongs to the
Chicory family, and its leaves were used either as greens or as potherbs
mixed and boiled with other green leaves.
Capers were used as condiments. The capers were flower buds of a low
shrub or herb belonging to the family Caparidaceae, native to the
Mediterranean countries. The buds were used as flavoring in other food
mixtures.
Basil, belonging to the Lamiaceae, or Mint family, has the specific name,
Clinopodium vulgare. It was used in many ways, as flavoring, and mixed in
with the green herbs. The Basil which we use today comes from plants that
were originally imported from Eurasia.
Tansy, Tanacetum vulgare, is an herb belonging to the Thistle Family,
Carduaceae. It has yellow flowers, is very aromatic, with a slightly bitter
taste, and it was used by the Israelites in food mixtures or as tea, for its
medicinal properties, and as a tonic. The tansy which we have today was
originally imported from Eurasia, where it is a native herb. Several varieties
of beans were staple foods, with celery, broccoli, garlic, and onions
functioning both as green herbs and potherbs. Lettuce also was grown and
used.
One herb which is mentioned was known as the “Colocynth.” It had a
rather bitter ground fruit, somewhat like an orange. It was probably a member
of the Carrot family, Ammiaceae, and was used both as a green herb and a
potherb.
Several members of the Gourd family (Cucurbitaceae) are mentioned,
particularly in the discussion of potherbs or pottage. This family includes
pumpkins, many varieties of squash, as well as other edible gourds.
Several kinds of berries, the fruits of true herbs, were common in the food
that is mentioned.
Cummin was an herb belonging to the Carrot family (Ammiaceae). This
plant, Cuminum cyminum, had fennel-like leaves and its seeds were used as a
condiment. It is mentioned in the Bible as subject to tithe; also, in Ezekiel
4:9, “Take thou also unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans and lentils, and
millet, and fitches . . . , and make thee bread thereof, . . . .” The “fitches” was
another name for a black variety of cummin, sometimes called “vetch.” In
Isaiah 28:25, we read: “When he hath made plain the face thereof, doth he
not cast abroad the fitches, and scatter the cummin, and cast in the principal
wheat, and the appointed barley and the rie in their place?” The “rie” referred
to was the cereal we know as rye. It was native to Palestine and the lands to
north and east.
It was threshed by staff and flail, or perhaps by a toothed implement drawn
over the mass by oxen. Then the mass was “winnowed,” thrown into the air
for the wind to blow the chaff away. The ancient harvesters sifted the grain
and ground it into flour. The grinding mill consisted of two circular stones,
each about two feet in diameter. The grain was poured into a central hole in
the top stone. This top was rotated by hand. The crudely crushed grain was
pushed out around the sides and collected in cloths. It was baked into a rather
inferior kind of bread.
The small bushy herb called RUE (Ruta graveolens) was very valuable in
the life of the ancient people of Palestine. It was used in cookery and
medicine, and was subject to the Law of Tithing. It is mentioned only once in
the Bible. In Luke 11 :42, we read, “But woe unto you, Pharisees! for ye tithe
mint and rue and all manner of herbs, and pass over judgment and the love of
God: These ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone.”
The specific name, “graveolens” means “strong smelling.” It was widely
used as a disinfectant, and also as a flavoring in foods, but it was highly
prized also for its medicinal properties.
A small annual herb with noteworthy habits of growth was abundant on the
shores of the Dead Sea in the Holy Land. It was considered sacred by the
early people, as representing the Resurrection. The common name was The
Rose of Jericho. Its botanical name is Anastatica hierochuntica. It is referred
to in the Bible as “A Rolling thing,” (Isaiah 17: 13) because of its
characteristic habits. When dry, it will roll up into a ball, and apparently be
dead. When the wind took it, it would be scattered over a wide area. Then
when it received a little moisture, it would open up, flat on the ground, and
take root again, producing tiny, delicate flowers and green leaves. This
characteristic has given it the name, “The Resurrection Flower.”
While the dictionary gives the definition of a “mandrake” as “a poisonous
plant, belonging to the Potato family (Solanaceae), yet in the Bible (Genesis
30:14 and The Song of Solomon 7: 13) it apparently was highly prized by the
Hebrew people as a charm against evil spirits. It was also thought that it
would induce fertility, as in the story of Leah and Rachel.
Galbanum, according to the dictionary, is a bitter and odorous gum resin
obtained from certain umbelliferous herbs, especially the giant fennel (Ferula
galbaniflua). It is used as a stimulant, expectorant, and antispasmodic. Its
history, as related to ancient Israel, can best be told by quoting the Biblical
reference (Exodus 30: 34-37): “And the LORD said unto Moses, Take unto
thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; these sweet spices with
pure frankincense: of each shall there be a like weight:
“And thou shalt make it a perfume, a confection after the art of the
apothecary, tempered together, pure and holy.
“And thou shalt beat some of it very small, and put of it before the
testimony in the tabernacle of the congregation, where I will meet with thee:
it shall be unto you most holy.
“And as for the perfume which thou shalt make, ye shall not make to
yourselves according to the composition thereof: it shall be unto thee holy for
the LORD.”
The herb from which the gum galbanum is obtained grew from Syria to
Persia. It is a fetid, yellowish gum resin. When it is dried and burned, it gives
out a pungent but quite pleasant odor. There are nine different species of this
herb that grow in the Holy Land. From one of these species (Ferula
assafoetida) comes our modern evil-smelling gum, assafoetida.
Of the nine species, however, the one which produces the gum, galbanum,
seems to be the only one used habitually and religiously by the Israelites. It
was collected from cuts made in the young stem a short distance above the
ground. The milky juice that exudes soon hardens.
In the 4th chapter of the Song of Solomon, the 13th to 15th verses, we find
the following poetical description:
‘Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, . . ; campfire, with spikenard.
“Spikenard and saffron; calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of
frankincense; myrrh and aloes, with all the chief spices.”
 The dictionary says of spikenard, “An ancient and fragrant and costly
ointment prepared from a plant of the same name: A perennial herb,
Nardostachys fatamansi, belonging to the valerian family.”
In the 14th Chapter of Mark, in the New Testament, the 3rd verse, mention
is made of “an alabaster box of ointment of spikenard, very precious.”
In very ancient times, the oil derived from this herb was one of the costly
treasures of the people around the Mediterranean coasts. One pound was
valued at three hundred denarii-a denarius was the equivalent of a laborer’s
daily wage. The costly oil was carried in alabaster boxes, to preserve the
essential perfume.
The SAFFRON referred to in the Biblical account is an autumn-flowering
herb, a species of the Crocus family (Crocus sativus) which has orange-
colored stigmas. These stigmas, when dried, yield a dye which is used today
for coloring confectionery and in varnish manufacturing. In ancient days, in
Palestine and the Near East, it found wide use in food flavoring, as a
condiment, and a delightful odor in exquisite perfumes-these, in addition to
its value as a brilliant orange dye in food coloring. In ancient writing, Homer
and Theophrastus both mention the saffron flower. Pliny records that costly
saffron petals were placed in tiny fountains, that the sweet odor might be
diffused into the public halls.
WORMWOOD (Artemisia judaica or Artemisia absinthium) is mentioned
many times in the Bible, and always in connection with its bitterness. In
Deuteronomy 29: 18, we read, “Lest there should be among you a root that
beareth gall and wormwood.”
This herb, native to Eastern Europe and Western Asia, is a member of the
Thistle family, Carduaceae, of the genus Artemisia, which derives its name
from the Greek Goddess ARTEMIS. The leaves have a very bitter taste, and
in ancient times the herb was steeped in wine to counteract the effect of the
alcohol. It is related to the familiar sage-brush.
The WATER LILY (Nymphaea caerulea or Nymphaea odorata) was
highly prized by the Israelites. When Hiram of Tyre directed the decorations
of King Solomon’s Temple and the manufacture of the Temple Utensils he
used the water lily as a pattern. This flower of the aquatic herb floats on the
surface of lakes and pools in the Holy Land, as well as in Egypt. In
Nymphaea caerulea the flowers are large, a rich powder blue in color, and
extremely fragrant. Nymphaea lotus, of the Nile and also found in California,
and the common water lily, Nymphaea odorata, bear white flowers. Because
of its beauty, the plant was a great favorite in the gardens of the wealthy. In
the rootstocks of this plant there is an abundance of nutritious starchy
mucilage and sugary matter. Also, the seeds are filled with a floury
nitrogenous albumen. Both seeds and the rootstocks were used as food. In
some sections of the land, the blooms of this plant were used as grain and
ground into flour, to make bread. Recently the Madonna Lily (Lilium
candidae) has been identified as also indigenous to Palestine and the
Mediterranean lands.
When the early inhabitants of Palestine washed their clothes in the River
Jordan, or the Sea of Galilee, or even in the Dead Sea, they discovered that if
they mixed the ashes of certain herbs with oil, and used that mixture in their
washing, their clothes became much whiter. Thus was the science of soap-
making born. The herbs that gave the best results both belong to the
Goosefoot family, Chenopodiaceae. They are Salsola kali and Salsola
inermis, the common saltworts, and Salicornia fruticosa and Salicornia
herbacea, the common name of which is “Glasswort.” These herbs grew in
abundance on the shores of the lakes and rivers. Because they burned with an
oily flame, they were used as kindling.
In Isaiah 43:24, can be noted a reference to another common herb, “Thou
hast brought me no sweet cane with money, ...” This has been interpreted as
the Sugar Cane, Saccharum officinarum. The normal sweetening in food of
course was honey but the crushed cane was used also, without refining, since
the processing for the manufacturing of sugar was unknown until centuries
later.
Many herbs of the Thistle family (Carduaceae) were used, either as food or
in connection with rituals of worship. Worthy of note is the Star Thistle, of
which several varieties were known. Probably the most outstanding examples
are Centaurea cyanus, with flowers varying in color, from blue to rose and
white; Centaurea solstitalis and Centaurea calcitrapa, both with yellow
flowers. These grew in waste places, and the seeds were plumose-having fine
feathery hairs that blow in the wind, scattering the seeds far and wide.
Other herbs included Chicory (Chicorium intybus), Hyacinth, (Hyacinthus
orientalis) and Water cress (Nasturtium officinalis.)
 PART TWO

FOLKLORE AND TRANSITION

 Chapter Five

“EVERYTHING IS BECOMING”
ARCHAEOLOGISTS AND STUDENTS OF ANCIENT lore generally
agree that the oldest known stone structure is the Ziggurat, or stepped
pyramid, planned and erected by Imhotep, chief adviser to King Zoser, of the
Third Dynasty in Egypt, approximately 5000 years ago. The encyclopedia
says of him: “Imhotep, Egyptian physician, architect and statesman,
flourished between approximately 2980 and 2950 B.C. He was chief advisor
to King Zoser of the Third Dynasty. Imhotep built the step pyramid, oldest of
the Egyptian pyramids, for Zoser. His fame as a physician and scholar grew
through the centuries and at the New Kingdom he was deified and
worshipped as the god of learning. The Greeks identified Imhotep with
Aesculapius, their physician-God.”
A Reuter’s Despatch from Cairo, in January, 1965, is headed, “SHRINE
OF FATHER OF MEDICINE UNEARTHED.” It tells of the Egyptian
excavations of Professor Walter Emery of London University. Emery says he
unearthed a place of worship. He compared it to Lourdes in France as a place
where miraculous cures were believed to have taken place, due to Imhotep’s
influence. The discovery of his tomb will undoubtedly bring to light ancient
inscriptions and documents of enormous scientific value.
Undoubtedly Imhotep’s extensive activities had much to do with the early
use of herbs and herbal products, since legend, folklore, and early records
attribute the advance in medical science and practice to the healing qualities
of herbs.
Imhotep’s life and work have been compared to that of Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519), who was equally adept as an artist, sculptor, engineer, architect,
super-scientist, and statesman. There are many parallels between the two
men. (The Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum in San Jose, California, has a
splendid large model of King Zoser’s pyramid and the sacred precincts, or
city, in which it was contained. The city, now called Sâkkara, was the first
stone one in Egypt.)
 Beginning with the fall of Rome and continuing until the time of the
Renaissance—in that period which commonly is called “the Dark Ages”—
what is considered culture was at low ebb. Yet despite the apparent decline of
higher learning and outstanding examples of advanced thought and
accomplishment in the arts and sciences, there was an underlying habit
pattern that permeated all classes of society. The developing influence and
power of the church undoubtedly had much to do with this.
It is instinctive in all human beings to worship, fear, adore, or placate a
being or beings more powerful than themselves. Some form of religion
characterizes every society from the lowest savage to the highest in the scale
of intelligence, throughout history. The majority of religions have included
much ritual in their activities. As has been seen in the Egyptian, Carthaginian,
Phoenician, Druidic, and Hebrew practices, herbs played a major role in their
ritualism. During the centuries of the Middle Ages, the arts and learning were
in the cultural doldrums; not entirely quiescent but certainly not progressively
active.
Commerce and trade were active, and conquest and petty wars were not
uncommon. The people still needed food, and the use of herbs increased
rather than diminished. One phase in their use was an advance. That was
most noticeable in Western Europe among the Gauls, in what later became
France. Undoubtedly the druidic influence was primarily responsible.
In their use of herbs, the properties of the individual plants determined the
particular application of the herb, whether in votive offering, in medicinal
use, or in food. This was based partially on tradition and folklore, and partly
on experience and observation. The Romans and Greeks had adopted a
similar practice in a somewhat limited manner, but it was the Gauls and early
French who really developed the idea into a semblance of scientific accuracy.
This laid the groundwork for the modem science and art of perfume
manufacturing, in which France has taken the lead.
It must be understood, however, that progress along that line was
necessarily slow. There were no scientific standards by which to judge.
Individual opinion, based partially on legend and also on personal
observation, was called upon to determine the properties of the various herbs.
Truly it was “trial and error.”
There is a widely accepted psychological theory that no two individuals
react identically to any sense perception. In other words, whether it be visual,
auditory, gustatory, tactile, or olfactory, one person will have a different
interpretation than others. An interesting experiment was conducted in a
University class recently. Ten students were selected by lot, blindfolded, and
taken into an anteroom. An object was selected and each student was brought
into the room and told to smell the unknown substance and immediately write
his or her first reaction. There were ten different answers. “Fruity,” “sweet,”
‘’heady,” “strong,” “rosy,” “nice,” “sexual,” “unpleasant,” “delightful,” and
‘1ovely.” Then the blindfolds were removed. The object smelled was a small
imported sample of Bulgarian Rose Otto. Other odors were tried, with
equally amazing results. The logical conclusion is that it is not safe to rely on
one person’s reaction, especially if one sense perception only is involved.
Two people may watch the same scene. Each will interpret it differently.
The same applies to smell, taste, hearing, and feeling. True research in
scientific achievement is based on a long series of experimentation. The
transitional years in Western Europe exemplify this.
There is an old proverb: “Make haste slowly.” Any worthwhile
accomplishment is the result of an idea, plus thought, plus development that
usually entails discarding unsuccessful attempts, until finally the fruition
results and “something new” greets the public eye. Numerous examples can
be given. Electric power, railroads, telephones, telegraph, radio, television,
various modern electronic devices-none of these came into being suddenly,
without previous effort, sometimes years of disappointment. When Henry
Ford first had the idea of a “horseless carriage,” people ridiculed him.
Persistence, faith, and determination have given us our modern transportation
facilities.
For at least one hundred years before the Fall of Rome in A.D. 476-478,
learning and the arts had been eclipsed by wars, rumors of wars, and internal
politics. Invasions from the north and west, petty jealousies among the ruling
classes, frequent changes in government in Rome precluded attention to the
higher aspects of life. There were a few individuals, however, both in Rome
itself and in the territory of the Franks and Gauls, and in the disputed country
between the North Sea and the Iberian Peninsula, whose ideals were creative
and constructive. Despite popular discouragements they planted the seeds
that bore fruit in the rebirth of scientific achievement, literature, and the arts.
So accustomed are we in our modern, busy life to accept as “good” what
other people proclaim as worthwhile that it sometimes is difficult to realize
that it is not the “me, too” type of person who makes progress.
One result of applied thought during the Dark Ages was the increasing use
of medicinal herbs for healing. Another was the expanding use of herbs and
herbal products for their emotional effect, which has resulted in our modern
gigantic perfume and cosmetic industry.
The increase in the medicinal use of herbs during this period is evidenced
by folklore and legend, as well as by the customs of the early colonists who
came to America during the two centuries after the beginning of the
Renaissance from France, Spain, Italy, and England. The knowledge of “folk
remedies” in the early days of the American Colonies was extensive and was
not confined to a particular region. The similarity in the use of herbs and
herbal products for their healing properties, from New England and the
Atlantic coast and in the French settlements in Louisiana, indicates a common
origin for the practices which these colonists brought with them. England,
Germany, the Rhine countries, France, Spain, and Italy were original homes
of the settlers. It is logical to believe, therefore, that during the centuries
before the revival of learning this phase of herbal application received
especial attention in Europe.
It is even psychologically conceivable that because of the preponderance
of wars and rumors of wars the curative power of growing plants was
recognized and used. That is pure conjecture, of course, but it is a possible
factor.
Artifacts have been found in caves attributed to the Cro-Magnon era that
undoubtedly were used to contain perfumery or cosmetics. During the
centuries the contents had evaporated, of course, but a slight odor remained
in the flacons. Excavators have discovered the same situation in the earliest
tombs of the Egyptian Pharaohs. The use of perfumes and cosmetics
antedates historical records.
It must be understood, however, that these early examples of the
perfumers’ art were not the elaborate bouquets and blended odors of the
present time. According to literature and research, perfumery in the beginning
was the concentrated essence of one flower—a rose, or some other blossom.
That condition existed until nearly A.D. 500.
Two of the earliest mentioned odors, in the records of the Bible and other
ancient writings, are frankincense and myrrh. Neither of these are herbs or
herbal products. Sometimes frankincense is referred to as galibanum. Both of
these substances are resinous gums exuding from trees. They were used
extensively in incense and as offerings to the gods, and later incorporated in
perfumery as it developed.
The transition from the use of frankincense and myrrh to the addition of
the floral odors was a natural accompaniment to the increasing sense of the
aesthetic or higher emotions. Probably the first flower to be used and
cultivated for its pleasing odor was the Damask Rose, which traditionally
originated in Damascus. Undoubtedly an aromatic gum resin was the host, on
the surface of which successive layers of the petals were pressed and allowed
to remain for some time. The host gradually absorbed the essential oil from
the flowers, and a pleasing substance was obtained. The “pomades” were
produced in this fashion for many years before liquid perfumery was
developed.
No definite records have been discovered that show the exact date when
the different flower odors began to be mixed and blended to form a bouquet.
However, it is assumed that this natural transition originated in Italy,
although some of the modem “bouquets” have names that suggest an
Arabian, or Phoenician, or Greek beginning. For example, the well-known
commercial odor sold under the name, FRENCH CHYPRE, may be a
combination of as many as twenty-four odors, in various percentages, but all
of the formulae have the predominating odor of two ingredients—
OAKMOSS and BERGAMOT. The name Chypre suggests the Island of
Cyprus, while BERGAMOT is a derivative of the American HORSEMINT,
Monarda menthaefolia.
Prior to A.D. 1300, probably there was no alcoholic solution of essential
oils to make perfumes as we know them today. The sweet odors were
“captured” and held by various aromatic gums such as frankincense and
myrrh, or natural oils which had a pleasing odor and which would also blend
with the flower essence. Many of these oils were also used for medicinal
purposes by the ancient people. These applications are mentioned by eminent
historical writers such as Pliny and Ovid.
Available evidence proves that the earliest method used to gather the
aromatic oils from the flowers or plants, as well as the least expensive, is the
process known as steam distillation. Artifacts from ancient Egypt have been
identified as crude stills.
It is well known that a substance can exist in one of three different states:
solid, liquid, or gas. The most familiar example is water. When the
temperature falls below zero degrees Centigrade or thirty-two degrees
Fahrenheit, we have ice, a solid. Between zero degrees and 100 degrees
Centigrade, or 32 and 212 Fahrenheit, water is a liquid—that is, the
molecular pressure is increasing, but still not sufficient to overcome the
surface tension, or cohesion. But at the ‘’boiling point” the internal molecular
activity becomes greater than the tension, and the liquid becomes vapor. So it
is with the essential flower oils.
Many oils have higher ‘’boiling points” than water. Therefore, they would
require greater heat application to vaporize. By introducing water or steam
into the alembic, or container, the required amount of heat is lowered. The
vapor, consisting of mixed steam and flower oil gas, is re-condensed to liquid
usually by a coil of cold water surrounding the exit tube. This is illustrated by
the diagram that follows.
 Into this container flowers were placed, heat was applied at the bottom,
and steam was introduced at the top “X”. The combined heat “C” and steam
vaporized the essential oils in the flowers, which “escaped” through the tube
“B” into the coil “D” immersed in cold water. This condensed the vapor of
the oils and steam, which then went over into the container “E.” Because oil
is lighter than water, the oil floated on top and was drawn off and further
purified.
The very early historical references indicate that this steam distillation
method was used, along with the pomades and natural blends with aromatic
gums. The exact date for the beginning use of alcohol as the “absorbent
vehicle” for the flower oils is not known, but indications are that it probably
was in the early 1300’ s, undoubtedly in Italy. It was soon after that time
when the blending of mixed odors, or bouquets, began to be practiced.
When Catherine de Medici came to France to marry Henri II, early in the
sixteenth century, she was accompanied by her private professional
cosmetician, a young man named Rene, an expert in the art of perfumery and
cosmetics. As Patron Saint of the art of fragrance in France, Catherine de
Medici is credited with the encouragement of the cultivation of vast gardens
of flowers for profitable production of essential oils for the manufacture of
perfumes on an increasingly large scale. Her sponsorship of the “infant
industry” was the beginning of the development which has made France
undoubted leader in the science and art of perfume manufacturing in the
modem world.
In their search for the elixir of life and the philosopher’s stone, it was not
long until the alchemists began to experiment with various flowers, herbs,
and herbal products. Alchemy has often been called the prelude to chemistry,
which is a universal science—science is an orderly, systematic pursuit of
knowledge. When the art of perfumery began to be studied in an orderly,
systematic manner, it took its rightful place in the forefront of scientific
achievement. This was not confined to France alone. The effect was
noticeable in Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Greece, England, Spain, and the
lands surrounding the Mediterranean. The study of herbs and herbal products
for their emotional effect as well as for their commercial and medicinal
values undoubtedly marked the beginning of the widespread appreciation of
herbalism and its function in every phase of our modem life.
Early in the nineteenth century, Cologne came to the attention of the
public. It was named after the city in Germany which originated it. At that
time, an attempt was made to shift the center of the industry from France to
Germany, but because of the ideal climatic conditions in southern France the
move was not successful.
The number of plants that can be classified and described as herbs seems
almost endless. All of the cereal grains are seeds of herbs. The majority of the
familiar vegetables are herbs. Many plants from which medicinal values are
derived belong to the group. To attempt to list and describe all members of
this vast assembly would require many volumes. In references to herbs in the
Bible, it is evident that at those times all green plants were considered herbs,
regardless of their woody fiber. If we eliminate the growths that show woody
content in the stems, the number is still stupendous.
Civilization in the past as well as the so-called culture of today was
dependent upon an unfailing supply of plants as the source of food. Modern,
thinking people are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of herbs,
not only as potential nourishment but in other ways as well. For the purpose
of study and understanding, herbs can be classified in three main categories.
The largest group would be those which are used or can be utilized as food.
Another division includes the plants whose primary importance is determined
by properties valuable in the healing arts, in medicine. The third list embraces
the herbs, mostly flowering plants, that furnish the source of the essential oils
for the gigantic perfume industry. Individual species of herbs are not always
confined to one group. Overlapping is common. A single plant or botanical
family may be good for food, may also have medicinal value, and rate high in
perfume oils as well.
In addition to the above grouping, possibly another classification might be
mentioned. Certain herbs or species are poisonous or otherwise dangerous to
human welfare. An example is the opium poppy as contrasted with the related
species that furnishes seeds used to decorate foods. The opium poppy is
Papaver somniferus. The seed poppy is Papaver rhoeas.
Another example is the mandrake, Atropa mandragora, which was
mentioned in the Bible and was valued for its delightful odor, particularly of
its fruit. Also it was prized for the romantic medicinal properties. In the Bible
story of Rachel and Leah the romance of its healing power is related.
Flax is an herb with a multiplicity of uses. The finest of linen is made from
its fibers, and the seeds are used in the manufacture of paints and varnishes,
and also linseed for various medicinal values. There is a definite amount of
food value also.
Referring to the mandrake again, the name was given because of a fancied
resemblance of the root to a man with his arms outstretched. In the eastern
countries, in the early days, it was thought that if a man dug up a mandrake
plant he would die! So they harnessed a dog to the plant and let the animal
pull it up. It was not reported whether the animal died or not.
There are several species of mandrake. The most noteworthy variety,
Mandragora officinarum, bears fruits which resemble a small tomato, red to
pale orange when ripe. The odor is delightful.
According to Pliny, mandrake root was considered as an anaesthetic,
which was a humane touch in the strenuous life in Roman times. A piece of
the root was to be chewed by a patient while undergoing an operation.
Medicinally, the entire plant was thought to promote restful sleep, to ease
pain. Also it was helpful in diseases of the mind, and in Anglo-Saxon folklore
it was a specific remedy against evil spirits and demons. Even today the
leaves are occasionally used to prepare ointments to be used externally. The
roots have emetic properties.
An interesting commentary on the development of herbal use during the
Middle Ages is contained in Culpepper’s book, The English Physician and
Herbalist, published about 1653. His belief in what he called “The Doctrine
of Signatures” was ridiculed by his contemporaries. This theory stipulated
that the appearance or image of every herb determined its use by man. That
was a development of the thought processes that really led up to the scientific
study of herbs and herbal products.
His explanations and descriptions apparently are based on the great
influence of the planetary constellations under which all herbs apparently are
protected. His conclusions were that the herb itself would tell by its form, its
leaves, its inflorescence, of what value or use it would be to man as a cure for
human ailments. For example, the crossed petals of plants in the Family
Cruciferae reassure man that it is not poisonous or harmful. The lungwort’s
spotted leaves indicate that it is a beneficial plant for treatment of spotted or
diseased lungs. Dandelion, buttercup, and “butter-and-eggs” were good in
treatment of jaundice. Garlic, with its hollow stalk, is useful in affections of
the windpipe. Solomon’s Seal, Polygonatum biflorum, has seallike scars on
its rootstalk. His comment: “Root excellent. Good for to close up wounds,
broken bones, and such like. It soldereth and glues together bones in a very
short space of time though the bones be but slenderly and unhandsomely
placed and wrapped up.”
Many other herbs and plants are listed according to their “images.” The
majority of his conclusions have been verified by modern practices.
Dandelion, plantain, nettles, and yarrow, for example, have been found to
have merit in the healing art. The study of these applications is fascinating
and self-rewarding. Truly, “Everything is becoming.”
 Chapter Six

HERBS IN THE COLONIES

FROM, ENGLAND, FRANCE, Ireland, Scotland, Germany, Austria,
Sweden and Norway, Holland, and other parts of the old world they came to
the land of promise and increased opportunity. The call of curiosity, the
summons of adventure, the desire for wealth, the longing for freedom to
worship as conscience dictated, all had influence on the motives underlying
the westward movements. The theory that “geography is the parent of
history” is exemplified in the distribution of the various nationalistic groups
in the early colonial settlements in America.
The emigrants from northern France came to the eastern Great Lakes and
the Saint Lawrence Valley. The Gulf Region and the lower Mississippi
attracted those from southern France and Spain. The northern Great Lakes’
lands appealed to many from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The Dutch,
Scottish, and Irish settled in the Hudson Valley and Eastern seaboard. Those
from Germany preferred the hills of Pennsylvania. The English, with
characteristic ambition, were not content with one location but mingled with
all, even occasionally outnumbering the original settlers. Each group retained
their own folklore and traditions, especially those regarding the use of herbs
as food and for medicinal and healing purposes.
Many of the herbs that grew wild in the new land were similar to the
familiar ones back in their homeland, and these were used and cultivated
immediately. Others were new to the settlers, so they became experimental
material. In addition, many of the immigrants brought with them the seeds of
their favorite plants, especially those that had been cultivated for their healing
properties. Their herb gardens, planted near their homes, were sources of
useful plants and those of medicinal value as well as food.
A few of the plants which they found growing wild and used in their home
remedies have found a place in today’s folk medicine. Wild ginger roots were
similar to their English and North European asarabacca and they provided
the same medicinal use for easing pains of cramps, and also they were dried
and used as snuff. Two varieties of BALMONY (or Turtle Head), (Chelone
glabra and Chelone lyoni) found use in the treatment of jaundice and as a
soothing, healing skin ointment. CENTAURY (Centaurium umbellatum) was
apparently worth its weight in gold as a priceless cure for various ailments.
LABRADOR TEA (Ledum groenlandicum) was a fragrant, low-growing
herb the leaves of which were used for tea in the Colonial days. It was
thought in Colonial times that PURPLE LOOSESTRIFE (Lythrum salicaria)
was useful and quite effective in relieving the tension of disordered minds!
SWEET FLAG (Acorus calamus) is an herb with a thick, creeping root used
in making the “sweet flag candy” by the Shakers, a religious sect that came
from England early in the eighteenth century and settled in New York, with
later colonies in New England, Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky.
PITCHER PLANT (Sarracenia purpurea) was (and is) a noted
insectivorous plant found mostly in peat bogs. This plant was an old Indian
remedy which was thought to prevent pitting from smallpox. Another plant,
SUNDEW, (genus Drosera) was “death to mosquitoes.” Its leaves are
covered with sticky tentacles that fold over unwary insects, particularly
mosquitoes. All its species are still used in treatment of whooping cough.
It is somewhat surprising to think of the WATER LILY (Nymphea
odorata) as a medicinal herb, but it was cultivated by the pioneers for its
healing qualities.
The common MEADOWSWEET (Spiraea salicifolia). In the Shaker
colonies this herb was cultivated very much, for use in preparing their
“botanic beer” on account of its sweet flavor, which saved sugar. TEASEL,
(Dipsacus fullonum) is an herb with prickly, recurved spines growing on its
beautiful flower heads. These were used to comb velvet. That use explains its
European common name-”Brushes and Combs.”
The Mallow family (Malvaceae), has many representatives, some of which
show important medicinal properties. Of these, the most important is the
Marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis) which yields a soothing, medicinal
mucilage which was used, and still is, in the form of a syrup reputed to
relieve congestion in the bronchial passages. The common hollyhock,
(Althaea rosea) is a relative. One of the uses, carried over from colonial days,
is for coloring purposes.
The herb commonly known as MARIGOLD (Calendula officinalis) was
cultivated several centuries ago both for culinary purposes and because of its
medicinal properties. The flowers were used in salads, and when dried were
also used in soups and broths. A preparation of the entire plant was said to be
efficacious as a soothing ointment for ulcers and sores or irritations of the
skin.
The MARJORAMS, particularly the SWEET MARJORAM (Majorana
hortensis), which has been called “Joy of the Mountains,” and originally
imported from Europe in Colonial times, is still valuable in flavoring foods. It
is often mixed with other herbs and used in poultry stuffing, either fresh or
dried; also in omelets, salads, and other foods where its warm flavor is
especially delightful. The French, English, and Italian varieties were highly
prized, as well. The modern appreciation of this herb for its culinary qualities
is a heritage from our colonial ancestors.
MEADOWSWEET (Spiraea ulmaria) occupied a unique position in herbal
application in Colonial days and even before. Undoubtedly it was a native of
England or the Continent. In an old English manuscript written by one
Gerard, the following statement appears: “The leaves and floures of
Meadowsweet arre excelle alle other strowing herbs for to decke up houses . .
. for the smell thereof makes the heart merrie and joyful and delighteth the
senses.” The expression ‘strowing herbs’ referred to the custom of scattering
the flowers and leaves around the rooms of houses to purify the air. It was
one of the many herbs venerated by the Druids. An infusion of the dried plant
in water was thought to be a remedy for diarrhoea. Culpepper recommends it
for pulmonary troubles.
Members of the Mint family were the source of many applications during
Colonial times, even as they are today. This family (LABIATAE) is
worldwide in distribution. Some 200 genera and 3000 species are known.
Some of the most familiar representatives which were used in the Colonies
and which have continued to benefit human needs through the years may be
listed.
The perfume oil, BERGAMOT, is derived from the American
HORSEMINT (Monarda menthaefolia). Peppermint oil comes from
PEPPERMINT (Mentha piperita). The common CATNIP is Nepeta cataria.
HOARHOUND (Marrubium vulgare) is a member of the Mint family.
THYME is Thymus vulgaris. SAGE (Salvia—several species) should not be
confused with “Sagebrush,” which belongs to the Compositae-genus
Artemisia. The true SAGE is a member of the Mint family. Also,
SKULLCAP (Scutellaria spp) and COLEUS (Coleus spp). The “spp” means
that there are several species. The various examples of the Mints are useful
for food embellishment, in medicines, and in the perfume industry.
The Rose family, Rosaceae, was well represented in the herbal usage of
the American colonists. This is a rather large family, numbering 70 genera
and 1200 species. It has worldwide distribution, but only about one fourth are
common in the United States. Some familiar representatives, in addition to
the true roses, are raspberries, strawberries, the cinquefoil, or Potentilla
group, buttercups, and numerous others. Many of our roses today are later
imports. For example, it was not until 1810 that the Tea Rose was imported
into France from China, since when it has become the progenitor of many of
our exquisite modem roses.
Red roses are usually considered to be the most fragrant, today as they
were in Colonial times. Pink flowers came next, while yellow blossoms
although beautiful in appearance were the least fragrant. It is reported that
experienced rosarians, both in the olden days and in modern times, are able to
tell the different types of roses in the dark. But it also is significant that no
two blossoms, even on the same plant, are exactly identical in odor! That
raises the natural question, just what causes the odor in a flower? Is it the
essential oils from the petals? Do the odors from the leaves affect the total
aroma? Does the variation in odor of different flowers on the same plant
depend on the percentage of the aromatic source in the individual blossom?
Interesting research is suggested.
Some interesting facts have been gleaned from legend, folklore, and early
records.* For example, rose perfume has long been thought to have curative
powers. The damask rose is supposed to be the best and most highly
esteemed for the manufacture of rose water. Roses kept in a room will insure
that the air will be purified, sweet, and clean. Leaves hold their perfume
longer than flowers, particularly when dried. Leaf odors are nearly all
stimulating and quite refreshing. Since green plants “breathe” through their
leaves, the air in a room is purified if green plants are present. In
photosynthesis, the chlorophyll-the green coloring matter of vegetable
organisms—acts as the controlling factor in plant metabolism. Carbon
dioxide is taken from the air to combine with water and form starch, with
oxygen as the “by-product” of the reaction.
* (The Rose has long been a symbol of mystical philosophy. Its tradition in this regard is perpetuated
by the Rosicrucian Order, AMORC.)
Modern study and research have verified many of the early beliefs and
practices of our ancestors in the Colonial days which were largely based on
tradition and folklore. One of the principles on which early folk medicine was
based is that Nature created the body ideally, in perfect balance; that sickness
is the result of interference with that balanced condition; that ill health is the
road sign that tells us we have wandered away from proper nourishment of
our physical being. The answer to that was the return to Nature’s food
supply: the use of herbs to furnish the elements that would restore the
balanced relation of the various bodily activities.
To a large extent, the modern health food development is an outgrowth of
an idea. The food which we eat is the determining cause of good health or
illness; of mental and bodily strength or weakness; of hope and ambition or
discouragement. In other words, we are what we eat. There is more truth than
fiction in that statement. The historical study of mankind reveals that the
strongest and most progressive people were those whose eating habits were
the simplest. The use of herbs as food antedates and dominates the gustatory
customs of all nations.
In studying the folklore of various population groups in the early
settlement of America, it is interesting to note what might be called a
geographical similarity in the use of herbs as food.
Folk customs, particularly in relation to health and the treatment of disease,
seem to have followed the pattern of “Three R’s”—RESISTANCE, REPAIR,
and RECOVERY. This was especially true in the northeastern colonies,
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode
Island. Whether this was because of racial instinct, tradition, or experience, or
possibly a combination of these factors, or by reason of a natural craving,
their basic food was cereals—which are the seeds of herbs—and other herbal
products such as honey, various vegetables and fruits, many of which may be
classified as true herbs.
Before the use of refined sugar as a sweetening agent, honey was the
outstanding natural sweet. In addition to its carbohydrate content, it is the
only substance that offers many life-giving qualities not found in
combination elsewhere. As such, it meets the requirements as a
RESISTANCE builder, a REPAIR agent, and a RECOVERY product.
It is readily understood that the pioneer settlers in any region must build
minds and bodies that will resist the dangers that surround them. The use of
honey will not perform miracles, of course, but it has definite properties that
work together to build the desired qualities. It does not irritate the lining of
the digestive tract. It is assimilated rapidly and with ease. As a source of
quick energy it is ideal. Its use facilitates rapid recovery after exertion. It
offers no strain on the kidneys. It is a natural and gentle laxative. It appears to
quiet the nerves. It is not difficult to obtain and relatively inexpensive. For
these and other reasons, honey as an herbal product was included in the food
supply in the majority of the Colonies. Yet even more important in the lives
of the pioneers were its medicinal properties.
According to reports from many physicians and from government
publications and university researches, honey has definite bactericidal
properties. It is reputed to have a soothing, healing effect on the throat and
bronchial passages, and to be a general body conditioner.
The common POTATO has an interesting history. Contrary to popular
belief, it did not originate in Ireland. This staple of diet (Solanum tuberosum)
is a native of the Andean countries, in South America. The name potato
originally was derived from the Haitian word batata which was changed to
the Spanish patata and ultimately to the English POTATO. It has been
reported that a Franciscan priest, with the Pizarro exploring expedition,
brought potato plants back to Spain with him in 1534. There, it was hailed as
a miracle plant, able to revitalize impotence. The price of the “earth-berries”
soared, according to legend, often reaching more than 1000 pesos per pound!
It is reported that Sir John Hawkins brought potato plants to Ireland in 1565.
It was not until 1719, according to the records, that a group of Presbyterian
emigrants from Ireland brought potatoes to America, settling in New York
and Massachusetts. That is why the earth-berries are popularly known as
“Irish Potatoes.” They are the rootstalks of the true herb, Solanum tuberosum.
After their importation, they became a definite part of the food of the
colonists.
Because our national motto, “E PLURIBUS UNUM,” means one out of
many it is not surprising that the eating habits of the American people are a
combination of the national customs of the different countries from which the
pioneer settlers came. One of the favorites in the early days was mint tea.
According to ancient beliefs, it was a remedy for colic, upset stomach,
nausea, chills, colds, etc. Modern analysis proves that it is high in Vitamin C.
It can be made from dried mint.
In addition to the use of cereal grains and other herbal products as food,
there were certain medicinal characteristics attributed to many herbs, some of
which were used as food and others valued for their healing properties. Many
of them played a dual role—both food and medicine. The “folk medicine” in
all the colonies showed many similarities, including the examples which have
persisted up to the present time, some of which have been incorporated into
modern remedies.
It is reported that BALMONY, which is commonly called “Turtle Head,”
was highly thought of as an herb that would ameliorate the symptoms of
jaundice. The leaves of the red variety of Turtle Head were used in an
infusion that made a healing ointment for the skin. This use was not confined
to a particular colony but apparently was universal. There were two common
species: Chelone glabra and Chelone lyoni.
Blue VERVAIN, belonging to the family Verbenaceae, was considered to
have value as a “tonic” herb, in addition to its sweet odor.
An infusion of GOAT’S RUE was used to produce abundant perspiration
or sweating to relieve high fevers.
The pulverized root of GOLDEN SEAL was a standard remedy to relieve
inflammation in certain types of ulcers or other sores. It is still cultivated for
its medicinal properties.
The herb called BLOODROOT was efficacious for bronchial trouble,
according to reports.
The use of PARTRIDGE BERRY (often called SQUAW BERRY) to relax
muscular tension was adopted from Indian folklore. Various tribes used it for
that purpose and also to relieve labor pains in childbirth.
Wild THYME tea was said to ease headache, soothe the nerves, and settle
upset stomach. It was used by pioneers in the northern Catskills and by
settlers in Pennsylvania.
Another member of the Mint family, the familiar LAVEND ER
(Lavandula officinalis) occupied a major place in the herbal economy of the
early and later Colonial days. This herb was undoubtedly a native of the
Mediterranean countries and during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance it
was a prime favorite because of its delightful odor. It has greenish grey
foliage and spikes of small, light-purple flowers, which were especially
favored for scenting linens. It yields an aromatic oil used in perfumery. It was
introduced in the American colonies by the French settlers in the Gulf region,
Louisiana and the lower Mississippi, and in the northern area of the St.
Lawrence Valley. Its popularity spread rapidly to the other colonies and it
became one of the most widely cultivated of all flowering herbs. Oil of
lavender is still one of the most highly prized of the perfume-building
essences.
In addition to its value in perfumery, some early authorities credit lavender
with medicinal qualities. It was said to be effective against apoplexy, palsy,
and loss of speech! A mixture of lavender flowers, marjoram, cloves, pinks,
betony, and rose leaves and petals, placed in a small bag and worn around the
neck, was supposed to cure headache!
Of course ONIONS (Allium cepa) and GARLIC (Allium sativum) were in
practically universal use in the early days, as they are today. Garlic was also
used medicinally as a syrup to relieve asthma. It reputedly was mixed with
honey for that purpose. Externally it was prepared as an antiseptic poultice
for wounds and abrasions.
In addition to its use as a condiment, MUSTARD soon found a place in the
Colonies for its counter-irritant properties as a poultice in treating certain
diseases. Botanically, MUSTARD is Brassica nigra. It has been found in a
wild state and cultivated since Biblical times.
Both watermelons and the various varieties of muskmelons and gourds
were grown and used in the early settlements. Some of these were native
while others were brought to America by the pioneers. The watermelon, for
example (Citrullus vulgaris), has long been one of the staple articles of food
in the Mediterranean countries. It grows abundantly along the banks of the
Nile and in Palestine. It was imported into the United States in the early days
by the French and Spanish settlers in the Southern States, and today the Gulf
States and Texas are the largest producers of the delightful fruit.
The entire GOURD family (Cucurbitaceae) includes about 100 genera and
800 species. Watermelons, muskmelons, cantaloupes, pumpkins, squashes,
cucumbers, the familiar gourds such as zucchini, are all members of this
family of true herbs. From the very early days they have been used for food,
and certain varieties of gourds have also been utilized as containers for water
and foods.
The largest family among flowering plants, the Compositae, was well
represented in the Colonies. It is the SUNFLOWER family, and it includes
about 1000 genera and 20,000 species, which are found nearly everywhere
land plants grow. Some of these herbs are valued as food, such as lettuce,
salsify, artichoke, even the sunflower and dandelion, and many others.
Chrysanthemums, dahlias, asters, daisies, are examples of those which were
valued chiefly as decorations for their flowers. The pollen of a few is reputed
to cause hay fever—ragweed, sagebrush, etc. A few, such as snakeroot, are
poisonous to livestock. Included in this group were some of the most
troublesome weeds that bothered farmers and gardeners in the old Colony
days, as well as today. Examples were cockleburs, Canada Thistle, yarrow,
Spanish needle, ironweed, and others.
Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), a fragrant, low-growing shrubby
herb, was apparently native to the country from the New England States north
and west. This plant was highly prized by the colonists, who used its leaves
to make tea during Revolutionary days, particularly after the protest to
imported English tea which was recorded as “The Boston Tea Party.”
John Bartram’s botanic garden near Philadelphia was reputedly founded in
1730. Its interesting records read almost like adventure fiction in the story of
the tireless plant explorers and scientific gardeners who defied
discouragement in order that they might bring into being and duplicate many
of the beneficial herbs that grew only in the wilds. Some very interesting
comments on the daily life of the colonists are recorded in the book, Peter
Kalm’s Travels in North America, by A. D. Benson, published in 1750.
A study of the folklore, folk medicine, legends, and historical records of
the early American colonies reveals that in our modern acceptance of the
benefits of herbs and herbal products we are utilizing the combined
knowledge and customs of the people of many nationalities who flocked to
the shores of America, the Land of Opportunity. In every part of America
today, there is evidence that the original settlers brought with them the
customs and habits of their ancestors. While these have been modified to
some degree by time and environment, there is a predominating uniformity in
the use of herbs and herbal products in foods and folk medicine, regardless of
the nationalistic background of the people. Modern scientific knowledge is
recognizing the value of the contributions to healthful living that the pioneer
fathers bequeathed to us.
 Chapter Seven

INDIAN CULTURE REGIONS

ARCHAEOLOGISTS AND ANTHROPOLOGISTS are still endeavoring
to solve the problem of the ancestry of the American Indians. Many theories
have been advanced. Some authorities hold to the idea that the red men in
North America are descendants of the original mound builders, whose
artifacts are prominent along the valley of the Ohio River. However, the
origin of the mound builders themselves is still an unsolved secret, as is also
the question, “What became of them?”
Today, it is universally accepted that man (Homo sapiens) was not the
result of a separate act of creation: that he evolved from simpler forms of
animal life. Zoologically, man’s nearest relatives—the anthropoid apes, are
all found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The platyrrhine monkeys of South and
Central America are more distant from man biologically than those of the Old
World, and they apparently could not have been the ancestors of the
American Indians. Ethnologically it seems certain that the Indians originated
from a race or races of anthropoid creatures who came to America from
Eurasia or Australia after they had developed the characteristics of Homo
sapiens. No “Missing Link” skeletons have been found in America, up to the
present time. There is ample evidence, from archaeological explorations, that
indicates man’s presence in North America 11,000 or 12,000 years ago. From
whence did he come, and by what route did he arrive in North America?
When any problem affecting the history and/or welfare of the human race
presents itself, many brilliant minds begin to offer suggested solutions.
Evidences are adduced from Geology, Paleontology, Zoology, Botany,
Archaeology, Ethnology, and even Religion. From the mass of data that has
been gathered, certain theories have developed, none of which is capable of
one hundred percent proof of accuracy.
Probably the most widely accepted theory is that the ancestors of the
Indians entered North America from Asia (Siberia) via Bering Strait at the
time of the last recession of ice in the Pleistocene period. From geological
studies, it seems probable that land bridges connected Asia and Alaska
perhaps several times during the thousands of years when the continental
glacier was dwindling. If the Paleo-Indians entered Alaska by this route, they
probably did not come in a sudden rush of immigration. They could not have
known what conditions awaited them to the south and east. Geologists have
estimated that the continental icecap probably was hundreds of feet in
thickness. To say that the widespread presence of the Indians in North
America was the result of this infiltration alone would be highly
questionable.
Another theory propounded by some authorities is that the Indians of the
Southwest, Mexico, and Central America have descended from South Pacific
ancestors; that a similarity of physical traits and customs apparently indicates
the truth of this supposition. While this could account for certain factors in
the Paleo-Indian life, it still leaves many questions unsolved. For instance,
how did they get here? At the time of the original settlement of North
America, navigation and sea travel over the great distance from the South Sea
islands could not have been probable, or even possible.
Some philosophical thinkers have advanced the idea that the “Lost
Continents of Atlantis and Lemuria” provided a land bridge that extended
from Africa, through Central and South America, and included Easter Island
and Hawaii and the Marquesas group. Their arguments mention the ziggurats,
or stepped pyramids, found only in Peru, Bolivia, Central America, and
Egypt and Mesopotamia, and the grotesque statues of Easter Island and the
South Sea group. Fanciful? Perhaps. Not capable of proof at the present time.
Certain religious groups have assumed that the Paleo-Indians are the
descendants of the Lost Tribes of the House of Israel. There is no evidence in
the Bible to substantiate the idea of a mass migration during Old Testament
times and, even if it were so, it would be much too late to account for the
widespread populating of North America.
The theory of “Continental Drift” has been suggested to account for the
supposition that former continents once existed where oceans are today.
According to this belief, North America and South America were joined to
Europe and Africa, millions of years ago, forming a solid land surface. An
old geological name for this “continent” was Gondwanaland. Then, as the
earth cooled and shrunk, a cleavage appeared and the surface land separated
and drifted apart. The difficulty is that the action took place long before man
had evolved, zoologically.
 However they came, whatever their ancestry, the Paleo-Indians inhabited
North and South America continuously for at least 11,000 to probably more
than 20,000 years, before the so-called discovery of the Western Continent by
Columbus in 1492. Any changes in their customs and general economy of life
before that time undoubtedly were gradual and a matter of adaptation to
environment. A reconstructed picture of life at that time will illustrate the
truth that geography is the parent of history.
The first people who entered North America, fifteen or twenty thousand
years ago, found an arctic climate, unsuited to agriculture and with a
minimum of edible wild plants. Undoubtedly they lived largely by hunting
and fishing. As they gradually drifted southward, conditions changed. Game
was not so plentiful. Fishing was more restricted, but wild, edible plants were
more abundant. This changing geographical environment brought about a
radical change in the daily life-habits of these early people.
How can we tell the approximate dates of these prehistoric events? Many
suggestions have been advanced, the majority of which have proved to be
entirely unsatisfactory. There is one method, however, based on scientific
fact, which undoubtedly gives accurate results. That is called the radiocarbon
test.
Ordinary carbon is an element with an atomic weight of 12. One out of
every trillion carbon atoms is radioactive, and this radioactive carbon has an
atomic weight of 14. It is present in the infinitesimal amount in each cell of
every living organism, both plant and animal. Though small in amount,
physicists have been able to measure it. The ratio does not vary during the
life of the plant or animal. At death, however, this carbon 14 gradually
diminishes. Scientists have estimated that 5760 years after death the amount
of the radioactivity will be one half of the original, and that 11,520 years
gives a ratio of one fourth. By measuring the carbon 14 remaining in charred
wood, etc., from ancient campfires and artifacts from archaeological
excavations attributed to the Paleo-Indians, the tentative dates have been
computed.
According to estimates, the first major change in the Paleo-Indian life
economy began about 11,000 or 12,000 years ago, when environmental
conditions forced him to add wild plants and seeds to his diet, instead of
relying exclusively on hunting and fishing for his food. Then about two
thousand years later, particularly in the West and Southwest, he began to
cultivate the wild herbs for himself, thus adding to his food supply.
According to estimates of researchers, substantiated by the radiocarbon
method, actual agriculture began in two major sections of North America
about nine thousand to ten thousand years ago. These locations were the
tropical regions in Central America (plus some evidence in northern South
America), and also in the more temperate uplands in Mexico. Excavations in
caves have brought to light plant remains, definitely identified as gourds
(Lagemaria ciceraria) and squash (Cucurbita pepo and Cucurbita
foetidissima). These two undoubtedly were cultivated. Other plant remains in
the same caves included a species of Jack beans (Convalleria ensiformis)
which was probably a wild plant. These discoveries, tested by the
radiocarbon standards, give dates between 7000 and 5500 B.C. Evidence has
been found also to show that maize (corn) was cultivated in Mexico as early
as 4000 B.C.
When the Paleo-Indians began to lead an increasingly agricultural life,
more and more herbs were planted, both for food and for their medicinal
value. The tribal sachems were even more powerful than the chiefs, for they
directed the ritualistic and religious life of the people and were the “medicine
men” who were to use their herbal knowledge for health-giving and healing.
Some of the herbal foods cultivated by the Indians contained poisonous
material that had to be removed before it could be used as food. That meant
experimentation, because all knowledge came through the medicine men; the
Indians had no writing, and communication was by word of mouth. It
required many years, even centuries, to establish the food habits the colonists
found among the Indians after 1492. In general, food habits can be correlated
to geographical environment, at least to a large extent.
Looking at the continent of North America from the Arctic to the Isthmus
of Panama, there are well-defined zones that show differences in topography,
climate, soils, animal life, and plant life even today with modern methods of
commerce and communication. Before the white men came during the years
following 1492, the distinction was still greater. Of course, the food habits of
the Indians varied with the environmental and geographical pattern. These
differences may be grouped and correlated by considering the dominance in
the daily food ration of fish and game, wild plants, cultivated plants, or a
combination of these.
As would be expected, fish was the principal food among the early
inhabitants of the Northwest Coast and parts of Alaska and the territory
around interior lakes in Canada. Also in the Sault-Sainte-Marie district at the
junction of Lakes Superior and Huron and Michigan and on Long Island, the
Paleo-Indians were fish eaters, primarily. The tribes living along the northern
Gulf Coast, in what is now Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and the Gulf
Coast and southern tip of Florida, were generally fish eaters. Even today,
Louisiana’s advertising slogan is, “A fisherman’s paradise!”
In the large wedge-shaped area that included most of the Arctic region, the
northern Great Plains country in the United States, and the eastern Rocky
Mountains, extending as far south as Texas, game was abundant, and the
Indians lived predominantly by hunting. In a few more or less isolated areas
in this vast triangle, there is evidence that the people had developed
semipermanent camp sites and were subsisting on cultivated herbs. There are
two possible explanations for this. One is that wild game in those particular
locations was becoming relatively scarce and in order to escape famine they
adopted the alternative of farming. Another solution, even more plausible, is
part of the folklore of the particular tribes in the small areas.
These tribes included the Northern Cheyennes, the Dakota Sioux, the
Blackfeet, the Crows, in more or less permanent camp circles in the valley of
the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers. These groups were of Algonquian
ancestry. Tribal legend recorded that many hundreds of “Great Suns”
previously had been driven away from the eastern part of the country,
probably by Iroquoian aggression. In their eastern camp circles, they had
lived partially by hunting, but also by cultivating the herbal foods. Through
the years these food habits persisted. The men were hunters. Women of the
tribes took care of the agricultural duties.
There were ritualistic rites to celebrate the first gathering of wild fruits and
plants as well as cultivated herbs. They were especially emphasized by tribes
of the Northwest Coast, the Plateau region, California, etc. In the areas where
agriculture was already dominant or was rapidly becoming so, these rituals
were more often associated with maize than they were with all of the other
cultivated herbs combined. Legend, folklore, and the earliest crude records
tell of Planting rites and ceremonies, Green Corn celebrations, and
Harvesting rites. They were especially elaborate in Mexico, Central America,
and the Caribbean regions.
For a more intensive study of the similarities and differences of the native
Indian population in North America before 1492, the following outline or
grouping may be suggested. The arrangement is made according to what
might be called “Ecological” or “Environmental” factors, determined by
geographical or natural conditions. It will be interesting to note that there is a
loose relationship of almost a determinant quality between the physical
environment and the cultural and economic development of the people who
live and grow in the land which Nature has provided for their use and
enjoyment.
Those people who lived in the extreme north—the Eskimos, as we call
them—either are of different ancestral stock or their mode of life has
differentiated and segregated them from the neighboring tribes, throughout
the centuries. This is particularly true east of the Rocky Mountains and
Northeastern Canada and Greenland. In the Northwest, Alaska, and the
Aleutian Peninsula, there is some evidence of neighborly association. In the
entire Arctic region, however, no evidence has been found to indicate that the
early people lived otherwise than by fishing, or by hunting sea mammals. If
their food occasionally included wild plants, there is no record of it. Anything
like agriculture would have been impossible.
Immediately south of the frigid home of the Eskimos, there is a region
characterized by many evergreen forests between which are treeless areas.
The early inhabitants of this region, which included part of Alaska and much
of Canada, apparently were of the Athapaskan families in the western and
west-central territories, and the Algonquian linguistic descendants occupied
the regions from Ontario and Quebec to the Atlantic seaboard. Most of their
food was the product of hunting and fishing, but there is some evidence of
agricultural activities, particularly in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Caribou and
moose were abundant and provided much of the food, while the many rivers,
lakes, and streams not only furnished an abundance of fish but also gave free
access for travel in their birchbark canoes.
Along the Pacific Coast, from the “panhandle” of Alaska, including most
of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and the extreme northern section
of California, there was a distinct difference in the habits and mode of life of
the Indian population. Evidences apparently indicate frequent communication
with Asiatic tribes, probably by access to an Aleutian bridge. One of the
outstanding manifestations of the culture of these early tribes is the totem
poles, which seem to set these people apart from the other Indian population.
It would not be an exaggeration to say that, in general, their “culture” was
greater. Evidently they were not nomadic, but lived in small settlements or
villages. They collected stores of material goods and developed social
classes, even to the extent of virtual slavery. Ritualism held a high place in
their social and religious practices.
Bordering the Coast group, including the plateau of the Columbia and
Frazier rivers, extending from eastern British Columbia, Washington and
Oregon, all of Idaho, Alberta, and most of Montana and Wyoming, a cultural
group lived, whose history and records show a combination of influences. On
the extreme edges, the association with the neighboring tribes is evident. In
the center of this area, the Indians were very democratic, showing none of the
class consciousness of the Coastal group. They were much more peaceful
than the Plains Indians, and their food habits consisted primarily of fish from
the Columbia river, the Frazier, and the upper sources of the Missouri and
Yellowstone. There is some evidence of beginning cultivation of herbs, used
in their rituals and as food. Included in this group were some of the
Blackfeet, Crows, Northem Cheyennes, Tetons, and the western fringe of the
Sioux.
East of the Plateau region, embracing parts of southern Alberta, eastern
Montana and Wyoming, Saskatchewan, Colorado, the Dakotas, Kansas and
Nebraska, Oklahoma and Texas, the Great Plains district was the home of
the· Indians, with whom we are most familiar today.
They were nomadic and lived almost entirely by hunting. Their camp
circles were oval in shape, with the opening facing the East, dominated by the
large Medicine Lodge. The tribal Medicine Man was more powerful even
than the chiefs. Not only was he consulted in matters of health, but his word
was law in the ritualistic life of the tribes. While there are no records to show
agricultural activities, the use of wild herbs for their mystical and medicinal
properties was almost entirely in the hands of the Medicine Man. Their
knowledge was amazingly accurate. Belonging in this Culture Group are part
of the Cheyennes, most of the Sioux, some tribes of the Blackfeet and Crows,
the Comanches, and other groups. Their teepees were of the familiar conical
type. After the horse was introduced into America, about 1600, they became
expert horsemen. Their semiannual or annual Buffalo hunts, usually carried
out in the spring or possibly in the summer, were examples of a religious
ritualistic ceremony. Unlike the modem hunters, they did not kill wantonly
for sport. Food, shelter, clothing were provided by the herds of bison. Strict
rules announced by the Medicine Man governed these tribal hunts.
 The states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, the eastern parts of the Dakotas,
Nebraska and Kansas, all of Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky and Tennessee,
and part of Oklahoma and northern Texas, with all of Illinois and Indiana and
Michigan show a distinct difference as compared to the Plains region. The
Indian population in this typical prairie country was not nomadic, but tended
to have permanent homes in villages that were based on the plan of the camp
oval, with the Medicine Lodge facing the East. Agriculture was practiced,
with hunting and fishing of minor importance. Their ritualism and celebration
of feast days were concerned with gratitude to Great Medicine for bountiful
crops of maize. Some of the tribes included in this Culture Group are the
Illinois, the Osages, the Pawnees, the Iowas, and the Omahas, among others.
The men were the hunters, while most of the agricultural work was taken care
of by the women of the tribe in the land adjoining their permanent camp-oval
settlements.
Part of Ohio, all of Pennsylvania and New York, and the territory east to
the Atlantic and north to the St. Lawrence basin are included in the culture
zone where cultivation of maize and other herbs predominated over hunting
and fishing. This region also extended southward to embrace all the Southern
States and the Gulf Coast as far west as Louisiana.
The State of California south of the Northwest Zone and west of the
Sierras exhibits characteristics which differentiate the early Indian population
from the surrounding areas. The people inhabiting this area were unique in
speech, culture, and physique. In many ways they resembled the tribes much
farther south, in Mexico and Central America, although the general picture
was entirely different. Around San Francisco Bay and the coast toward the
south, Monterey and even as far as San Diego, fishing furnished a large part
of their subsistence. In the interior, hunting predominated. Yet both hunting
and fishing were merely accessories of convenience and the mainstay of
nutrition undoubtedly was furnished by wild plants. The acorn (which of
course is not an herb but the seed of a tree) was dried, ground into meal, and
leached with water. The seeds of several wild herbs were similarly treated.
The productivity of California soil and the mild winters prevented famine.
Gathering the wild plants and their seeds was probably the work of the
women, either alone or with the other women. Girls were taught the
significance of this work and the rituals that always accompanied it.
The Indian girls were taught the folklore about plants—that they were a
direct outpouring of the love of the Great Spirit for His children; that they
were placed on earth to be used as food and for healing; that if they were
used rightly the rain spirits would bless the land. These sayings were
exemplified in the ceremony at the time of the first gathering of the herbs.
The Indian girls who gathered these first products were not allowed to eat any
of their first materials that were taken. They were prepared, dried, or
otherwise treated by the women, and stored in the community house or
teepee.
The plant products to which this rite applied varied with the tribe and
surroundings. It was berries in the North and Northwest; berries and roots in
the Plateau region; mostly seeds in California and the Great Basin.
An elaborate ritual marked the “First Plant Food” of the season in a
majority of the tribes, especially on the Northwest Coast, in the Plateau
district, in California, in the oasis in Mexico, in Central America, on the
prairies, and in the East. While it varied to some extent in the different
localities and tribes, in the main it conformed to a well-defined pattern.
When any crop was approximately half-ripe, the Chief—or in many
instances the shamans, or medicine men—would call on the people to begin
their harvest. The Indians would then assemble in answer to the summons,
with the exposed parts of their bodies painted with a red stain. The shaman
stood before them, holding a birchbark dish or tray filled with fruit, berries,
or whatever crop was about to ripen, or perhaps a collection of all products.
Raising the tray on high, he addressed the spirits of the mountain, or the rain
spirits, or successively the four winds—north, east, west, and south—in the
following manner: “Oh, Great Medicine (or whatever name applied to the
particular spirit) we tell you we are going to eat this food. Give us plenty that
we may prosper.” Then the shaman went around the circle of tribesmen,
according to the path of the sun in the sky, and gave each of them one piece
of the food from the tray. After that, all the women went into the fields and
gathered berries, or fruit, or herbs, or whatever the crop was. The appeal was
to the spirits of the natural forces to assure a good crop. Similar rites were
held for fish, for hunting, and for the harvesting of maize. In many tribes
there was a sacred ceremony to the rain god or rain spirit, in addition to the
“First-Fruits” ritual. The specific form and wording varied, of course, with
the individual tribes and different environments, but the underlying
motivation must be interpreted as identical throughout the centuries, from the
earliest Paleo-Indian groups to modem times. Some form of Supreme being,
or energy, or power is present in every manifestation of nature.
 In the territory east of the Sierras, extending to the Plains district,
researchers have found evidences of more cultivation of food plants and
medicinal herbs than at any other of the northwestern areas. The climate was
to an extent semiarid; wild plants did not grow so profusely; fishing was less
bountiful; and hunting was not entirely satisfactory. This region was just
beyond the western boundary of the great bison herds of the plains. Maize
probably was the most important cultivated crop, and the various rituals and
ceremonies were adapted to its planting, harvesting, grinding, and storage.
The early inhabitants of New Mexico, southern Arizona, northern Mexico,
and Baja California constituted another quite distinct area of cultural
development. Rainfall in this area was problematical. Fishing was limited
mostly to the Rio Grande and the lower Colorado. Hunting was good,
occasionally, in the mountains and high plateaus, but not of sufficient
quantity to provide subsistence.
The people were gregarious—that is, they lived together in permanent
villages. The cliff dwellings and pueblos of the Southwest are existing
artifacts that tell of the culture of these early people. Their food habits were
largely cultivated herbs and herbal products, predominantly maize,
supplemented by occasional products of hunting. Rituals connected with all
ceremonies were sometimes weird, but always significant. Each pueblo had
its own organization, its own customs, and its individual existence. Since
culture can be described as a combination of all the practices in the daily life
of a group, the culture of the cliff dwellers and Pueblo Indians bridges the
gap between the Stone Age and the Metallic. A study of the ritualism and
folklore of these tribes is fascinating, and it furnishes a basis for a better
understanding of the importance of plants as food and for healing purposes.
In the ancient days, the people who lived in these cliff houses and pueblos,
far above the surrounding plateaus, had to climb to their homes by stone
ladders or steps hewn out of the rock walls. The fields where their maize or
herbs were cultivated were far below, on the flat lands. These crops were
maize, beans, squashes, and melons, and after the rituals of harvest the
products had to be carried up the steep trail and rock ladders to the
community storehouse on the mesa pueblo above. There, community life was
largely dominated by sachems.
Continuing southward through Mexico, we come to the Aztec and Mayan
culture areas as distinguished from the Zunis farther north. It is intensely
fascinating to study the development of all these people, especially the
Mayan economy. Also, it is one of the strong arguments advanced by the
proponents of the Atlantis-Lemuria land-bridge theory to account for the
advanced culture which the early Spanish explorers found.
From the foregoing comments regarding the habits of the Indian
population it seems evident that the climate and geographical surroundings
had much influence on the developing culture and sustenance of the people.
In addition to the environmental factor, hereditary tendencies must be
considered. As a general conclusion, it should be realized that soil conditions
and rainfall determined the development of agricultural activities; that
cultivated herbs were increasingly used in the eastern coastal regions, in the
area bordering the Gulf of Mexico, and in the Pacific valleys and plateaus. It
seems quite evident that there is a gradual increase in the cultural aspect of
the ritualism and in the recognition of the healing properties of herbs and
herbal products as we journey from north to south. As has been indicated, the
cause may be explained partially by the hereditary factors and customs of the
various tribes, but also the environmental and geographical influences must
be taken into consideration.
Except in the far North, Northwest, extreme Northeast, and the Great
Plains district, where hunting and fishing predominated, indisputable
evidence has been discovered by archaeologists and researchers that, before
the arrival of the white man in 1492, cultivated herbs such as maize, beans,
squash, pumpkins, gourds, and other vegetables were part of the daily food
habits of the early Indians.
 Chapter Eight

INDIAN HERBAL RITUALS

LEGEND AND HISTORY blend in the almost fabulous stories about the
magical effectiveness and healing properties of the Indian herb mixtures, teas,
and poultices, and their medicinal and marvelous healing effects. In all the
tribes, the ritualistic ceremonies and tribal welfare were the direct
responsibility of the medicine man and his assistants. In most instances, he
had more real power than the chiefs.
From an extensive study of Indian folklore, legends, and history of the
various tribes that inhabited North America, plus many visits to Indian
Reservations and conversations with both the old men and the younger ones,
a general conclusion can be reached. While the practices and customs, both
ancient and modem, varied to a certain extent because of hereditary and
environmental differences, a basic pattern is evident that appears to permeate
the lives of both Paleo-Indians and their descendants. This pattern can be
expressed by considering two related factors.
First, regardless of their origin or subsequent habitation in North America,
the Indians were fundamentally “mystical minded.” That is, they loved
ritualistic portrayal of their beliefs, customs, and ceremonies. All the tribes
had many celebrations, some religious and some commonplace, from simple
rites to those lasting for several days. However, every ritual was based on a
recognition of the great power and universality of Great Medicine, or The
Great Spirit, although naturally the different tribes had individual names for
their Supreme Being and the lesser spirits who demonstrated that power.
The second factor was that in all the ceremonies various herbs and herbal
products were used to demonstrate the emotion depicted by the particular
event being celebrated. The properties of the herbs used were related to the
effect desired.
Before the white men came and ruined the idealistic and beautiful
philosophy of the Indians in the name of “progress,” the term “The Noble
Red Man” was more than a mere phrase. Studies conducted by The American
Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, the United States
Department of Agriculture, and individual archaeologists and ethnologists
have brought life to ancient legends and folklore of the early inhabitants of
North America.
Consideration of these reports leads inevitably to the natural conclusion
that there is a common ground underlying them—a similarity in origin. The
variations from tribe to tribe can be explained by the realization that climatic
and environmental influences have accounted for the differences in the details
of the stories related by the old men of the tribes around the campfires at
night. The primary fact that permeates all the stories is that the Supreme
Deity, Great Spirit, Great Medicine, God, or whatever name they assigned to
Him, was an all-powerful Ruler and that this power always manifested
through Nature—through growing plants, and because animals ate the plants
all living beings could partake of this power. Many examples illustrate this
fact.
In all the tribes where maize was cultivated, there were several ritualistic
ceremonies, including the feast at planting time, the appearance of the first
ears, the beginning of the harvest, and the storage of the grain for future
sustenance. The shaman, or medicine man (who was called “Sachem” in
some tribes), presided over these occasions, some of which lasted for several
days. Probably the most elaborate rituals were those practiced by the
Algonquians and the Iroquois in the East and Northeast.
There were three powerful Indian nations in the East and Northeast. The
most populous was the Algonquian, but they were not so well organized as
the Iroquois federation—five tribes: The Oneidas, Mohawks, Senecas,
Onondagas, and Cayugas. This association apparently was based on a blood
relationship. Among themselves, in their home life, they were peaceful. Their
villages were permanent, each “lodge” had its own plot of land, where the
women of the tribe raised the maize and beans and squash and pumpkins and
gourds and other herbs which constituted the bulk of their food. It was a
communal life. When the early French missionaries came to the new land,
shortly after A.D. 1600, they found this closely knit village life, where the
women were the dominant providers. The long-houses were the property of
the women, who were the builders and the agricultural workers. The men
were allowed to live with them as long as they behaved themselves. The
crops of maize and other herbs and tobacco were community property, stored
in especially built long-houses for that purpose. Their houses were from fifty
to one hundred feet long, built of poles and covered with bark.
The interior was divided by partitions, open to a central area or
passageway. These cubicles were anywhere from eight to twenty feet in size,
all connecting and open on the center area. At each end was a door, covered
with bark. The men of the tribe were soldiers and hunters, and they were very
warlike where the neighboring tribes were concerned. The people relished an
occasional ration of meat to supplement their herb diet. At certain intervals
along the central passageway there were pits dug, for fire, with openings in
the roof above for smoke to escape. It was like a community of four family
apartments. If there were four fire pits, for example, that long-house would
accommodate sixteen families. At an early age, the young girls were
instructed by their mothers in the mystical lore of the herbs used for food and
incense, about the techniques used in gathering or harvesting the different
crops, their storage in the community house, and above all the care of the
growing plants and their preparation for food and for incense. There was a
special ceremony at the planting time, another at the gathering of the first
crop, still others as the growth proceeded.
Because of varying geographical and climatic conditions, these
celebrations partook of the nature of the main crop harvested. In the East and
Northeast, among the Iroquois, the Hurons and the Algonquians, and their
related neighbors, maize was the primary cultivated herb. Others were beans,
lentils, gourds, pumpkins, squash, and various others.
The Indians of the Northwest Coast especially venerated the first crop of
berries, whether cultivated or wild. Berries or roots were revered in the
Plateau regions. Seeds were gathered in California, also in the Great Basin. In
the Oasis country to the south, and in Mexico and Central America, the
principal crop was corn, with seeds a close second, and herbs of the gourd
family almost as important.
The “First-Fruits” ritual was practiced by most of the tribes, with variations
to accord with the particular crop. An example of this ceremony, from the
stories, folklore, and observation of the tribes living on what is known as the
Plateau, including parts of Montana, Wyoming, the Dakotas, Colorado,
southern Alberta, and Saskatchewan, is given. The tribes in this region
included the Mandan, or Dakota Sioux, the Northern Cheyennes, the Crow,
Arapaho, Gros Ventres, Assiniboin, and certain of the Pawnees. One of the
main crops consisted of native wild and cultivated herbal fruits and berries.
 When the crop was approximately half ripe, the medicine man, or shaman,
would call on the members of the tribe to begin picking the fruit. The people
all assembled before the chief and the shaman, with the exposed parts of their
bodies painted red. The medicine man and his trusted helpers went to each
member of the group, holding bark trays on which were piled individual
fruits or berries, offering each Indian a berry. After all had been served, the
shaman raised the container on high, facing the East, then the North, the
West, and the South, then back to the East again, meanwhile chanting a
prayer: “Oh, Great Medicine, All Powerful One, we thank you for all
growing plants that give food. We appeal to the spirits of the hills and
mountains to give us a good berry crop.”
If the ceremony was to celebrate the first fruits of some other product of
Nature, then the name of that plant would be substituted for “berry.” The
same general type of appeal, with proper variations, was used for the harvest
time and the storage procedure. The first fruit rites were closely related to the
first game rites, the fish rites, and the wild and cultivated seed ceremonies in
the various tribes.
After all had partaken of the offering, the shaman announced, “Now let
everybody go out and gather berries!” (Or fruit, or other herb food.)
Whereupon, all the women of the tribe went to the fields to harvest the
products that were ripe. It would all be placed in the common storehouse, for
future use. The women were free to eat as much as they wanted to while they
were picking the fruit, with one exception. The young girls who were
participating in the ceremony for the first time were not allowed to eat during
their “initiation,” but were free to do so thereafter.
In some tribes, incense was burned during the celebration. It might have
been called a religious feast.
The Nez Percés in Idaho, the Blackfeet, Gros Ventres, Assiniboins,
Northern Cheyennes, and Crows in Montana, all had similar ritualistic
ceremonies, all related to the herbs and herbal products that meant life
sustenance to them. Farther south, the Shoshones and Utes in Utah, the
Arapaho, Western Sioux, and Southern Cheyennes in Wyoming and
Colorado, and the Arikara and Mandan Sioux in the western Dakota country
were very devout in their celebrations of the many appeals to Great Medicine
for bountiful harvests and abundant food.
In the plains region to the East, some of the tribes had semipermanent
camp circles, where growing plants, either wild or cultivated, were used for
food. Many of these, however, were nomadic, and they followed the
movements of the buffalo herds, which were their chief means of preserving
life. Their use of herbs was confined to wild growth, which furnished some
food and also material for incense and medicinal purposes.
Taking the Northern Cheyennes as an example, it will be of interest to note
an intimate view of their home life. They were quite warlike where other
neighboring tribes were concerned, but their intra-tribal attitude was peaceful
in the extreme. During the day, the men of the tribe and camp circle were
busy, either as warriors or hunters or in other various ways. The women were
either weaving, making garments, tanning hides, or busy with the wild and
cultivated herbs.
They had no written language, and of course no literature. Every
communication was by word of mouth. The medicine men usually acted as
“soul doctors” during the evenings, after the day’s work was done. The
people would gather around the fire, usually built in the center of the camp
oval, behind the medicine lodge. It was like a big family party. Anyone was
free to talk, and the shaman usually acted as master of ceremonies. Their
entertainment during these evenings consisted principally of speechmaking,
general friendly conversation, and storytelling. One of the old men of the
tribe or the shaman himself was usually the storyteller. The most popular
types of stories had to do with the tribal folklore, tales of legendary tribal
heroes and ancient tribal customs. Many of them depicted miraculous powers
of healing or other marvelous results from the use of herbs and herbal
products. Many tribes exhibited themes in their tales that were so similar in
type that it indicated a probable common origin in the culture pattern of the
different groups. One of the most interesting was related to the author by a
very old Cheyenne warrior, a survivor of the famous Custer Battle, during the
celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of the Little Big Horn, in
Hardin, Montana, in 1926. The same legend, with variations, is in the folklore
of other tribes in addition to the Cheyennes.
SEES IN THE NIGHT
Many great suns ago, when the world was young and the Great Spirit or
Great Medicine took pleasure in His Chosen People, the Cheyennes, a man-
child was born to a Shaman Chief, Bold Eagle, and his wife, Singing Fawn.
The young brave grew strong and excelled in all the mysteries of the people,
but he was lonely, because he had few friends among the other boys. Then
Bold Eagle and Singing Fawn were killed by a raiding party of the Crow
tribe, and Jumping Rabbit was left alone. He mourned for them but tried to
continue his efforts to do some worthy deed so he could earn his warrior
name. As a child, he had been given the name, Jumping Rabbit, because of
his activity. But he wanted a braver-sounding name. He must earn it. He
offered herbs to Great Medicine, endured the herbal ceremonies in the sweat
lodge and the four day’s herbal sacrifice in the Lodge of Great Medicine. But
still it did not come.
The camp circle was moving toward a river. All the people were hungry
because it had been a dry time, without rain, and the crops of herbs had not
done so well. They came to the river and the rest of the people crossed.
Jumping Rabbit was tired, so he sat down under a bush and went to sleep. He
dreamed that a mother dog with four puppies had been left behind when the
people had crossed the river. She was howling and singing a song in dog
language. He awoke to find that it was true.
The mother dog was approaching him, singing a song. Then she howled
four times like a wolf and spoke to him in a language which he could
understand. “Jumping Rabbit, do not harm my babies,” she said. Then she
sang a different song, and howled four times again like a wolf.
“I will help you, Mother,” Jumping Rabbit answered. He carried the
puppies across the river and then helped her across. The people in the camp
circle had gone ahead, and were no longer in sight. When all were safe, the
dog spoke, after singing another different song and howling four times. “Wū
hǔ ǐs tǎt’ tǎn,” she said, which in the ancient Algonquian language means, “I
am a human being.” Then she told him that she had power of magic; that
because he had helped her, she would help him. “What is it that you most
desire?” she asked.
“To do some brave act that will win for me my warrior name. Jumping
Rabbit is childish, and I have reached the number of great suns that tell me I
am no longer a child. I have given many gifts of herbs to Great Medicine.
Can you help me?”
“Yes, I will help you. The people of the camp circle have gone on ahead.
We can reach them by travelling at night. In four days they will go on a war
trail. Do not go with them, but wait two suns. Then go at night. Take another
young man with you, but do not tell him about me. I will be with you, but
you will not be able to see me.”
It all happened just as the mother dog said. When they reached the main
body of Indians, just as the sun, the representative of Great Medicine, began
his travel across the sky, they found that the young men were preparing for a
raid against a party of Crows in a nearby camp oval. The shaman, whose
name was Ho’-Im’-A-Ha, (which means “Winter-Man”) was burning many
herbs and chanting a ritual to the Spirit who rules success. Some of the
people asked Jumping Rabbit to join them, but he said, “No. I will wait one
sleep and two suns. Then I will go.” He remembered the instructions of the
mother dog. He selected as his companion another young man, intelligent and
brave. Jumping Rabbit told this friend, Gray Wolf, something about his plans,
but he did not mention the mother dog.
After two suns, they started. There was no moon, and it was very dark.
However, Jumping had no difficulty in following the trail. The rising sun
greeted them on the second morning. They faced the East, and made an
offering of herbs to Great Medicine. That day, because of their presence, they
took the Crow camp by surprise, and made off with many horses. That
happened four times. At the end of the fourth successful day, Jumping Rabbit
heard, as in a dream, the voice of the mother dog, speaking in the ancient
Algonquian language. He looked around, but could not see her.
“Kiutu gim-a mipena” and again, “Kiutu gim-a mipena,” which means,
“You will be a chief!”
Then he saw her, but he sensed that he was the only one to behold this
vision. Instead of a dog, a beautiful Indian maiden was smiling at him,
reaching her hand to him, beckoning him to her. She sang the familiar songs,
her voice sounding like the lovely ripple of a mountain stream as it flows
over white pebbles. At the end, she howled four times like a wolf. Then she
spoke again: “The Great Spirit is much pleased with you. Because you
showed compassion to the mother dog, and because you have obeyed all
desires I have told to you, your reward will be great. When you travel at
night, you will be able to see as if it were day. We will return to our home
camp circle, and you will be honored by a ritual with herbal offerings, and
will receive your warrior name, ‘Sees-In-The-Night.’
“I am blessed with magic powers, and this ability to see and understand is
given to you. You shall marry me and our children will possess this gift
which always passes from mother to daughter. My human name is E hyōph
stǎ which means ‘Yellow hair’ and wherever I am I bring success and
plenty.” It all came to pass as she said. Sees-In-The-Night became a great
chief and he and Yellow Hair lived for many great suns and had many sons
and daughters. Wherever they went they brought success and happiness.
There are many stories in the folklore of various tribes that in some
respects seem to show a common origin. That might indicate that throughout
the entire Indian population of the Americas, particularly of North America,
there existed a hereditary line of tradition and belief that permeated their
ritualistic existence. Some phase of this would influence and manifest the
religious or semireligious activities, with regional variations due to different
environmental factors.
Close study and painstaking research regarding the Indian culture and life
habits reveals unmistakably that fact that their fundamental belief in the
supernatural was indissolubly linked with intense religious fervor. Their
Great Spirit was all powerful and omnipresent. He delegated control of the
activities of life to lesser spirits who must be placated or cajoled or praised in
order to bring success to any undertaking.
That applied to making war, hunting, fishing, and the daily activities in
agriculture, raising crops of herbs for food, gathering the harvest, preparation
of the stored grain or other foods, and all of their habits of life. This was
particularly true in their search for food, which of course was fundamental in
their existence.
Plants and animals were all personified in the Indian belief. In hunting, the
animals were considered to be as much responsible for their capture as were
the actual means of taking them. The spirits that controlled the animals must
he placated before the hunt, to bring success. At the time of the annual
buffalo hunt, for example, there usually was a two-day ritual, directed to the
spirit of the hunt, with votive offerings of herbs and definite ceremonies
under the direction of the shaman, assisted by the leading chief and the
underchiefs. In these demonstrations the authority of the medicine man was
paramount. He organized and directed the activities. The principle involved
was that the animals must be placated by their spirits in order that they might
be taken!
The rituals for successful farming and gathering of crops did not depend on
pleasing the crops, but the Rain-Making ceremony was important to persuade
the spirit governing growing plants to bring an abundant crop of maize or
other food product. Always it featured herbal offerings of appropriate nature.
The spirit who caused rain must be pleased before the gift could be received.
Certain herbs and herbal products were considered to be sacred. For example,
peyote was especially prized, since its hallucinations reinforced and increased
the religious convictions of the user.
While the shaman was in many ways the social and, to a certain extent, the
political director of tribal activities, his chief function in all cases was the
healing of disease. The sickness could be either physical or mental. Whatever
the cause, the appropriate spirit must be appeased or pleased, and the usual
method was with offerings of proper herbs or herbal products. The
dominance of the religious influence in the treatment of disease by the
medicine men was natural, because he was the spiritual director of all tribal
activities. In most instances, his position enabled him to control the political
and warlike tendencies as well. Sanction of all the actions of the people was
supposed to rest with the Supreme Being, Great Medicine, The Great Spirit,
or whatever name they gave to the Supernatural Ruler. The Medicine Man’s
attunement to this Being naturally gave him the ability to render valuable
help.
Among the various tribes, it was thought that all diseases were caused by
the displeasure of one or more of the spirits that controlled either a long list
of animals or even natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning, drought,
meteorological events, reptiles, birds, or insects. Each spirit was responsible
for a particular disease. To give relief from the symptoms of the spirit’s
displeasure, offerings were made, which often consisted of various herbal
concoctions, either given to the patient internally, or as a poultice, or burned
as a sacrifice to the spirit.
In different parts of the country, the wild growth of herbs varied to a
certain extent, but in general, it has been discovered that certain families of
herbs apparently are native, either in genera or species, regardless of location.
It is interesting to realize that most of the tribes used similar combinations of
herbs in their treatment of disease. Poultices, applications of the leaves,
stems, or roots, mixing the herb combination with food or drink, and offering
the herbs to the spirit or spirits by burning were some of the methods of
treatment used.
Researches indicate that more than fifty different species or varieties of
herbs were used by Indian Medicine Men, in various combinations, for the
treatment of diseases. The majority of ailments and diseases were thought to
be of supernatural origin and because of that, they could be cured or treated
only by the supernatural, with ritual; herbal offerings, and through the
intervention of the shaman.
Most shamans used tobacco, either to contact their spirit helpers or to
banish disease from the body of the patient. The native tobacco was used in
many, if not most of the religious rituals, regardless of the nature of the
ceremony. It was sometimes smoked, often chewed or snuffed. And its most
widespread use was burning it as incense. Smoking the medicine pipe was a
sacred part of tribal celebrations, whether political, war-preparation or for
healing purposes.
The use of alcoholic beverages was closely connected to the healing
activities of the shamans, as well as to the food habits of the people. Two
notable examples, particularly in the Southwest and Mexico and Central
America are maguey (Agave) and Dasylirion. Wine was made from them,
which we know today as pulque. In addition, they were among the staple
foods used by the people. Several other plants, including maize, from which
beer and wine were made by some tribes, fermented honey by the Mayans,
the wine palm, from which a potent wine was made in Central America and
by the Aztecs, and wild plums, pineapples, and sarsaparilla root furnished
alcoholic beverages. The use of herbs for this purpose was less common in
the East and Southeast than it was in the Southwest and Mexico and Central
America, where it was usually associated with religious ceremonies, also with
other sacred rituals, and in healing. Certain herbs were the source of
narcotics, which were used as medicines and as charms to bring rain and
perform other miracles by the shamans.
Some of the herbs used by the tribes for healing purposes included many
that are the source of valuable remedies that are familiar today. In a pamphlet
published by the United States Department of Agriculture, listing some of the
herbs that were prized by Indians and early pioneers, are references to plants
that are well known, either as wild life or cultivated in gardens.
The plant known as Alumroot (Heuchera spp) has rootstalks that show
astringent properties. It was used by the early Indians and also by the pioneer
settlers to relieve the symptoms of diarrhea.
It has been reported that some species or varieties of the common Aster
were greatly prized by the Hopi Indians and other tribes for their medicinal
properties, possibly as a part of their incense rituals.
Birds and small animals relish the fruit of the Bearberry Honeysuckle. The
Indians of Alaska and British Columbia are said to have eaten the fruit of this
herb, both fresh and dried. Some of the varieties of this plant, whose
botanical name is Lonicera involuncrata, are reputed to cause vomiting, or
have a laxative effect.
Specific reports have come that the Navajo and Hopi Indians used the
flowers and fruit of Bull Thistle (Cirsium drummondia) for its medicinal
qualities for various disorders.
The tender leaves and stems of the common Cowparsnip (Heraclium
lanatum) were considered a delicacy as food among several tribes,
particularly in the Southwest. The powdered roots were used for healing
purposes, notably for rubbing on the gums when teeth were loose, as a
solution in water to apply on the body to reduce fever, and as a relief for
rheumatism.
The seeds of the many members of the mustard family (Cruciferae)
furnished oil of mustard which was used medicinally to stimulate the skin.
The green leaves of some species were then, as now, eaten as greens.
Botanically related plants such as cabbage, cauliflower, kale, and radishes
were cultivated to be used as food, also.
The roots of Elkweed (Swertia speciosa) were powdered and mixed with
warm water and applied by the early Indians as a lotion to reduce fever. That
remedy is still in use by some of the tribes in Southern California. It has been
found that large doses taken internally can prove fatal. In small quantities it
appears to be an effective laxative. Another use, reported by Indian
authorities, was to grind the roots coarsely and mix them with lard. This was
rubbed on the head to kill lice. Reputedly, these roots were eaten as food by
the Apaches.
Several species of Geranium (Geranium spp) have medicinal properties,
notably to slow down profuse bleeding. This was practiced by tribes in
Southwest America.
Early Spanish settlers in New Mexico learned from the Indians to use the
flowers and leaves of Indian Paintbrush (Castilleja spp) to treat kidney
ailments. The Zuni Indians also prized this herb for the black dye it produced,
to color deerskins. They also used its medicinal properties for skin disorders.
While the common tall Larkspur (Delphinium spp) apparently is deadly to
cattle, and less so to horses and sheep, the Indians used to grind it and mix it
with corn meal to give the corn a blue color. This flowering herb gets its
common name because the blossoms are shaped like the spur of the bird. The
flowers and leaves were used in mixtures of plants for incense purposes.
The plants of the Mint family (Labiatae) were and are widely distributed,
and the pleasing aroma from its leaves was enjoyed by the Indians, both in
incense and as flavoring for foods. For example, the Hopi Indians used it in
the early days for flavoring the mush made from ground maize. That practice
still persists in modern tribes.
Ligusticum porteri, an herb whose common name is OSHA, is related to
Celery, and has a somewhat similar slightly pungent odor. Its leaves were
useful to flavor stews and soups. In addition, the Apache Indians smoked the
dried stems, and this practice was adopted by the early Spanish settlers.
One variety of Pentstemon was used by Navajo Indians and early settlers
in New Mexico as a treatment for kidney troubles. They also boiled the
flowers to make a remedy for whooping cough. The Zuni Indians are said to
have rubbed this syrup on their arrows and “rabbit sticks” during the
preliminary ritual before a hunt. It was thought that this would give success
to the hunt.
Skyrocket Cilia (Cilia aggregata) was a favorite remedy of the Navajos.
The dried leaves were used to treat stomach ailments. The Hopi Indians
ground the flowers with their maize to make an offering to the spirits of the
hunt before setting out in pursuit of antelope.
The herbs belonging to the Spurge family (Genus Euphorbia) were thought
by the Indians to be efficacious in treating snake bite. The Pima Indians used
the ground root to cause vomiting.
Useful garden varieties of herbs in the Parsley family (Umbelliferae)
include parsnips, celery, carrots, etc., which were raised for food by the
Indians. The Zuni Indians maintained that the leaves of the common Western
Yarrow (Achillea lanulosa) were cooling if they were applied to the skin.
They chewed the flowers and roots and rubbed the pulp on the bodies of the
shaman and others who were working in ceremonies that used fire as part of
the ritual. This herb was thought to be potent as a love charm.
 Chapter Nine

THE EARLIEST AGRICULTURISTS

THERE IS A gradual transition in type and manner of life among the Indian
inhabitants in what may be called the Middle Americas. From the Cliff
Dwellers of the Southwestern States, through the Aztecs of Mexico,
including the various “mystery” people of Central America and the Maya
civilization and the hidden tribes of Yucatan, there is an amazing record of
genuine, permanent community life, which was not new, but apparently a
continuation of centuries-old racial behavior.
Archaeologists and ethnologists are by no means in complete agreement
regarding the quite advanced culture that was evident among the Indian
population in Central and South America when the earliest explorers came.
Artifacts from the excavations prove beyond reasonable doubt that these
settlements were made at least 11,000 or 12,000 years ago, as demonstrated
by the carbon 14 test. Further, from caves in Mexico and Central America,
unmistakable vegetable remains have been discovered that, by the carbon 14
test, are definitely of the same age. These are not the remains of wild plants,
but cultivated herbs, indicating an agricultural mode of life of these Paleo-
Indians. It is reasonable, then, to think of the ancestors of the Aztecs,
Mayans, Incas of South America and other related tribes as the first farmers
in the world.
According to investigations by the National Geographic Society, a study of
the South American prehistoric civilization has proved this to be true. It is
reasonable to assume that cultivated herbs and herbal products constituted a
large part of the subsistence of the Indian population prior to the coming of
Columbus and the French and Spanish explorers.
Climatic conditions and other geographical factors undoubtedly offer a
partial explanation of the increase in agricultural activity among the early
tribes in New Mexico, Arizona, Southern California, Mexico, and Central
America, but that reasoning does not fully account for the almost definite line
of demarcation that is so evident. There is and was a radical difference in the
characteristics and habits of the Indians inhabiting California north of
present-day Los Angeles, Nevada, Colorado, Utah, from western Texas north
and east, and the tribes in New Mexico, Arizona, southern California and
southward through Mexico. This was evident not only in the increase in
agriculture, but also in family life, tribal organization, religion, and linguistic
stock. Consideration of these factors leads to the natural conclusion that the
ancestry of these two groups was different.
It has been proved that Middle America and South America were inhabited
at least ten to twelve thousand years ago and it is equally certain that a form
of agriculture was practiced in the very early days. The earliest Spanish
explorers, shortly after A.D. 1500 discovered well-organized farming
operations, where the people lived in communal settlements, villages, or
cities, surrounded by fields where herbs were grown for food. Hunting was a
comparatively minor activity because game was scarce. The few rivers
offered little opportunity for fishing, except in the coastal areas. The growing
of crops was naturally dependent on rainfall, so the ritualistic ceremonies
emphasized appeals to the god or spirit that controlled the weather. The
shamans or medicine men were rainmakers as well as healers and in some
instances magicians.
In many tribes the training of a shaman was a matter of rigid discipline. He
was usually selected at an early age and became a neophyte or apprentice
after studying and working with the chief shaman for one great sun. It usually
required three great suns’ intensive training until he was proclaimed an expert
medicine man. From the cliff-dwelling, Pueblo tribes living in Colorado
southward, to the unique complications of the Aztec and Mayan life in
Mexico and Central America, observation gives definite evidence of an
increasing dependence on agriculture as a primary means of sustaining life. A
typical example is the pueblos of the Mesa Verde Indians, who once
flourished in Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, and southward into Old
Mexico. The most noteworthy is the cave village in Mesa Verde National
Park, Colorado. This was a ruined relic when Coronado explored the region
early in the 1500’s. It was forgotten until about 1888, when it was
“rediscovered” by some cowboys. The archaeological researches have
revealed that these Cliff Dwellers were undoubtedly the earliest agriculturists,
who built their almost impregnable pueblo homes, sometimes four, six, or
even eight tiers high, as a protection against nomadic, warlike tribes. Large
fields for cultivation of their herbal foods surrounded the pueblos.
Researchers have discovered that maize (or corn) was undoubtedly the
principal crop, although beans, gourds, and many other herbs were grown. An
outgrowth of their agricultural activities was basketmaking. The materials
used were the fibers of plants, canes, and stems. The artistry of the Indian
basketry is well known today. Among the early Pueblo Indians, alcohol and
alcoholic drinks were banned. The principal drink was atole, which was made
from com.
The people must have understood at least the rudiments of engineering,
because irrigation canals, constructed thousands of years ago, brought the
waters of the Gila and other rivers to the agricultural lands of Arizona and
New Mexico. Some of these have been restored for use today.
The most noteworthy of all tribes that practiced this irrigation engineering
were the early Hohokam people. The National Geographic Society
researchers have reported an archaeological discovery of one ruined city nine
miles from the nearest river, whose waters flowed through an irrigation canal
seven feet deep and approximately thirty feet wide at the top. It has been
estimated that these prehistoric canals brought water for agricultural use for a
total of more than two hundred thousand acres.
In the Pueblo country, the early Indians considered that their land was the
center of all creation. The phenomena of Nature were all explained by the
shamans in terms of religious rituals, especially designed to please the
particular spirit or deity that caused or controlled the demonstration. These
lengthy ceremonies had deep significance to the Indians, particularly those
which had to do with his daily life and his sustenance. They conceived a
genuine affection for The Com Mother, the Maiden Spirits who were
associated with other herbs, such as squash, lentils, beans, turnips, carrots,
and others, the deity who brought rain that the crops might grow and mature,
and all other spirits who could make their lives happy and prosperous.
There were elaborate ceremonies at planting time, before the harvest, and
at every important event that concerned the welfare of the tribal members.
Among the most spectacular of the rituals was the Snake Dance of the Hopi
Indians. Carried out under the direction of the shaman, it lasted for many
days. Each tribe had “Warrior Societies” that were semisecret. Two of these,
among the Hopi group, were the Antelopes and the Snake Society. Four days
before the ritual began, members of the Snake organization would leave the
camp circle or village, two by two, in the quest for snakes. The first day they
searched the north country. On the second they went west; the third day they
covered the south, while on the fourth the “snake gathering” was completed
in the sacred East, the land of the rising sun—the representative of the Great
Spirit. Most of the snakes collected were rattlesnakes, which were placed in a
special basket, a large container in the “kiva” or lodge room.
The fifth, sixth, and seventh days were devoted to ritualistic prayers and
dances inside the kivas, with offerings of herbs, to the deity of rain. During
the eighth day the first ceremonial dances were held outside the lodge rooms.
Chants and prayers to the rain-gods featured this ritual, along with herbal
offerings.
The most spectacular feature of the ritual began early on the ninth day. The
snakes were brought from the kivas. The Antelope priests, followed by the
priests of the Snake Society, then came from their kivas and danced solemnly
around, stamping vigorously with foot drums. That was to let the gods of the
underworld know that the ceremony had started. The circuit was completed
four times. They then faced each other, chanting under the leadership of the
shaman.
Working in groups of three, the Snake Priests marched with dignity to the
snake pit, where the first priest would pick up a snake and grasp it firmly
between his teeth, holding it about the middle of the reptile’s body, so that
the snake’s head would have more freedom of movement. With the snake in
his mouth, he danced down the length of the large assembly room, while the
second priest danced beside him, using a whip or wand tipped with feathers
or herb fibers to distract the snake’s attention. At the end of the march, the
snake was dropped, when it was picked up by the third priest. When the
priest dancer dropped his snake, he immediately returned to the snake pit for
another, and repeated the performance. After all the snakes had been danced
with, the chief of the snake priests sprinkled corn meal along the lines of a
large circle that was divided into six parts, four of which represented North,
South, West, and East. The other two were dedicated to the zenith, where the
above-gods had their abode, and the nadir, reputed to be the home of the
ground spirits. Then the snakes were all brought out and cast into this circle.
Now, the women of the tribe brought more corn meal and sprinkled it on the
serpents.
After another chant to bless the corn crops, the priests all made a rush to
the circle, where they picked up as many snakes as they could manage in both
hands and holding their squirming, wriggling burdens at arms’ length, they
ran out of the room and down the ladders or steps from the pueblo to the flat
fields below, where they released the reptiles to the North, South, West and
East. Their belief was that the snakes would carry the news of the successful
ritual to the rain-gods. Among the modem Indians today it is legendary that
often rain came, sometimes in a cloudburst!
Even in these days of complicated living, the rain priests of certain tribes
still chant their mystical rituals; the dancers, wearing hideous masks,
continue the solemn obligation to placate the above spirits and the below
spirits that control the needed rain. When the clouds are opened and the
blessed moisture comes to insure a bountiful crop, their sublime faith
manifests in another ritual of thanksgiving. The Indians of ancient times and
those of today who have not been spoiled by white men’s cupidity believe
fervently that their gods, with unlimited power, are still able to control the
destiny of living, from north to south, from west to east, in the happy hunting
grounds above, and in the warm earth beneath. Times change, and men
change with them, but certain fundamental beliefs and habits of thought
apparently are ingrained in all human consciousness.
The word CULTURE has been interpreted in many ways by various people
throughout the ages. Its meaning has been influenced by ethnological
development, by environmental factors, by moral standards as well as
economic opportunities. The average person today probably will consider
culture as more or less synonymous with scientific achievement. A relatively
small minority possibly will maintain that it should be judged by intellectual
attainment only. In applying any or all of these criteria to a particular section
of the human race, it must be realized that
All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players.
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts, ...
Consider the question of morality, for example. In many early tribes, it was
considered highly moral to kill and eat other beings. Human sacrifices were
not only sanctioned but commanded by religious belief and practice. History
is replete with examples of tortures and what we consider unethical acts in
the name of religion. Yet among many tribes where practices such as these
were a part of daily existence, archaeological researchers have brought to
light the proved fact that a high culture had developed, even before the dawn
of history. That was particularly true with the Aztecs and related tribes in
southern Mexico, the Maya group in Yucatan and Central America, the
Panamanian people, and the Inca civilization in Peru and neighboring states
in South America.
Archaeological findings have proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that
the basic occupation of these Indians was agriculture. Maize (corn) was
undoubtedly the principal crop, with several varieties of beans, lentils,
gourds, parsnips, tomatoes, and other vegetables and herbs. It has been stated
by historians and proved by archaeological findings that when the Aztecs
came, early in the fourteenth century, they found a high degree of civilization
already existing among the inhabitants, supposedly the tribe known as
Acolhuacans who lived near a large lake. Tradition relates that the Aztecs
were mainly hunters at that time, but that they acquired their culture from the
people already there. For several decades they lived peacefully, it is related,
but about the year 1370 the Acolhuacans drove them away from their land.
Then the chief shaman of the Aztecs had a dream, as legend reports it, that
they would be led to another beautiful lake, with an island in its center. They
would see an eagle, sitting on a cactus plant, eating a serpent. That would be
the signal to tell them where to establish their homes. That legend is
commemorated in the design of the Mexican flag.
History and research depict the Aztec nation and their neighbors as cruel,
bloodthirsty warriors. Their religious fanaticism centered around hideous,
despotic gods that delighted in human sacrificial offerings, in addition to the
votary gifts of herbs and herbal products. Yet they, along with their
predecessors and the other tribes of the middle Americas were the world’s
earliest farmers on a large scale. The cultivation of the herbs for food and
ritualistic purposes was almost entirely work for the women of the cities and
communities.
Both men and women were active in the artistic construction that
beautified their homes and cities. Traditional beliefs were portrayed in
buildings and sculptures. All events in life were themes for the ritualistic
memorials engineered by their shamans. Herbs were even used in the
gruesome ceremonies accompanying human sacrifices. Many varieties of
herbs and ground fruits were grown and elaborate concoctions were made for
the daily sustenance of the families. On the lakes and waterways floating
islands on rafts often were seen, where vegetables were grown.
 The Aztecs worshipped corn gods and goddesses. Stealing corn was
punishable by death, or at least by slavery.
Tortillas made from com meal have changed very little since the early
days, except that evidence from artifacts indicates that tortillas in pre-
Columbian days were larger than those of the present time.
In addition to the bloodthirsty human sacrifice rites, the ancient Aztecs and
the Toltecs before them had a great many ritualistic celebrations, and the
main offerings in these ceremonies were flowers, fruit, and herbs. Social
dancing was a favorite pastime of these people, and there also decorations
and offerings of flowers and other herbal products were common practice.
The mystery of the Maya of Yucatan has intrigued historians and
archaeologists for many years. The complete solution of their origin is still
hidden. It is common knowledge today that the Maya originated and
produced one of the first calendars—perhaps the first in the Western world—
which, with their system of chronology, is even more accurate than our
Gregorian calendar. It is not so well known, however, that the astronomical
and meteorological calculations undoubtedly came into being because the
Maya people were agriculturists! More than that; they practiced scientific
farming. Undoubtedly the main crop was com, or maize.
It was in 1921 that archaeologists discovered a large statue in Guatemala,
which represents the God of the Harvest, sowing grains of com on the Earth
Mother, which wears a headdress of the “feathered serpent.” It has been
estimated that the ritualistic practices and accurate scientific, astronomical
and mathematical achievements of these people began many thousands of
years ago. The calculated dates of their origin parallel the earliest
suppositions regarding the culture of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Because the Maya people were primarily farmers, naturally they were not
only interested in the various seasons of the year as that affected the growing
of crops, but their very livelihood depended on climatic conditions. It is
conjectured that the efficient calendar was a direct result of that necessity. It
is not too much to say, then, that herbalism—the study of growing plants and
their life-giving value—had a far-reaching effect in the development of
Mayan culture.
Because of their scientific handling of the business of agriculture and the
recognition of the seasons, they developed a better and more efficient use of
time. That provided more leisure time, and they were able to give more
attention to architecture, sculpture, and other fine arts. Many public
buildings, temples, and grand structures were built of stone and decorated
with stucco and paintings, when pretentious cities grew in the early days of
the Mayan empire. The priests were adepts in astronomy as well as students
of the ancient mysteries and their close study of the weather probabilities and
meteorological influences resulted in more abundant harvests and stored food
reserves.
Another close parallel to the culture of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia is
evidenced by the many pyramids and temples. These pyramids were the
ziggurats, or stepped structures similar to the earliest pyramid in Egypt—that
erected by Imhotep during the reign of Zoser—except the Mayan ones are
usually not wholly of stone, but principally just faced with it.
The youths and maidens in the Maya confederation were surrounded by
mystical concepts, astronomical and astrological applications, all leading to
deep religious fervor. Every event had its own meaning and its own patron
god or spirit. Underlying all of it was the raising of herbs for food.
The magnificent cities, the temples and pyramids which they built were not
the homes of the common people, but were dedicated and sanctified to the
ceremonial rituals and priestly activities. The nobility and the priests lived in
homes built in the outskirts of the great ceremonial structures. The people had
their homes in closely surrounding villages. However, all members of the
community had free access to the mysteries of the temples and observatories,
where the priests plied their esoteric rites with sacrificial offerings to the
spirits and deities that would give abundant food and happy weather
conditions to supply that food.
The pre-Columbian Indian life in Panama furnishes a link to explain the
amazing similarities that existed between the Maya and Aztec groups in
Mexico and Yucatan, and the Incas of South America. From all researches it
is tentatively thought that the culture of the tribes in Panama derives more of
its characteristics from the Inca civilization than from the Maya group. No
record has been found of human sacrifices either among the Panamanian
Paleo-Indians or the Incas or their predecessors. Yet many of the customs of
this early civilization are so similar to those of the Mexican and Central
American culture that a comparison is interesting. The use of herbs,
particularly com as their main source of foods, definitely places them in the
agricultural field of occupations.
 Archaeologists have discovered that the predecessors of the Inca
civilization in the Andean region of South America were the Chimu people,
who built large cities, surrounded by irrigated, terraced farm lands. The walls
of these terraces are still standing, and they are mute tribute to the great
culture of these prehistoric people. There is a rumor, as yet not proved to be
true, that the ancestors of these pre-Inca Paleo-Indians came from the East;
that they were tall, light-haired, and highly developed mentally with a culture
that surpassed even modern standards. That rumor or folklore has been linked
to the many tales relating to the origin and history of the inhabitants of Easter
Island.
The Incas probably appeared in the Andean highlands about A.D. 1000 to
1200. Their history before that time is problematical and still unveiled. It is
thought that they probably were a relatively small tribe, living in the Andean
highlands, but that a racial instinct impelled them to migrate to the lower
country around what is now Cuzco; to take over the ruined remains of their
predecessors, and to expand and develop a remarkably efficient cultural
civilization. According to legend and reports of the early Spanish explorers,
the Inca people were sun-worshippers. This does not mean that the sun itself
was their god, but it was the visible representative of the spiritual deity who
was all-powerful.*
* (This is similar to Pharaoh Akhnaton’s adoration of Aton, symbol of the sole god.)
That brings up another theory that has been advanced regarding their
origin. The legend most commonly accredited to the Inca themselves is that a
leader of the tribe, Manco Capac, had a vision, prophetic in nature. He
believed the revelation that many great suns previously their people had lived
and ruled in the lower lands, and that they were destined to rebuild their
former empire. Accordingly, he and his sister-wife, Mama Ocllo, led the tribe
to the fertile valley, where they gained domination by peaceful and mystical
demonstration. A tall young man named Roca, of the nobility, was arrayed in
a robe covered with gold spangles, and he stood in the mouth of a cave,
where the sun was reflected with dazzling brightness. The awestricken
multitudes assumed that he was a Son of the Sun, come to earth to rule the
people. The young man took the name of Sinchi Roca, (meaning War Chief
Roca). He was the first really historical ruler.
The farmlands of the Incas were models of scientific agriculture. Some
were on the flatlands surrounding the villages and cities, while those on the
hillsides were expertly terraced, with walls of masonry or stone. All were
adequately supplied with water from perfectly engineered irrigation canals,
many of which survive at the present time. While corn (maize) was the
principal crop and the mainstay of their food, in the beginning of their empire
development, at least, it was not long before other herbal crops began to take
great prominence.
Various species of beans, gourds, leafy vegetables, and condiments were of
increasing importance in their agricultural activities. One fact is probably not
generally known. Inca Land was the original home of our common white
potato. However, it was known and grown many hundred years before the
development of the great Inca empire. Legend, history, and research show
that the predecessors of the Incas discovered that the small tubers of the
potato plant were good to eat. As farmers, they nourished it and developed
varieties which would grow at different altitudes, from sea level up to 14,000
feet. When the Incas came, they developed it further by their scientific
farming, until it became a major crop.
When the Spanish conquistadores arrived, they were after gold, and paid
little attention to such a lowly thing as herbal crops. Some of the adventurers
took potatoes home when they returned to Spain, where they remained almost
unnoticed for many years. Eventually some were taken to Ireland, and thence
to New England, where they were given the common name Irish Potatoes.
Today, of course, the potato is one of the staple food crops, particularly in
America. We might say, “Potatoes were born in Peru and grew to adulthood
in North America.”
The marvelous system of roads which the Incas built to bring their crops to
markets would do credit to modem engineering practice. There were paved
superhighways, provided with steps on the hillsides, and suspension bridges
where the roads crossed a chasm. Although wheels were unknown,
transportation was by foot or, in the case of the high nobility, by litter carried
by humans, who were honored to be selected for that purpose. The herbs and
herbal products were loaded on llamas and the central markets were
picturesque examples of a happy people whose governing representatives
promoted harmony and peace, as befitted the beneficent Ruler of All Being,
the Divine Inca, the Sun God, whose representative on Earth was the Sun.
There were no money problems. Every transaction was by barter. With
their agricultural activities raised to a high degree of perfection, scientifically
administered, they had the urge and the time to devote their attention to
architectural procedures. Their massive structures, great temples, public
buildings, and stepped pyramids are similar to those of ancient Egypt. They
had no machines and no tools except the inclined plane, the crowbar and
stone and bronze or copper knives. Great stones were transported over long
distances by concentrated man power. Polishing the rocks which weighed
many tons was by patient grinding with sand and water.
Historically, the Inca Emperor who brought the realm to its highest
development, was Pachacutec, who ruled from about 1400-1448. He
reasoned that there is a God much higher than the Sun, that this supreme
God, Viracocha, was the Creator of all; and was all-powerful. One of his
sayings is preserved by Spanish historians: “The physician herbalist who is
ignorant of the virtues of herbs, or who, knowing the use of some, has not
attained to all knowledge, knows little. He should work until he knows all,
both useful as well as injurious plants, in order to preserve the name to which
he pretends.”
 PART THREE

THE AMERICAN HERITAGE

 Chapter Ten

HERBS ARE HEALTH BUILDERS

ALTHOUGH MANY PEOPLE do not realize it, in our busy modern life we
are dependent on herbs and herbal products in almost every activity. If our
minds are affected by negative thoughts, our objective senses tell us that we
are indisposed, ailing, or sick, and we immediately summon a physician or go
to the drug store. Most of the medicines prescribed or purchased owe their
healing or pain-relieving value to the properties of the herbs or herbal
products which they contain. Many sleep-producing drugs affect the nervous
system or the circulation or both, due to the presence of morphine, opium, or
one of its derivatives.
Opium is the active principle of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum.
This herb was known in ancient Egypt, Palestine, Carthage, Phoenicia,
Greece, and Rome. It also was grown by the monks in many of the medieval
monasteries for its medicinal properties. It is fascinating to trace the history
of the growth and uses of this herb, which has had such a fantastically
combined beneficial and deleterious effect on human welfare throughout
history. In ancient times among the Greeks, the poppy was considered a love
charm, while the Romans revered it as symbolizing peaceful, restful sleep.
The modem curse of the drug habit is too well known to merit lengthy
discussion. It illustrates, however, that some herbal products, if not rightly
used, can become harmful as well as beneficial to man.
Another species of poppy, Papaver rhoeas, has been cultivated for its
delightful seeds, which have been described as “walnut flavored.” This
species probably was developed in the Dutch Province of Zeeland.
Several varieties of Papaver rhoeas include both annual and perennial
herbs which can be grown from seed. In more temperate or warmer climates
the plants will grow to a larger size or greater height. The green stems and
leaves, often faintly tinged with a delicate bluish sheen, contrast pleasingly
with the flowers, which in many varieties are white, with an iridescence like
the interior of a shell. However, in the California poppy the four-leafed petals
are yellow. In some Oriental plants, the flowers may be more brilliantly
colored.
The seed pod of the poppy is cut as soon as it turns brown, but it must not
be so dry that it will break open and scatter the seeds. If the poppies are
raised in the home garden, the pods are further dried on a cloth sheet or
screen, in a shady, dry location. The very small, globular seeds can be rubbed
out of the dried pods and more completely dried, and they are ready for use.
Everyone is familiar with the poppy-seed decorations on cookies, cakes, and
other pastries. The addition of poppy seeds to other dishes, such as fruit,
vegetables, salads, and so forth, gives a nutlike flavor.
The seeds of some of the more inferior varieties are compressed to make
poppy oil, which is used by artists in oil painting, and as a substitute for the
more expensive olive oil. Poppy seeds are also an ingredient in many
birdseed mixtures.
“A ROSE IS A ROSE IS A ROSE IS A ROSE—”
Throughout history, in fact and fiction, in literature, music and the arts,
rhapsodies have been written about the rose as a symbol of esoteric charm
and mystical beauty. It is almost synonymous with mysticism. Through the
ages, it has brought both tragedy and joy, war and peace, love and hate.
Because the stems of many roses often contain woody fiber, they cannot be
classed botanically as herbs. But in legend, literature, folklore, and romance,
since time immemorial, the ROSE has been the Queen of Herbs, the
inspiration of poets, symbol of light, life and love, health and beauty, with a
secret, mystical connotation. Can we let a technical, botanical point prevent
consideration of the beneficial influence of roses on human welfare? Perfect
physical health begins with an untroubled mind; beauty and health are
inseparable.
Most modern roses are hybrids from three original species. The DAMASK
ROSE (Rosa damascena) was brought to Europe from Damascus during the
Crusades. The CHINA ROSE (Rosa chinensis) originated in China. The
exotic ROSE de PROVINS (Rosa gallica) is a native of France. To trace the
story of the development of all the varieties we have today would require a
library of volumes.
Shakespeare expressed it beautifully in his TRIBUTE TO A ROSE:
O, how much more doth beauty beauteous seem
By that sweet ornament which truth doth give!
 The rose looks fair, but fairer we it deem
For that sweet odor which doth in it live.
The canker-blooms have full as deep a dye
As the perfumed tincture of the roses,
Hang on such thorns and play as wantonly
When summer’s breath their masked buds discloses:
But, for their virtue only is their show,
They live unwoo’ d and unrespected fade,
Die to themselves. Sweet roses do not so;
Of their sweet deaths are sweetest odors made:
And so of you, beauteous and lovely youth,
When thou shalt fade, my verse distills your truth.
There are many herbs that can be grown in the home garden, which will
add beauty to the surroundings as well as to provide food for health. Whether
one grows these plants for the pleasure of having “an old-fashioned garden”
or for their utilitarian and superior gastronomic properties—in other words, to
use as food—it must be realized that all living entities are dual in nature.
Each is composed of a positive quantity plus a negative unit.
In plants, the pollen is the positive part and the ovum is the negative.
Almost all of our flowering plants, including the majority of herbs, are
monoecious—that is, they have the stamens, bearing the pollen, and the pistil
and ovary with the egg or ovum on the same flower. If one plant has only
staminate flowers, and another plant of the same species bears only pistillate
blossoms, that variety is said to be dioecious—that is, male and female plants
are individual.
The increasing complexity in the development of physiological division of
labor, from the simplest amoeba-like forms of life, through the vegetable
kingdom and the animal kingdom, up to man, is a fascinating study in
evolution.
A seed is a fertilized ovum. All of the plants we consider as herbs grow
from seeds. Since “Nothing can not give rise to something,” the seed must
contain all the elements for growth into the mature plant. Yet such is the
inconsistency of the average person today that we customarily discard all
seeds in most fruits and berries and vegetables because we think the seeds are
not beneficial to health. There are food macerators and blenders on the
market today, which will give us the benefit of the health-giving seeds as
well as the fruit or berries or pulp or leaves or roots of the herbs themselves.
Oftentimes the greatest benefit of an herb lies in its seeds.
Near Escondido, California, there is a large ranch which among other
things promotes herbs as health builders. The Health Ranch is owned and
operated by Dr. Bernard Jensen, who also is the author of books and
pamphlets relative to the use of herbs as food.
Grateful acknowledgment is due to Doctor Jensen for much of the
following material, which is taken from his book, SEEDS AND SPROUTS
FOR LIFE.
A spore, a seed, or an egg—by whatever name we may call it—is the
“being” from which all living things develop; therefore, the seed must
contain all the necessary potentials for developing, continuing existence—for
life itself. In Genesis 1:29, we read, “And God said, Behold, I have given you
every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every
tree, in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.”
The word “meat” of course means food.
Seeds are the procreators of life. Seeds contain the highest percentage of
protein of all the foods in the vegetable kingdom and they also have nearly all
of the ten essential amino acids. We may say that seeds represent the secret of
life. In the tombs of the ancient Egyptian Pharaohs, more than three thousand
years old, seeds have been found, which when planted, have grown. All the
life-giving elements are found in seeds and they are there for our good. Many
physicians and dieticians have recommended the use of seeds as food,
because of their high mineral, vitamin, and protein content.
Seeds are especially rich in Vitamin B Complex and in Vitamin E, which
is the heart, nerve, and reproduction vitamin. It has been called the
“antisterility” factor. It is most important for happy human existence. Both
Vitamin B and Vitamin E are consistently discarded in modern milling and
refining of foods.
Most seeds are excellent sources for Vitamin F, which is classified an
“Unsaturated Fatty Acid.” But little cooking is recommended for fats and
oils, because a high temperature renders fats indigestible and Vitamin F is
destroyed. Other delicate vitamins are easily destroyed by prolonged cooking,
so we should try to eat as many raw vegetables as possible, for health’s sake.
Probably the most familiar uses of seeds as food are the common breakfast
cereals, the most important of which, from a nutritional standpoint are com,
wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and brown rice. The use of these cereal grains
in human diet antedates history. Legend and history blend in their reports of
the food habits of primitive man, through the developing civilization of tribes
and nations, up to the so-called refinement and progress of modem practices.
The grains—the seeds of herbs—have been one of the staples in food
consumption. Let’s compare a scene in our great-great-grandparents’ life with
a similar incident in the modern rush and bustle, trying to keep up with the
neighbors.
Great-great-grandma wants to bake some corn bread. She calls to her
husband, who is dozing on the parlor sofa, or watching a fly that is trying to
find an opening in the window. “Hiram! Will you get me some corn, please?”
“I will, Martha.” He uncoils his long legs, gets up, stretches, and goes
through the back door to the corn crib, where he selects several ears of
beautifully ripened yellow corn. He carries them back to the woodshed, puts
them into a stone mortar, and pounds them to a coarse meal with another
stone. Great-great-grandma is pleased. She says, “Thank you, darling,” and
proceeds to bake delicious corn bread, one of Hiram’s favorites, to be eaten
with pure clover honey. Ummmm!
Today, Alicia, Martha’s great-great-granddaughter is studying a recently
published cook book. One recipe catches her eye. “Hmmm! That sounds
good,” she comments. Search of well-filled shelves fails to reveal the
ingredient she wants. She goes to the living room. Arthur, her husband, is
watching television. It’s the seventh inning. The Giants are leading the
Dodgers 7 to 5. “Art, dear,” she says, sweetly, ‘I’m trying a wonderful new
recipe and I haven’t any corn meal. Will you go to the store and get some?”
“Oh, I suppose so. Can’t you wait till this game’s over?”
“The store might be closed,” Alicia objected. `
Art left, grumbling. The new and exceptionally obliging clerk lowered his
voice. “The only corn meal we have is bleached, with chemical preservative
added. H you want pure corn meal, there’s a Health-Food store two blocks up
the street. They are higher priced, but—”
‘I’m in a hurry,” Art said. “I’ll take this.”
The game was just ending when he reached home. The Giants won, 9-8.
The label on the package read:
“SUPERIOR CORN MEAL”
Nature’s Product
 Chemical Preservative Added
Foodwise, there is much to be said and thought about The Good Old Days.
Each step in the streamlined procession toward energy-saving convenience
has degenerated the food values of our life-giving herbs and seeds.
Cereals should be cooked with as little heat as possible. It has been
suggested that in cooking rice, wheat, or other grains, one half cup (or one
cup) of the cereal be placed in a one pint (or one quart) thermos and covered
with boiling water. Let it stand for four or five hours or overnight. The cereal
will be cooked. The addition of raisins, butter, or soy milk will give a very
tasty dish.
The factor of variety in our food habits should not be overlooked, for
obvious reasons. If we consider wheat and com and possibly oats as cereals
and forget that rye, millet, brown rice, barley, and other seed grains are also
very valuable additions to our daily rations, we are overlooking an important
fact in nutrition. Changing weather conditions, individual daily energy
output, temperature variations, and so forth, demand a health program based
on individual needs, not only in the matter of cereal grains, but also in our
general food program. Truly, “Variety is the spice of life” in regard to foods
as well as in other activities.
There are some food producers and milling companies who have their
material analyzed for exact mineral content. One can now buy brands of flour
and cereals that are guaranteed to be rich in the natural composition of
minerals, because they have been grown by organic gardening in the
naturally rich soil, without the addition of artificial chemical fertilizers or
poisonous insecticides. By using such grains, cereals, and flour, we get all the
elements that God intended us to have. Do they cost more? Yes, they do, but
they are worth it, from the standpoint of health.
Barley was a staple food, even before recorded history. In the Old
Testament in Biblical times, incidents are related to “the barley harvest” and
in Greece, particularly in Sparta, barley was a standard food for building
strong bodies. It is high in protein, carbohydrates, and minerals. A source of
heat and energy as well as a tissue builder and vitalizer, barley soup is
especially appetizing. When mixed with other vegetables (grains or seeds) it
adds a flavor that is delicious and unforgettable. In addition to its value as a
soup ingredient, barley steamed in a double boiler makes an excellent
breakfast cereal, with honey and fresh fruit and cream (or soy milk). Barley
flour is useful in baking. Muffins made with barley delight one’s taste. Barley
is particularly beneficial if one is troubled with digestive weakness, as it is
easier to digest than other cereals, particularly oats. It is non-gas-forming.
Folklore tells its use as a remedy to prevent the spread of infections. The
“Pearled” barley one buys in the stores is the original product of Nature, with
the outer skin and many of the vitamins removed, to “make it look better.”
The unpearled grain is much superior. It is an all-purpose food, particularly
beneficial to nerves and muscles, and furnishes heat and energy, and is a
ready source of important vitamins. It is effective in keeping the joints of the
body supple.
Another cereal grain that is extremely beneficial in nutrition is
BUCKWHEAT. Many doctors recommend it because it contains rutin, which
is a flavenoid that strengthens the walls of the arteries, tends to reduce blood
pressure and relieves varicose veins. In addition to rutin, buckwheat is very
rich in Vitamin B-Complex and Vitamin E, which has been proved to be the
“reproductive” vitamin, and also Vitamin C. The use of rutin is invaluable in
cases of stroke caused by rupture of small veins in the head and buckwheat
may help to prevent this condition because of its rutin content. It is much
better to include in our diet the foods that will give us these necessary and
valuable additions than to pay good money for a lot of concentrates and
artificial food supplements. The natural, unrefined buckwheat may be dark in
color, but commercial “processing” removes much of the vitamin value and
the natural grain is much to be preferred. It may be used as a cereal, or
buckwheat flour made into muffins or pancakes or bread.
CORN is especially valuable because of its high magnesium content.
Magnesium is needed in the diet because it promotes bowel activity, is a
natural laxative, and raises the “tone” of the intestinal tract. If yellow com-
on-the-cob can be eaten raw, it is one of the most perfect nutrients. Boiling
will destroy some of the valuable vitamins—roasting is not so harmful. But
for full value, the raw, juicy succulence is best. Many American Indian tribes
used yellow corn as one of their main foods, and their healthy bodies and
stamina are traditional. Corn oil is beneficial to the entire body. If the raw
corn can be crushed and made into a soup, and the hulls strained out, it makes
a dish suitable for people even on a restricted diet. The hulls are the only part
that may cause irritation. Yellow com meal mush is excellent, as are corn
bread, muffins, etc.
DILL SEED and ANISE SEED: These are frequently confused, because in
the Bible Dill seed is often referred to as Anise. They are of different
botanical families. The Dill belongs to the Parsley group. The Anise,
Pimpinella anismus, is a native of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. The
genus of the Dill is Anethum. Both plants yield seeds that are highly esteemed
as food flavors.
Most of the foods which we classify as cereals are the seeds of herbs. In
addition to the common ones that we accept without thinking about it, there
are three which deserve more than a passing mention.
Practically everyone has heard of MILLET, (Panicum millaceum) but few
realize that it is top quality in nourishment when its seeds are used as a cereal
grain. It is cultivated in the United States largely as a forage crop for stock. In
Europe it is used extensively as a cereal. In ancient times, in Egypt and the
Mediterranean lands, it was a staple item in human diet. As early as 500 B.C.,
Pythagoras recommended Millet for inclusion in the diet of his fellow
vegetarians. According to archaeological records, it formed part of the food
of prehistoric man. In India, forty million acres are given over to its
cultivation and production.
The following was taken largely from Dr. Bernard Jensen’s book, for
which grateful acknowledgment is given: The high food value of Millet has
been recognized in America by such eminent researchers as Doctor Kellogg
of Battle Creek Sanitarium and Doctors Osborn and Mendel of Yale
University. Their studies show that it is a complete food, being high in
protein (with a good balance of amino acids) rich in minerals (calcium high)
and vitamins, especially riboflavin, one of the most important vitamins in the
B-Group, and also the very essential lecithin. One cup (8 ounces) of
uncooked millet contains 22.6 grams of protein. It is an alkaline-forming food
that is easily digestible. It is especially valuable in wheat-free and allergy
diets.
Doctor Jensen concludes his discussion of MILLET with the statement:
“Use millet in all seasons. It is the best seed cereal you can eat. It is one of
the best protein grain foods and will not put fat on the body. It is an excellent
extender for meat loaves, being such a good quality protein.”
Another herb which until recently has been neglected as a source of
excellent food, is the SESAME plant and seed. It is a native of the East
Indies. The dictionary gives the information: “Sesame-An East Indian herb,
(Sesamium indicum), bearing seeds which are used as food and as the source
of the pale yellow oil, Sesame Oil, used as an emollient.” The dictionary
description gives only a small part of the story.
Sesame plants are now grown successfully and quite abundantly in China,
Africa, India, Central America, South America, and in the southwestern part
of the United States. It is an annual herb, growing to a height of about two
feet. It is quite sturdy. The seed, which has been called the queen of oil-
bearing seeds, is very stable; it can be stored for long periods of time and it
resists oxidative rancidity. It is 45% protein and 55% oil. Nine pounds of
seeds will give two quarts of oil.
“Tahini” is liquefied Sesame seeds. It has been estimated that two
tablespoonfuls of Tahini contain protein equivalent to that in a sixteen-ounce
steak. It is high in lecithin and unsaturated fatty acids, minerals, phosphorus,
niacin, and Vitamin E for the heart, blood vessels, and oxygen utilization. It
is high in the amino acid, methionine.
The dictionary, under the heading CHIA, says that the herb, CHIA, is a
Californian and Mexican herb (Salvia columbariae) belonging to the Mint
family, whose seeds yield a pleasant beverage and an oil, Chia Oil. That,
however, is only part of the story. Legend and early history relate that
centuries ago, in ancient India, a tiny blackish seed, a member of the mint
family, was recognized as a great energizer. That has been its function during
the passing years, in many lands.
Today, health-conscious individuals are recognizing that it furnishes
excellent nourishment. A sturdy winter annual, it grows to a height of twenty
inches to two feet, and the common name for this herb is “Thistle Sage.” It
blossoms during the winter, from November until March or April. The leaves
tend to have a purplish color, along with the green, and the flowers are blue.
The benefits of chia seed as an addition to food can hardly be
overestimated. Many have reported great results. Some have even said that it
is a second “elixir of life.” One seventy-year-old “hard rock” miner attributed
his great energy to the fact that he adds one teaspoonful of chia seed to his
lone meal of “flapjacks.” A young married couple reported, “We have more
pep!” One physician wrote, “Chia seeds are exceedingly nutritious and are
readily borne by the stomach, even when that organ refuses to tolerate other
food.” In the old days, the Mission Fathers valued Chia Tea for lowering
fevers—and they used the seed as a poultice after shotgun wounds!
 Chapter Eleven

NATURE KNOWS BEST

IN THESE DAYS of modern science, electronics, synthetic chemistry, and
nuclear physics, industries and educators apparently have joined forces in an
endeavor that seems to have many laudable aspects. Our public education
systems, from the grades through high school, college, and university, are
being increasingly geared to assist the big industries in developing a race of
superscientists. Millions of dollars spent by the giant manufacturing
establishments for research and advertising have resulted in a veritable flood
of synthetic products, notably foods, that lend themselves to spectacular
advertising and meet a largely artificial public demand for novelty, eye
appeal or labor saving.
Of course the advertising for these prepared foods will stress the health-
building and nutritional properties of their products, and the labels on
packaged or canned foods will state that they conform to the requirements of
the Federal Food and Drug Law, but, usually in finer print, at the bottom of
the label is a statement that “So and So” (almost always given just as initials)
“has been added as a preservative.” While most of these additives are
harmless in small quantities, some of them may have a cumulative effect in
the human mechanism. This might seriously interfere with the enzyme or
hormone action of the human digestive process. Nature’s food nourishes the
body. Artificial, synthetic food materials, no matter how well they are
advertised or how beautifully they are packaged, can not have the nutritional
value of Nature’s own products.
Chemical vitamins are usually added to the processed foods, in a laudable
endeavor to increase their value. It is logical to assume, however, that these
chemical vitamins do not have the vitality of Nature’s own growth.
The question may be asked, “Is it possible to get all the nourishment one
needs, for health, by eating only organically grown foods—herbs, berries,
fruit, or animal products—without the chemical additives which scientific
research has provided?” The answer is an emphatic, “YES!”
 According to an old definition, “Science is an orderly, systematic pursuit
of knowledge.” The word “pursuit” of course implies that complete
knowledge is always ahead of the pursuer. It is the lure of the chase, the joy
and satisfaction of new discoveries that characterize the true scientist. The
individual who claims to know everything about any subject is just “kidding”
himself, but nobody else.
A true story is told about a college class in chemistry. One day some
students asked a question, in all seriousness. The professor looked over his
glasses, grinned, and said, “I don’t know the answer to that.” Then he went
on, “When I was taking my postgraduate work in Germany, the head of the
department, ‘the old man’ as we called him, went away for a few days and
left the class in charge of a young quizmaster who thought he knew
everything. We students wanted some fun, so we asked him some technical
questions. He answered, using many technical words, but his explanation
didn’t mean anything. We thanked him. When ‘the old man’ returned, we
asked him the same questions. He said, ‘Huh! Nobody knows that!’. The
moral, of course is, If you don’t know a certain thing, don’t be ashamed to
admit it. If you should know it, get busy and find out. If it’s inconsequential,
it makes no difference whether you know it or not.”
The study of pure, organically grown foods and their effect in nutrition is
truly a science—an orderly, systematic pursuit of knowledge. We begin with
the fundamental fact, Nature never makes a mistake. That is true because
Nature always operates according to immutable laws of the Universe, not
man-made additions or so-called improvements of those laws. When we gain
additional information regarding the manifestations of Nature’s chemistry
and/or alchemy as they affect human welfare, we are building the structure of
Truth, step by step, in our pursuit of knowledge.
Foods are classified according to their chemical content and their function
in human physiology. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches, which may
be called the framework of energy and the link between plant growth and
animal structure. Proteins are those foods which furnish the essential element,
nitrogen, in a form which is available for human metabolism. Fats and oils
are usually complex in their chemical composition. They serve to augment
certain features in the total assimilative process and to furnish specific values
of their own in the laboratory of the body. Mineral salts are necessary in bone
building, hormone and enzyme composition and in the addition of certain
chemical elements necessary for metabolism. Water is the universal solvent,
and in combination with other constituents builds up the bulk of human
tissues. To these five, the vitamin content of foods has been of increasing
importance in the study of physiological chemistry. Nature has provided all
of these requirements in the organically grown herbs and herbal products.
One biological distinction between plants and animals is that in the
vegetable world, plants have the power to manufacture their own food from
Nature’s raw materials, air, and water. Animals are dependent on plants for
the preparation of their food materials.
The term, photosynthesis, is familiar to the majority of people in today’s
world of scientific knowledge. It refers to the process by which green plants
manufacture their own food—starch and plant sugars. The essential substance
is the green coloring matter of plants, which is Chlorophyll. This may be
called the “Chief Engineer” that controls the chemical process by which
water drawn up from the soil combines with carbon dioxide from the air to
produce starch. From this beginning, by further chemical processes within the
plant body, we have cellulose, which is the ingredient of plant fibers, and the
various plant sugars—dextrose, fructose, levulose, and others, all of which
are “built” by the photosynthetic process. Cellulose is not only a basic
ingredient of plant fibers; it is also an essential part of the cell walls of all
animals, including man—Homo sapiens.
The starches and sugars are not the only things plants have to offer as food,
however. Because water is known as the universal solvent, the moisture
which is drawn up through the roots by capillarity and osmosis contains
dissolved mineral elements which are stored and utilized by the chemical
laboratory of the growing plant, along with the starches and plant sugars. A
study of growing plants, particularly herbs, will convince the student that all
the constituents of complete food and healthful nutrition are to be found in
Nature’s laboratory.
Ecology is the study of plants and animals as they influence and are
influenced by their environment. For example, some soils are deficient in
certain chemical elements necessary for complete nutrition. The answer to
that, of course, is fertilization. However, there are two kinds of fertilizers.
Organic fertilizers are Nature’s own answer. Chemical, synthetic fertilizers
are manufactured to sell, and often are deleterious instead of beneficial.
If the soil water is contaminated from any source, the plants of course can’t
reason. They obey the fundamental laws of capillarity and osmosis. The
consequence is that the poisonous substances are absorbed and become a part
of the plant. Serious illness or even death has resulted from eating fruit,
berries, greens, or other products which have been treated with insecticides.
Washing the food is not enough. It merely removes part of the surface
contamination. The soil water, however, is absorbed in the cells of the plant
itself, and washing cannot remove that. Organic gardening is the safe answer
to this ever-growing problem. “Better be safe than sorry!”
It should not be forgotten that the common cereal grains are the seeds of
herbs. When the word “cereal” is mentioned, the majority of people think
first of the various wheat products on the market, and the highly advertised
“Breakfast Foods.” There are, however, many other cereal grains, the seeds
of herbs, that should be considered.
Scientific farming takes into consideration the rotation of crops. Why not
apply the same principle to our nutritive problems? Varying climatic
conditions, different energy demands in daily occupations, and a host of other
factors ought to be considered in planning our nutriment program. The old
saying, “Variety is the spice of life” is true with reference to foods as well as
to other aspects of life. In our modem times, the average person has become
so pampered by “processed” or “prepared” foods that he might find it
difficult to adapt his eating habits to conform to the olden days, when people
ate for nourishment rather than because certain foods are highly
recommended by advertising or sales campaigns. Due to the operations
known as “processing,” grains pass through many hands before they reach
our kitchens. Each process removes some beneficial food value.
We may define life as the manifestation of Nature’s laws from the embryo
through the adult being, whether it be plant or animal. The seeds of plants
contain all the essential factors that will produce and continue the life of that
particular unit. When a fertilized seed is planted in good soil, with available
moisture, it germinates—that is, it begins its active existence as a growing
manifestation of Nature. In the germination process, Life Forces take charge,
and definite chemical changes occur, as the tender growth seeks the life-
giving sunlight.
Most noteworthy of these changes is the appearance of the green coloring
matter, chlorophyll, the engineer of the life-building process. The partnership
between chlorophyll and the vital life force from the sun will produce the
miracle of complete nutritive value in the growing plant, God’s gift to man.
When the tiny shoots appear above the ground, we say that the seed has
sprouted. These sprouts contain all the vital ingredients of the seeds, plus the
chemical changes that have rearranged those elements to give us vitamins,
hormones, and enzymes as well as the basic food constituents. Nature is truly
bountiful.
It is possible to sprout all seeds. However, some are easier or more
satisfactory than others. Alfalfa seeds are probably the easiest and best. The
alfalfa sprouts are the highest source of Vitamin C. Also the element Silicon
is present, and this is important in nutrition, as it is apparently necessary for
nerve communication from the brain to the muscular structure of the body. In
plants it controls the ease and rapidity of root to fruit coordination. Vitamin C
takes care of germ life, and builds resistance to colds and catarrhal
discharges. All sprouted seeds are excellent for this purpose. Not only alfalfa,
but all the legumes, such as peas, any of the varieties of beans, lentils, etc.,
and the common cereals, com, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, etc., can be
sprouted with profit.
All herbs develop from seeds. When seeds germinate, I they begin to
sprout. These early “sprouts” are at their highest succulence soon after the
two tiny leaves make their appearance, approximately four to seven days
from the time they start above the soil surface. At that stage of growth, all
sprouts have the same general appearance, but as the leaves begin to develop,
each species of herb will furnish its own particular flavor.
Sprouts may be eaten raw, chopped and added to green salads, or as a
garnishment for other foods; in casserole dishes, omelets, salad dressings, or
in sandwiches or fruit juices. Various sprouts can be added to almost any
vegetable and they will give a delicate addition to both flavor and nutrition.
They may also be steamed and served with a flavorful herb dressing for a
most delicious novelty.
In recent years, The National Medical-Physical Research Foundation, of
Boston, Massachusetts, has been conducting a series of investigations on the
effect of herb sprouts on the possible harmful radiations from television
screens. One of their researchers, Ann Wigmore, has developed quite
startling results, using sprouted wheat. As reported by Dr. Bernard Jensen in
his book, SEEDS AND SPROUTS FOR LIFE, the wheat sprouts, and
presumably others as well, can absorb and neutralize these rays or radiations,
making them lose their effect on the body. These results lead to the natural
conclusion that harmful radiations can be taken up and neutralized by green,
growing plant life. Undoubtedly the beneficial effect is due to the chlorophyll
of the green plants. This is the one food which can be absorbed immediately
into the blood stream. The advice, “Eat plenty of green vegetables” has a
sound scientific basis as well as a decided practical value. The above
information is used by special permission from Doctor Jensen.
That all forms of life are interrelated is a statement that very few people
will contradict today. Fundamentally, it means that whatever affects plants
and the so-called lower animals will have an ultimate bearing on human
welfare, as well. The “Back to Nature”—organically grown food movement
—illustrates this principle in no uncertain manner.
In California, there is a Health-Food store, one of whose specialties is
“eggs from contented hens.” That is not an imaginary statement, nor an
exaggeration. On the ranch where the health foods are grown, everything is
raised by organic gardening. Their flocks of chickens are comfortably housed
in clean, spacious quarters-not crowded together in small coops. They are fed
on Nature’s products, seeds, and herbs untainted by chemical additives that
are supposed to increase egg production. The result? Egg production is
extremely high, the year around. The eggs are extra large with wonderful
flavor, and—this is the amazing part—every egg has a double yolk! Of
course they cost more, but they are worth it. One can still buy them by the
dozen rather than by the pound.
Another application in the use of herb sprouts in nutrition, exemplifying
the almost magical effect of chlorophyll, has been reported from the
operations at certain agricultural colleges. In their research departments, they
have constructed specially designed “incubators,” where grass seeds,
including oats, have been grown by hydroponics—that is, in special culture
media (organically, of course) and green grass has been made available the
year around, not just during the growing season. By feeding this to cattle,
milk production has been increased during the entire year. The cattle were
reported to be as healthy and productive in the winter as they are in spring
and summer. Reports from some farmers show that milk production has been
from 10% to 20% higher than it was with pasture grass. Herbs benefit
animals as well as mankind.
In further proof of the statement that meals consisting of herbs and herbal
products can be furnished which will provide all food constituents, the
following menus are reproduced from the book by Dr. Bernard Jensen. They
are all examples of meals served at the ranch.
“Tahini” is simply liquefied sesame seeds, with nothing added or
subtracted. It has approximately the same consistency as peanut butter. In
some countries, particularly in Europe, it is widely used as a substitute for
butter and in many cases as an ingredient in other foods.
Tahini can be mixed with honey and milk powder to make a delicious
Health Food candy. It is of cream consistency, but it can be hardened by
letting it dry out in the refrigerator for a few days. This can be mixed with
fruit or nuts to suit individual taste.
Tahini butter can also be mixed with milk powder and honey and frozen, to
make a very delicious ice cream, which is highly nutritious. Since sesame
seeds are fifty percent oil, Tahini butter may be used in place of other
shortening, although twice as much is required.
By analysis, 100 grams of sesame seeds contain the following ingredients:
Protein, 18.6%; Carbohydrates, 21.6%; Fat, 49.1 %; Linoleic Acid, 21 mg;
Thiamin, 0.98 mg; Riboflavin, 0.24 mg; Niacin, 5.4 mg. Because of its high
nutritive value, it is one of the best herb foods we can eat.
Sesame seed milk can be made by using ~ cup of sesame seeds to 2 cups of
water (or raw goat’s milk or cow’s milk may be used in place of water, if so
desired.) This should be liquefied in blender for one or two minutes, until
very fine. It can be filtered if necessary, through cheesecloth to remove the
hulls. Fruit juices or other flavoring may be added, to suit the taste. Sesame
seed milk may also be made by beating Tahini and water together,
thoroughly.
A delicious Sesame Cream can be made using 1 cup of sesame seeds and 1
cup of warm water. Blend these together until very smooth. Filter through
cheesecloth if necessary, and add one tablespoonful of honey and a dash of
pure vanilla. Blend again until thoroughly mixed and very smooth. Many
uses will be found for this nutritious cream as a dressing.
The value of Sesame Oil has been demonstrated many times in history as a
source of all the food ingredients. It has a pleasant flavor and is excellent for
use as a cooking oil or a salad oil or as a shortening.
A very tasteful salad is made with one head of Romaine lettuce, one
cucumber, three tomatoes and two cups of bean sprouts, with radishes to
garnish, and Sesame Cream dressing. Place Romaine lettuce leaves on a salad
plate. On these put a layer of bean sprouts. Then slice alternate layers of
cucumber and tomatoes over them, tapering to a peak with the last layer
cucumber. Garnish this with sliced radishes, and top with the dressing. Use
any salad dressing you prefer. However, the Sesame Cream dressing is
excellent.
A tossed salad, the flavor of which makes it favorable for any occasion,
may be called TOSSED GREEN AND SPROUT SALAD, and it includes the
following herbs: Six leaves of Romaine lettuce, several sprigs of Watercress,
one green Onion, sliced very thinly, one cup of Alfalfa Sprouts, one shredded
Carrot, / cup of finely chopped Chicory, / cup of chopped Parsley and your
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4
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favorite Salad Dressing.

Tear the leaves of lettuce gently into a salad bowl which has been well
rubbed with garlic. Add the other ingredients and pour the dressing over.
Toss the mixture lightly together and serve it immediately. This will make
several liberal servings.
There is nothing more satisfying than a bowl of excellent soup, especially
when it is unusual and highly nutritious. Generally it is followed by an entree
that adds to its enjoyment. The following recipes are primary favorites at the
Health Ranch:
RAW CORN SOUP
Cut 1 / (or more) cups of kernels of corn off the cob, getting the entire
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kernel if possible. To this, add 2 cups of whole milk (with cream). (Tahini
cream makes an excellent addition.) Then add 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of
Vegetable Seasoning and a dash of Paprika.
Blend the mixture thoroughly until it is very smooth. (For an especially
bland soup, this may be strained.)
It may be served as a cool soup, or it can be heated over boiling water in a
double boiler, just until it reaches serving temperature. Add a piece of sweet
butter and garnish with finely chopped parsley. You’ll find it is an
epicurean’s delight.
Another delicious soup is BARLEY SOUP.
Soak two cups of UNPEARLED BARLEY in water overnight. Use spring
water, if possible, to avoid the chlorination that most city water has. After
soaking, almost cook it, but do not boil it.
Chop one medium-sized onion very fine, one cup of celery, also chopped
fine, and one-half cup of finely chopped green pepper. Add this mixture to
the barley, using more water if necessary. Now cook this until tender, but
avoid unnecessary violent boiling. Before serving, add one tablespoonful of
sweet butter and some sweet cream.
If a cream soup is desired, this may be pureed in the blender. If you so
desire, a little vegetable seasoning may be added before serving. Unpearled
Barley is best, because the “pearling process” removes most of the vitamins.
LIMA BEAN CHOWDER is another favorite at the Health Ranch:
Take 1 cup of barely cooked dried Lima Beans, 1 cup of diced Turnip, 1
small (or medium-sized) Onion, thinly sliced, and / clove of Garlic, chopped
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fine. Combine these in enough water to cover. Then add more water if
necessary and cook until all the ingredients are tender. To this cooked
mixture, add one cup of milk (Sesame Seed Milk will give a delicious flavor),
two tablespoonfuls of sweet butter and two teaspoonfuls of Vegetable
shortening. Mix thoroughly and heat through without boiling. Finely chopped
Parsley makes a wonderful garnish.
One of the most delicious of the foods recommended by Doctor Jensen is:
VEGETABLE CHOP SUEY
Heat one-half cup of Soy or Safflower Oil in a large skillet. Add three
large green peppers, sliced, one cup of thinly sliced Onions, two cups of
sliced Celery, and three cups of Bean Sprouts; mix and sauté for two minutes.
Then add I cup of Boiling Water and Vegetable Seasoning to taste; cover and
cook about eight minutes. Prepare / cup of Arrowroot, two tablespoons of
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Soy Powder, two teaspoons of Soy Sauce and a little water and mix it to a
paste; then stir the paste into the vegetables. Cook for about two minutes.
This Chop Suey preparation should be served hot, over Unpolished Rice or
Wholegrain Noodles. It is a preparation fit for royalty. More Soy Sauce may
be added to suit your taste.
BEAN LOAF is an excellent vegetable entree. To 2 cups of Beans, cooked,
with their liquor, add 1 Egg, well beaten; 1 cup of Wholegrain Breadcrumbs,
1 tbsp of finely minced Onion, 1 cup of finely diced Celery, 2 tsp of
Vegetable Seasoning, and 1 cup of Tomato Pulp. Mix these thoroughly and
shape into a loaf. Bake in a moderate oven (300 to 350 degrees) for half an
hour.
Another unusual recipe which produces a preparation that has a zest all its
own is RICE À LA POLYNESIAN.
 Mix together one and one-half cups of unpolished Brown Rice which has
been parboiled, one and one-half cups of diagonally-sliced Celery, one fourth
cup of finely minced Onion and one and one half cups of Peas, either fresh or
frozen. Transfer this mixture to a casserole. Then prepare two cups of
vegetable broth or water, one tablespoon of Soy Sauce, one tablespoon of
Vegetable Seasoning, one teaspoon of either Raw Sugar or Honey and one
teaspoon of Sea Salt. Bring this latter mixture to a boil, then pour it over the
Casserole Mixture. Cover and bake for 30 minutes. Then stir it, remove the
lid and bake for another 15 minutes. This should be served hot, possibly with
toast made with wholegrain bread.
Doctor Jensen claims that the following recipe is his favorite: WILD RICE
SOUFFLÉ.
For best results, the directions for mixing the ingredients should be
followed conscientiously.
To One Cup of Wild Rice, which has been washed thoroughly with pure
water, add one and one-half cups of water and simmer this until it is tender.
Do not boil this violently. Then set this aside for use later.
Dice one Green Onion (including the green top) and dice one stalk of
Celery. Add one-third cup of water. WILT THIS.
Separate the Whites and Yolks of four Eggs, and set aside. Now combine
the Wild Rice with the Onions and Celery and add one tablespoon of melted
Butter.
Blend in (off heat) one tablespoon Arrowroot and one-half teaspoon Sea
Salt.
Add gradually one-half cup of Milk, creaming until smooth.
Now cook the mixture in a double boiler, stirring until it is thick.
Now beat the Egg Yolks and slowly add, while stirring. Now COOL the
Mixture. Then add one-half teaspoon of finely chopped Sweet Basil, (either
fresh or dried) to the Vegetables and Wild Rice.
Carefully cut in the stiffly beaten Egg Whites. Mix lightly but thoroughly.
Pour into ungreased casserole, stand in a pan of hot water and bake in slow
oven (300 degrees) for 1 / hours or until set. SERVE IMMEDIATELY.
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Herbalism includes not only the study of herbs themselves, but also a
consideration of herbal products. Honey is a typical example of a herbal
product. It is manufactured from herbal and flower nectar by the intricate and
wonderful chemistry of Nature in the bee’s body, so it may be said to be
directly a product of the herbs, themselves. The same principle applies to
milk, sugar, and eggs. Each of these is produced directly from herbs, by
Nature’s chemistry—not by man-made synthesis. Therefore, in any study of
Herbalism, they are definitely Herbal Products.
A delicious SELF-LEAVENING CORN-SESAME BREAD is made by
taking one part of Yellow Corn Meal and one part of Sesame Seed Meal and
mixing in cold water to make a rather liquid batter. Bake this until done in a
moderate oven, using a Pyrex glass baking dish for the best results. This
makes a soft, nutritious and tasty food that is almost like cake! It is non-acid
forming and non-gas producing.
UNLEAVENED CORN BREAD is made by mixing 2 cups of Yellow
Cornmeal, 1 tbsp of Vegetable Seasoning, 2 tbsp of Raw Sugar (or Honey, if
desired) 2 tbsp Whole-wheat Flour and warming the mixture. To this add 2
cups of Boiling Water and 4 tbsp of Vegetable Shortening. Then stir in 2 Egg
Yolks. Beat 2 Egg Whites and fold in. Bake the mixture in a hot oven.
CHIA CEREAL. This may be an innovation to many, but it’s really
delicious. One tablespoonful of Chia seed, either whole or ground, is added to
one-half cup of water. Stir, let it stand a few minutes and stir again. Let the
seed soak for several hours, or overnight. It’s ready to use. Eat it as you do
other cereal, adding fruit, honey, or whatever you prefer; or, it can be warmed
over hot water.
A delicious SWEET SANDWICH FILLING is made by mixing Sunflower
Seed MEAL to a thick paste with Honey and spreading it generously on
lightly toasted Corn Bread or Wholegrain toast. This may be varied by using
half Sunflower Seed Meal and half Tahini. Other variations may suggest
themselves to suit your taste.
Also, the above mixtures may be used to make a delicious “Taste Teaser.”
STUFFED CELERY Cut fresh, tender, firm Celery stalks into two-inch
sections. Stuff them liberally with Tahini alone, or with a mixture of Tahini
and Sunflower Seed Meal, or pure Peanut Butter. Other combinations may
suggest themselves.
CANTALOUPE COCKTAIL
Take one-half cup of SEEDS and the juice from the center of a Cantaloupe.
To this add one cup of UNSWEETENED PINEAPPLE JUICE. Blend this
mixture until it is very fine. It may be strained through cheesecloth if desired.
Serve it cold, as a very delicious, nutritious natural cocktail.
A wonderful HIGH-PROTEIN DRINK is made as follows:
To two cups of Skimmed Milk add four rounded Tbsp of Soy Powder, two
Tbsp of Blackstrap Molasses, four rounded Tbsp of Non-Fat Dry Milk, two
Raw Eggs, and Pure Vanilla to taste. Blend this mixture in the liquefier until
it is smooth. HONEY may be added for extra sweetening.
From the dim, distant past up to the customs of modem times, it will be
noted that Herbs and Herbal Products have played an outstanding role in
human welfare. The increasing popularity of modern “Health Foods” is an
indication that thinking people are realizing that, after all, Nature Knows
Best.
 Chapter Twelve

FOOD, MEDICINE, AND PLEASURE

IF ONE APPROACHES the study of herbalism seriously, with open mind,
with eagerness to learn, and willingness to accept evidence of legend,
folklore, and history, then certain conclusions are inevitable. America is the
land of opportunity. Today’s civilization also exemplifies the fact that we are
the Melting Pot of the Nations of the World.
All immigrants who come to our shores have certain racial traits, habits of
thought and action, and innate customs that differentiate them from other
people. However, association, economic necessity, and time will blend these
differences into a citizenry that is “typically American” whose ideal is
Freedom and the Equality of Opportunity. Realization of that Ideal has made
America a leading World Power.
However, it must be realized that the blending process does not destroy
individual characteristics. It merely absorbs them into a new pattern where
their value will add to the total. Perhaps an analogy will illustrate this
contribution of factors to give desired results.
America leads in producing numerous grades of steel to suit every purpose.
The number and variety of special steels has increased at an almost
unbelievable rate. Vast industrial foundries have expanded to meet the
demands. The science and art of steel making can be compared to the
assimilation of new citizens into our body politic.
The raw materials are Iron Ore, Pig Iron, scrap steel, and a “flux”—
(possibly limestone). These are put into the bed of an electric arc furnace and
the current turned on. The intense heat of the electric arc quickly melts the
mixture. A sample of the “melt” is taken at the furnace, cooled, and rushed to
the laboratory. Immediately all is action. The control chemist makes a rapid
determination of Carbon in the melt, and telephones the result to the chief
melter at the furnace. In fifteen or twenty minutes another sample is received
and the rapid determination tells the chemist and the melter how fast the
reducing action is progressing. Meanwhile, the chemist is making or has
made an analysis for Silicon, Manganese, Sulfur, Phosphorus, and possibly
Nickel and Chromium, if the scrap steel was an alloy. When a series of such
tests shows that the Carbon content of the melt has reached the low level
desired, the chemist calculates the weight of Petroleum Coke necessary to
bring the percentage of carbon in the finished steel to the desired point, and
also the amount of Ferrosilicon, Ferromanganese, Metallic Nickel, Metallic
Copper, Ferrochrome, Vanadium, Tungsten, Titanium, or other alloy
materials necessary to meet the specifications for the finished steel.
These additions, alloys, or compounds do not lose their individual identity
in the melting process. Each element has its own characteristics. The
Chromium in Ferro-Chrome retains its properties as Chromium. The Ferro-
Vanadium adds the properties which Vanadium can give to the steel. And so
on throughout the list. Every added material that is finally in the total melt
furnishes necessary properties that will bring the finished steel up to the
specifications for the purpose required.
So it is with the immigrants to America. Each individual is endowed with
certain racial traits that are not lost in the naturalization process. These
characteristics are merely blended with others of various groups to make the
“annealing process” from which the typical American Citizen emerges.
Nowhere is this retention of racial habits and preferences more noticeable
than in the matter of food and cooking.
The following comments and descriptions are not taken from any
published books or articles. They are the result of personal contacts and
observations. It was our privilege to spend several months in and around New
Orleans and Louisiana, and to talk with many of the descendants of the early
settlers of that territory. Some of the modem usages show very little change
from the days of the earliest settlement.
Undoubtedly the French were the first white settlers in the territory
surrounding the lower Mississippi and its delta. Many of them came down the
River from northern settlements to join those who arrived by the Gulf route.
Racial instinct caused them to build homes in this land of fertility, forests,
and water.
That many early settlers, or even the majority of them came from the
north-central part of France, from the old Provinces of Île-de-France which is
the territory surrounding Paris and the Province of Orléanais immediately to
the southwest, is proved by two facts. The first is based on tradition and
language similarity and general racial characteristics. The second is that the
baby colony was given the name “New Orleans.” It was as if they were
memorializing their former home. The original settlement was familiarly
known as “Le Vieux Carré” (The Old Square) and even today the French
Quarter is often referred to as The Old Square. It is famous the world over for
many things.
Historically, New Orleans, from 1717 until the American Revolution in
1776, was typically Provincial France transplanted to America. The Spanish
infiltrated, and in some respects usurped control, but the basic racial habits
persisted, particularly with reference to the food situation. The prolific use of
herbs in daily diet by French chefs was a distinguishing mark in those early
days as well as today.
Someone has said that history is the product of legends and folklore often
repeated and then practiced. That is especially true in regard to individual
characteristics of many nationalistic groups in various parts of America—
notably the French in Quebec, Montreal, and New Orleans, the Italians in
Boston, New York, San Francisco, and other large cities. Also German and
Dutch communities in Pennsylvania and elsewhere evidence the influence of
national traditions. Individual customs are pronounced in the Scandinavian
settlements in Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Montana, and the
Northwest. The Spanish influence is quite dominant in California, Arizona,
and parts of Texas and New Mexico. All of these widely distributed people
who have chosen America as their home, however, agree in one particular
action-pattern: the use of herbs and herbal products in the preparation of their
food.
To the majority of people, the mention of French cooking conjures mental
images of gustatory enjoyment. That well-deserved reputation has been
earned through centuries of practice by French housewives and professional
chefs. From early provincial days to the present time, the oftentimes
unexpressed ideal of a meal has been a combination of two related factors—
nutrition and pleasure. It is more than a science; it is an art. Psychologists tell
us that repeated sensations develop into attention, which merges into interest.
Then comes action, from which habits are formed.
In early life, French girls are instructed in the art of food preparation.
Whether they like it or not, it becomes a habit. All French housewives
instinctively know the secret which makes French meals both delightful and
nutritious. Is there a special formula which must be learned during years of
trial and error? No. The answer is really quite simple. Probably more than
any other national group, French cooks have developed the use of herbs and
herbal products in all phases of the preparation of foods. That includes soups,
Hors-d’Oeuvre, the various Entrees and Desserts, even beverages were given
extra delicate flavoring by special herbal additions.
During our sojourn in New Orleans, we were privileged to consult with
several French people who were direct descendants of the original settlers.
One young lady said, “But yes, my great-great-great grandfather was one of
the original pioneer settlers of New Orleans. He built a home in the Vieux
Carré on Rue de Bourbon. That home is still standing, although it has been
repaired many times. The balcony and patio are much the same as they were
in the old days, I have been told.”
“Can you tell me something about your life, and the habits of the people?”
I asked. We were standing in front of a display counter in one of New
Orleans’ largest department stores.
“But yes. Me, I’m just a clerk in this store. It’s a wonderful store, and I
meet many interesting people. But my hobby, outside of my work, is
cooking. I like to make good things to eat. We have our own herb garden, and
you know we French people are noted for the clever use of herbs in the
preparation of food.”
“Can you describe your herb garden?”
“Better yet. It’s almost closing time. If you would like to come home with
me, I’ll show you the garden, and then we’ll have a sample of some real
French cooking.”
“But that would be putting you to a lot of trouble.”
“No trouble at all. Next to cooking, I like to have an appreciative
audience.’’
By the time we reached her home in the French Quarter, it was too dark to
see very much, but she promised to give me a diagram of the garden. Then
we went into the house and she turned to me with a suggestion: ‘Tm hungry.
How about you?”
“What you told me about your cooking would give me an appetite, even if
I weren’t hungry. But I’m looking forward to this experience, and I thank you
for the privilege.”
 “Contrary to a great many women, I like to have an appreciative audience
when I cook. So if you want to watch me, I’ll be happy.”
On shelves above her kitchen work bench, arranged in alphabetical order,
were large jars, each filled with an herb. She noticed our interest and
commented, “Those are the ones I use most frequently. There are others that I
use fresh from the garden, in season, and I can some for winter use. I use
potatoes all the time, and onions, and garlic, in addition to the ones you see
here.”
She continued to work while she talked. “This meal I’m preparing now is
one of my favorites. The French name for it is LEGUMES À LA GRECQUE.
That means MARINATED VEGETABLES, GREEK STYLE. It’s an old
recipe that dates away back to Provincial France. The marinade has to be
prepared ahead of time, so I did that last night. It’s quite simple to prepare. I
use 3 cups of chicken stock (some people call it chicken broth), 1 cup of dry
white wine—either sauterne or chablis. I prefer chablis. 1 cup of olive oil.
You could use peanut oil or safflower oil. It might make a little difference in
the taste. About / cup of lemon juice or wine vinegar, half a dozen sprigs of
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parsley; one or two cloves of garlic, cut up quite fine, about / teaspoon of
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dried thyme and 10 peppercorns. Salt the mixture—perhaps using about 1

teaspoon. I stir all these together in a large stainless steel saucepan. After it
just boils, I cover the pan, reduce the heat and simmer for 45 minutes; then I
strain it through a very fine sieve, and press the solids with the back of a
spoon or fork, to be sure the juices are all out. Sometimes it takes a lot of
pressure. Then I usually discard the solids. The liquid marinade should taste a
little over-seasoned.
“It’s time now for the final putting together process. Bring the liquid
marinade just to boiling and add the onions. Put the cover on the saucepan
and cook at reasonable heat for half an hour. By that time the onions will be
just tender. Then I take a sieve or a slotted spoon and remove the onions and
put them into another stainless steel container.
“The marinade should be just simmering by this time, but not boiling hard.
I add the sliced zucchini and squash and I cook them slowly for about 15
minutes. Then they go into the baking dish with the onions. During the
cooking of the zucchini and squash, they shouldn’t be covered.
“Now I add all the other vegetables—last night I put in celery hearts,
mushrooms, cucumbers, string beans, and artichoke hearts. I gave them the
same treatment, with the marinade, then they all went into the baking dish.
“The next treatment is very important. I brought the marinade just to a boil
and poured it over the vegetables, making sure that they were covered or at
least wet with the hot liquid. Then I covered the dish with aluminum foil and
put it in the refrigerator overnight. That is when the real marinating process
actually takes place.
“Now comes the final stage.” She removed the foil from the baking dish
that she had taken from the refrigerator. Very carefully she lifted the
vegetables and placed them artistically on a serving platter, and garnished it
with sprigs of fresh parsley and slices of lemon. “There! It’s all ready for you
to enjoy!”
It was enjoyable to look at and the taste was delicious beyond description.
“It’s too dark now for you to see the herb garden,” she continued, “but I’ll
give you a diagram of it. You understand that the ones I grow in this garden
are the specials that I use for extra flavoring or for a particular effect, either in
taste or appearance. The commoner ones, such as potatoes, tomatoes, garlic,
carrots, parsnips, onions, lettuce, yams, beets, peas, beans, turnips, rutabagas,
celery, cabbage, cucumbers, or others one can buy in the market the year
around, both in season and out of season. There’s a word of caution about
vegetables in the market. Be sure you’re not buying material that has had
insect spray used on it. That’s bad. No matter how much you wash it, you
can’t get it all off.”
As she began to draw the diagram, she said, “I don’t suppose it makes
much difference about the arrangement of the beds. You’ll notice I have all
my members of the mint family at one side. That’s for convenience.
“Next I have Parsley and its relative, Chervil, both good as garnishes and
in salads and soups; also Chive, with the onion-like flavor that adds zest to
salads and soups. Then there’s Oregano; that is used a great deal in Italian-
type cooking, for its aromatic, strong flavor, particularly with tomatoes or
eggplant or with meat dishes.
“The herbs of the Mint family I favor especially, as you’ll notice:
Marjoram is quite strong and aromatic, with just enough bitterness to give it
distinction. Savory, traditionally excellent for adding zest to peas or beans,
with its warmth, is a favorite of mine. Basil is always popular and refreshing.
I always use it with tomatoes, either raw or cooked. It’s also good with fish or
any sea food, or with eggs. Sage is familiar to all as an ingredient of stuffing
mixtures and dressings, and to add an agreeable flavor to roast pork or
sausage.
“Rosemary is an herb that should be used sparingly, because when it is
heated, it emits a strong oil. But it gives a wonderful flavor to meat dishes.
“Then there’s Tarragon. Some people say it smells a little like Licorice.
Mixed with other herbs, it adds a delicious flavor. I also use it a lot for sea
food and for chicken.
“The next one is Fennel. That’s another herb that has an odor faintly
licorice-like. Many people eat the roots and stalks of Fennel raw or cooked. I
use its leaves, which are almost lacelike, and the seeds and stems to give a
wonderful flavor to soups, sauces, and salads.
“I always have my bed of red radishes. Sliced thin, diced or grated,
everybody knows how wonderfully they fit into any salad. Of course they are
delicious just to eat raw, with or without salt.
“Little green onions are familiar to all who like good food. Here in the
South, we can raise most of the herbs out of doors the year around. But one
can have an herb garden even in the North—in window boxes or other
sheltered places.
‘’The last two that I have in my garden, strawberries and asparagus, often
take a couple of years to get well started.
THE DIAGRAM OF AN HERB GARDEN
* (It is understood that this plan may be varied to suit individual needs. Other herbs may be added to
suit convenience and circumstances.)
But their value is often beyond description. They can be used in so many
ways.
“If one has plenty of space, and also the time to do it right, an herb garden
is one of the most satisfying hobbies I know and it will keep growing in
interest as you add or substitute.
“Another point that I believe is important. I always use organic fertilizer—
never the commercial mixtures. Also, I rotate the beds, so I don’t have just
one crop depleting the soil year after year. Any questions?”
“There are many questions I could ask, but you’ve already given a lot of
your time, and we appreciate it. You’re putting your knowledge and your
hobby to a wonderful use. No wonder French cooking is considered so
magnificent.”
THE FRENCH-ITALIAN-MEDITERRANEAN INFLUENCE
Living in retirement in Southern California, a gentlemen who likes to call
himself “an old cook,” often tells about his experiences when he was chef in
exclusive establishments in various cities including Hollywood and Los
Angeles. One of the preparations for which he was famous, he calls,
“’FRENCH-ITALIAN VEGETABLE SOUP.” We are reproducing the recipe
just as he told it. The modem name for it is “MINESTRONE.”
“In the first place don’t try to rush this. Take plenty of time. Have all the
ingredients ready before you begin. You’ll need a couple of four-quart
saucepans, a large bowl, a two-gallon soup pot or kettle, a slotted spoon and
some paper towels, also two or three dishes large enough to hold the
vegetables as they are prepared before the final mix.
“In a gallon-size saucepan, I boil a quart of water so it’s just bubbling. Into
that, I put / cup of beans. I usually use navy, or white kidney. If you want to
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use pintos or regular kidneys, it might make a slight difference in the taste.
Then raise the heat and boil very briskly for two or three minutes. Then
remove the pan from the heat and let the beans soak in the water for an hour.
After that, put the pan back on the stove, turn the heat to ‘Simmer,’ and let it
cook for an hour and a half, uncovered. By that time, the beans will be just
tender.
“While the beans are cooking, prepare the other ingredients. Notice that the
following materials are all herbs except / cup of diced salt pork, 2 quarts of
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chicken stock (chicken broth) and the salt. (Even Cheese can be considered
an herbal product, because cheese comes from milk and milk is produced
because the cows eat herbs.) You will need, besides at least 4 tbsp butter or
margarine:
Two cups of drained, whole-pack tomatoes, that have been coarsely
chopped; 1 cup of fresh green peas; 1 cup of diced, unpeeled zucchini that
has been scrubbed thoroughly; 1 cup of diced potatoes; 1 cup of diced
carrots; 2 tablespoons very finely chopped onions and / cup of finely
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chopped leeks. If you can’t get the leeks, add another / cup of onions instead.
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Then / to 1 cup of very thinly sliced celery. Now we’ll need / cup of diced
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salt pork and two quarts of chicken stock. That can be either fresh or canned.
Then I have one bay leaf and two parsley sprigs, tied together. To this
vegetable mixture, I add about a teaspoon of salt and some ground black
pepper. I also have / cup of raw rice to use as a final addition. Some chefs
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use white rice, but I prefer brown rice on account of its higher vitamin
content.
“The canned Minestrone that you buy in the markets is very good, an
excellent imitation of the ‘supervariety’ that l make, but it still lacks that
‘something’ that loving care will give. You understand what I mean?
“Now comes the important process of putting everything together to make
the delicious finished product. Melt the butter or margarine in a skillet. When
it stops foaming, add the potatoes, peas, zucchini, carrots, and celery. Using a
wooden spoon, toss them thoroughly for about three minutes, until the
vegetables are all covered. Do not brown them. Then set them to one side, off
the heat.
“Fry the salt pork which has been diced, in the soup kettle, to render the
fat. When the pork is crisped, and browned, after stirring it over moderate
heat, remove the diced meat with a coarse sieve or a slotted spoon, and place
it on paper towels to drain. Stir the onions and leeks in the fat remaining in
the kettle. Stir constantly and cook for approximately five minutes, or until
the onions are soft and browned slightly.
“Now stir in the coarsely chopped tomatoes, the chicken stock and the
vegetables from the skillet; also the bay leaf and parsley, a little salt and
pepper. Now is the time to bring the soup mixture to a boil, over high heat.
Then reduce the heat and simmer, partially covered, for about half an hour.
Then remove the bay leaf and parsley. Now add the rice, beans, and salt pork.
Cook it for 20 minutes more, or until the rice is tender.
“At this point, I always taste the soup, and add a little salt and pepper if it
is necessary. It’s now ready to be served, in the individual bowls. A good
finishing touch is to sprinkle a finely divided herb mixture or garnish on top.
For this, I blend together two teaspoons of pulverized dried basil—or one
tablespoon of fresh basil chopped very fine, one tablespoon of very finely
chopped fresh parsley and / teaspoon of finely divided garlic. I always have
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a bowl of grated cheese handy, so if one wants it, it’s ready.

“This is not merely a soup appetizer, but it’s an entire meal in itself, and a
very nourishing one. Every herb used adds a definite flavor to the finished
product.”
America is rapidly becoming “Herb Conscious.” Even confirmed meat
eaters know that the juiciest, most appetizing meat comes from animals that
have been fed on selected grains. All the common grains are herbs.
Frequently the newspapers publish comments showing the increasing value
placed on herbs and herbal products. This dispatch appeared in a recent issue
of a California newspaper:
MONTGOMERY, Ala. (UPI)
—Alabama’s vegetable-producing industry is grossing $20 million a
year and may become one of the state’s major agricultural businesses.
During the past year, there were 10,000 acres of fresh market tomatoes,
and acreage for processing crops, such as peas, peppers, and cucumbers,
was well over 5000 acres each.
That, of course was in addition to all other farm crops, most of which are
herbs. And this was from only one state out of fifty!
Even earlier than recorded history, herbs and herbal products have been the
main source of food for the developing nations of the world. When the
pioneers from Europe came to America in early Colonial times, they brought
with them their legends, folklore and food preferences which they added to
the existing Indian herbs and methods of food preparation, gradually to build
up the modern cuisine. That will vary, of course, according to the food habits
of each nationalistic group.
Undoubtedly the French have had more influence than any other
nationalistic group in building the food tastes of modern America. That is
true for two main reasons: first, because they use many herbs in their
cooking, not only for the nutritive value, but also for the nuances of delicate
flavor so characteristic of French food preparation; in the second place,
Americans like novelty, and the mere mention of French cooking conjures up
gustatory visions of gourmet enjoyment.
But Italian food, esoteric Greek preparations, hearty German meals,
Scandinavian delicacies, and others occupy a warm place in the food
enjoyment of the average American. Add all this together, and we have an
expanding interest in herbs and herbal products as food.
There is another factor, however, which is more potent than all others in
developing genuine enthusiasm for the use of herbs as food. The Pure Food
movement is gaining adherents in all parts of America in amazing numbers.
In practically every city one can find a Health-Food store, where foods—
mostly herbs—are featured that are the product of organic gardening,
eliminating the dangers of commercial fertilizers and insecticides. The herbs
sold in these stores are especially grown to augment their natural vitamin
content. They are guaranteed to be free from artificial treatment or
insecticides.
The American people are at last coming to realize that we are slowly
killing ourselves chemically, in the name of “progress,” by our almost
fanatical reliance on the highly advertised synthetic food products. These
foods undoubtedly have many merits. Of course they meet the requirements
of the Pure Food Laws, or they could not be sold on the open markets. But, as
has been stated by eminent nutrition authorities, there is a vast difference
between synthetic chemical mixtures and Nature’s offerings. We are sure that
herbs grown by organic gardening, unpolluted by poisonous chemical
insecticides, are pure and nutritious. The wise course for us to pursue is to
follow Nature’s teachings. The main difficulty in today’s economy is that
people have the almighty dollar so close to their eyes that they can’t see
around it!
A few years ago, it was the author’s privilege to live and work in a Finnish
community in Montana. We found the people very cooperative, sincere, and
alert. While they were clannish, as was to be expected, they fraternized well
with others in the village and surrounding area. One outstanding feature,
however, was especially noticeable. The folklore and racial traditions were an
integral part of their daily lives. While this might be considered deleterious to
a certain extent, from an extremely modem viewpoint, nevertheless it was
and is a strong factor in the superior character of these additions to our
American body politic. It gives solidarity and stamina of decision, which is
needed in today’s world—unrest.
Good health and long life are two ideals which these citizens cherish, and
they rightly attribute both to food preparation and quality. The answer of
course is HERBS! Crops are grown organically, and herbs and herbal
products constitute the bulk of their daily diet. More than that; their neighbors
are developing like habits of food selection. There were two particular food
preparations that were prime favorites and which were adopted by their
neighbors. It should be noted that both recipes stress herbs.
In speaking Finnish words, each letter is pronounced at its full value. If
consonants or vowels are doubled, syllabication comes between the duplicate
letters. For example, the Finnish name for Turnip or Rutabaga Casserole is
LÄNT-TULA-ATIK-KO. The ingredients are simple, all herbs or herbal
products. The vegetable casserole can be used either to accompany a meat
entree or as a meal in itself. The preparation is quite simple. We have
watched it, and have partaken of the delicious results.
Depending on the number to be served, the Finnish housewife took two or
three medium-sized rutabagas, or the equivalent in turnips, washed them, and
diced them into small, quarter-inch cubes. Natural gas had not yet been piped
into the community, so she preheated the wood-burning oven to
approximately 350 degrees.
Then she placed the diced turnips in a two-gallon saucepan and just
covered the vegetables with cold water. She placed this on top of the stove
and added about one teaspoon of salt. Then she remarked, “We like the flavor
of onions, so I usually add one small onion, chopped very fine. But that is not
necessary.” After the mixture comes to a bubbling boil, it is partially covered
and allowed to simmer for about twenty minutes. She tested the turnips then
with the point of a sharp knife. When assured they were thoroughly soft, she
put them into a sieve container, over a bowl and pressed the mass of
vegetables through the meshes of the sieve with the back of a wooden spoon.
That, of course, was after she had drained the water off.
Meanwhile, in another bowl, she prepared a mixture of three cups of dry
breadcrumbs and an equal amount of heavy cream, with about half a teaspoon
of nutmeg and a teaspoon of salt and three lightly beaten eggs. When that was
smooth, she stirred in the cooked vegetables, and placed the mixture in a
buttered three-quart baking dish and dotted the top with bits of butter. This
was baked, uncovered, in the oven for a little over an hour, until the top was
lightly browned. It can be served with a meat entree or alone.
Another herbal food preparation that was favored by the people in this
Finnish community was a delicious vegetable accompaniment to a hearty
meal where the main entree was roast meat or fried mountain trout. FRIED
MUSHROOMS WITH SOUR CREAM DRESSING—the Finnish name for
which is PAI-STE-TUT SI-EN-ET has a delightful flavor all its own. Not
only was it a favorite of the Finnish people, but their American neighbors
adopted it as a frequent addition to their daily diet, as well.
As we watched the procedure, its preparation was quite simple. In a 12-
inch enameled frying pan, or a stainless steel skillet of equal size or larger,
she put eight tablespoons of margarine or butter, and melted it over moderate
heat. After the melt had finished foaming, she added about / cup of very
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finely chopped onions and cooked them about five or six minutes. Then the
onions were transparent, but they were not browned.
While the onions were cooking, she sliced two pounds of mushrooms very
thin. When the onions were soft and transparent, the sliced mushrooms were
added, gradually, with constant stirring, using a wooden spoon, so that the
mushrooms and onions were blended well. The frying continued for five
minutes or more, until the mushrooms were slightly brown. The mixture was
stirred occasionally, to prevent sticking. Then a cup of fine, dry breadcrumbs
was sprinkled over the mixture and the contents were stirred gently with a
wooden spoon. After this, the frying pan was removed from the hot part of
the stove.
Then, in another bowl, she put a cup of sour cream and beat or whipped it
with a wooden spoon briskly for a couple of minutes, after which she stirred
it into the vegetable mixture in the skillet, until the mushrooms were all
coated with the cream. Then it was ready to serve. This delicious preparation
can be used as a snack in itself, or to accompany meat or fish dinners.
Since the population of America is made up of many different
nationalities, it is understandable that each group has contributed to the total
culture of our modem life. No other country in the world has as varied an
ancestral background as the United States of America. From the earliest days
of colonization to the selective quota of immigrants today, the new arrivals
have brought and are bringing with them their folklore, traditions, habits of
life, and customs that may be modified, but not radically changed by their
new environment. Our modem science, daily habits, thoughts, and ambitions
are a composite or a blending of the folklore, traditions, and racial habits of
the people who have made America a great nation.
Of the three essentials for human existence—air, water and food—the first
two, air and water, are universal. Food, however, and the food habits of
people and animals, are determined by custom and availability. From the
earliest times, throughout history, the use of herbs, herbal products, and
herbal derivatives has constituted the major portion of food requirements.
It is natural to think of herbs as connected with food. However, it must be
realized that modem medicine is a development of the earliest use of herbs in
ancient Egypt and Greece for their healing effects. The Indians in the
Americas also gave us a heritage of the use of herbs for medicinal purposes.
 PART FOUR

EPILOGUE
 Epilogue

FOR REFERENCE AND

INFORMATION
TO LIST ALL of the plants that can be botanically classified as herbs would
be a stupendous task and such a list would include many which up to the
present time have no recognized practical use. It is beneficial, however, to
mention those which are so common that many people do not think of them
as herbs, and then describe briefly some of the special herbs that give
particular flavor to foods, or which are especially valuable for their medicinal
characteristics. There are many which are interesting from a historical as well
as a utilitarian viewpoint.
The common cereal grains are the seeds of herbs. Barley, corn, popcorn,
oats, wheat, rice, millet, rye, buckwheat, and other foods thought of as
“breakfast cereals” are excellent foods, particularly if they have not been
subjected to chemical processing or insecticide treatment. They are too
familiar to warrant special description.
The common vegetables, such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams, tomatoes,
carrots, parsnips, turnips, rutabagas, peas, and the many varieties of beans are
all herbs. To continue with the list, we have onions, leeks, chard, and the
other leafy vegetables used as greens, beets, parsley, lettuce, celery, radishes,
horseradish, chive, rhubarb, cabbage, kale, cucumbers, kohlrabi, and others.
The use of any or all of these is a matter of our daily habits. A meal without
herbs would be almost a curiosity. In addition to the common ones
mentioned, there are certain ones that may well be noted, for their particular
flavor. These are usually grown in a special herb garden.
If one is contemplating an experimental herb garden some suggestions will
be advantageous. There are no set rules, either as to size, arrangement, or
selection. Detailed plans are naturally dependent on availability of space or
other matters of convenience. City dwellers or those who live in apartments
without yards can have an indoor garden, using flower pots for individual
plants. If you live in the suburbs or in the country, larger plots are possible.
There is much satisfaction in developing even a small garden. Regardless of
size, certain essentials are important.
Moisture and good drainage are necessary. A good sandy-loam soil is
required. Any fertilizer used should be organic—well-rotted, pulverized
manure or compost. If the soil is not naturally alkaline, hydrated lime and/or
wood ashes will be indicated. Avoid commercial chemical fertilizers. Careful
preparation of the soil may determine the difference between success or
failure. Since most herbs are treasured for their leaves, with the exception of
cereal grains, which are seeds, a high humus or nitrogen content should be
present in the soil. Otherwise leaves will not remain green, but will turn
yellow, or wither. While a good leaf growth is desirable, care must be taken
not to have plants go to an excess in that respect, which would result in
diluting or dissipating the essential oils.
If an out-of-doors garden is planned, the bed should be prepared in the
autumn, particularly if fertilizer or compost is used. Preparing the ground in
the fall will enrich the topsoil during the winter months, which will more
adequately benefit spring planting. It also makes the soil more easily worked.
In the list which follows, both the common name and the botanical name
are given. Brief directions for planting are also included.
For the Home Herb Garden, a selection from the following list of plants is
suggested: BASIL: There are several varieties of BASIL (Probably the best
one is Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum). It is an annual, and grows from seed.
It is extremely sensitive to frost, and should be planted in the spring, after all
frost danger is past. After sprouting, the seedlings ought to be thinned to
about eight inches apart, for the maturing plant needs that much space for
proper growth. Basil is especially good with tomatoes; also it is excellent in
salads, in spaghetti sauce, in meat dishes and egg dishes.
BORAGE: (Borago officinalis) This is preeminently a salad herb, and also
it may be used in cocktails. The use of young leaves of this plant in salads or
cocktails will give a delicate “cucumbery” flavor. When the leaves get old,
they become tough and hairy. It is a hardy annual, and grows well in a
temperate climate until the first frost. The blue or lavender star-shaped
flowers are beautiful.
BURNET, sometimes called “SALAD BURNET” is botanically known as
Sanguisorba minor. It is very hardy, and a perennial. It can be planted as
early in the spring as the ground can be worked. Or, for earlier maturing,
young plants can be started in the early spring. This will provide leaves for
early summer salads. If this plant is allowed to go to seed, it will sow itself.
The leaves that grow close to the ground usually stay green all winter. For
best results, each plant requires about a square foot of space. The leaves give
a pleasant, slightly cucumbery flavor to salads, and also they can be used to
make herb tea.
CHERVIL: (Anthriscus cerefolium). This herb is really a “cousin” of
parsley, but the taste is somewhat stronger, and it has an individual flavor. It
is much used by French cooks in omelettes. It is a hardy annual. If allowed to
go to seed, it will sow itself. The plants should be thinned to about six or
eight inches apart. If not allowed to flower, it will grow successive crops of
leaves. It is an excellent salad herb, and goes well with meats or fish also.
SWEET CICELY: (Myrrhis odorata) is very hardy, a perennial that can
withstand some frost. However, it dies down to the ground in extremely cold
weather. But it self-sows. It will need at least one and one-half feet of space.
The leaves add an anise flavor to green salads. The seeds give a delightful
anise flavor to cooked foods, and the roots may also be cooked as a pot herb.
So this is one herb that can be used in its entirety.
COSTMARY: (Chrysanthemum balsamita-var. tanacetoides) This plant is
a hardy perennial. In the early Colonial days, the story goes that churchgoers
used to put a sprig of this herb in their Bibles to mark the place, and so the
popular name in the olden days was “Bible Leaf’! Costmary is tall, spreading,
an excellent salad herb, although it should be used rather sparingly, because it
gives quite a strong anise flavor. It is a hardy perennial.
CRESS: (Barbarea praecox) This is what is called the “UPLAND” variety.
It should not be confused with Watercress or Peppergrass. Peppergrass is
Lepedium sativum. Upland Cress is a hardy biennial. It will withstand zero
winters. Its leaves are very much larger than Watercress. It can be used for
flavor, or as a salad by itself. The flavor is similar to that of Watercress.
DILL: (Anethum graveolens). This herb is best known as a flavoring
material for pickles. Perhaps not so well-known uses are as an ideal flavor for
lamb roast or barbecue and for fish. Sprigs, leaves, and seeds of this herb are
excellent in cooking. It is a hardy annual, and the seeds should be sown
thickly, without thinning.
GARLIC: (Allium sativum) This member of the lily family, along with
Onions, is subject to much comment, both favorable and unfavorable. When
used by the enlightened, experienced cook, garlic-flavored foods can become
a gourmet’s delight; but its use by the inexperienced or amateur or extremist
can produce horrible food concoctions. It is a hardy perennial. A garlic bulb
consists of cloves, each of which will produce a plant. These cloves can be
planted in the fall or very early in the spring. They should be set about four
inches apart, in a trench about an inch deep, and covered with loose soil.
Garlic plants will grow to approximately 18 inches high.
LOVAGE: (Levisticum offecinale) This is a hardy perennial herb with an
unusual flavor that is suggestive of the Orient. It needs a rich soil, and is at its
best when an organic fertilizer is used. The leaves of this plant, either fresh or
dried, may be used very liberally in any recipe that calls for curry. The plants
should be set at least a foot apart.
LEMON BALM (MELISSA): (Melissa offecinalis) This is an interesting
hardy perennial herb. A tea made from Melissa leaves, either fresh or dried,
has a wonderfully refreshing taste, rather resembling a combination of
lemons and mint. It is valuable in salads, in connection with meats, fish, or in
combination with mint herbs. The seedlings should be set about 18 inches
apart. It is a hardy perennial. It may be grown either from seed, or by
propagation in early spring by root division.
SWEET MARJORAM: (Majorama hortensis). This herb may be
designated as a delicate perennial. It does not like cold weather, so it must be
treated as an annual instead of a perennial in regions where the winter
temperatures are low. But if it is planted in the early spring, a good yield is
assured. The leaves give a delightful flavor to meat dishes, spaghetti sauce,
soups, etc. The seeds are rather slow to germinate and the sprouts appear
small, but in a few weeks they will seem to shoot upward suddenly. They
should be thinned to about 5 inches.
SPEARMINT: (Mentha spicata). This is a hardy perennial herb. It seems
to be very particular about where it will grow. It likes water, but will not
grow where there is a muddy soil. Damp ground, with good drainage, is
excellent. The leaves of this herb are used in the drink, mint julep, and in the
mint sauce that is favored for lamb recipes, or wherever a mint flavor is
indicated. It also has a large commercial potential in the perfume and
chewing gum industries, as well as food flavoring. It can be grown from seed,
but it usually is developed from “stolons”—which are horizontal stems,
whose tips go down into the ground and from which new plants will grow.
After a new plant has started, the stolon may be cut between the old plant and
the new one. Mint plants die down to the ground with frost, but when spring
comes, they develop new horizontal shoots, which become vertical when hot
weather arrives. The plants will grow to a height of two or three feet.
NASTURTIUMS: (Tropaeolum minus). This is a very sensitive annual.
We usually think of Nasturtiums as lovely flowers, and many people do not
realize that the leaves and shoots used in salads and as a sweet herb give a
zesty tang or flavor. Also, the seeds can be pickled. The dwarf variety should
be planted, as the other grows too high and large.
ORIGANUM: (Origanum vulgare). This is the English variety. The plant
which is native to America is an inferior one, which is sometimes called
“Wild Marjoram,” but this should not be confused with the genuine Sweet
Marjoram. While English Origanum can be grown from seeds, they are
difficult to obtain in the United States. Plants can be purchased, however.
Each plant needs about a square foot of space for best growth. In ancient
Greece, Origanum was referred to as the “Delight of the Mountains.”
Origanum is adaptable for use in connection with beef recipes, meat loaf,
spaghetti sauce, and soups. The flavor is somewhat similar to that of Sweet
Marjoram, but possibly a bit stronger.
PARSLEY: (Petroselinum hortense) This is a hardy biennial plant. There
are two common varieties of this herb—plain-leafed and curly-leafed. There
is no difference between them except in looks, so the choice is entirely a
matter of individual selection. The curly-leafed variety has perhaps a
somewhat more pleasing appearance when it is used as a garnish, but the
flavor is the same. Parsley seeds are very slow to germinate. This process can
be hastened by soaking the seeds in water for overnight, or perhaps even
longer. Parsley has a very long growing season. It can be planted as early as
the ground can be worked in the spring, and neither the first frost of fall nor
the early freeze of winter will kill it, apparently. The leaves stay green. In
very cold weather, however, some of the flavor is lost.
ENGLISH PENNYROYAL: (Mentha pulegium). While this herb is a true
member of the Mint family, its manner of growth is entirely different from
Spearmint, whose growing stalks are erect or perpendicular. Pennyroyal
produces stems which are prone on the ground. The leaves are small, less
than half an inch long, and have a delightful minty fragrance.
ROSEMARY: (Rosmarinus officinalis) This evergreen, aromatic,
perennial herb was originally a native of southern France, in the
Mediterranean coastal region. It does not like cold weather. Before the first
autumn frost it should be potted and brought into the house. The Latin
generic name, “Rosmarinus” means “Sea-dew.” The flavor which a judicious
use of this herb gives to meat recipes or fish is not like any other. It is
delicious, outstanding, extremely significant, and unforgettable. Because it is
so powerful and lingering, a very small amount only should be used. While it
can be grown from seed, it is a slow starter, and much more rapid growth
results when plants or cuttings are used. It needs lime as fertilizer because it
requires an alkaline soil. Some wood ashes or eggshells may be dug in
around the roots, which will provide the correct soil conditions.
SAGE: (Salvia offecinalis). The use of SAGE as a flavoring herb is well
known, universally. This plant is a hardy perennial, and will survive cold
winter weather. While it can be raised from seed, the first season’s growth is
relatively slow. It is really preferable to plant year-old units. The leaves of
this herb stay green, with their greenish-gray color, all winter long, and in the
spring, the older leaves usually die and fall off. When the new young leaves
appear, the plant should be cut back to five or six inches off the ground, as
that will result in a soft stem condition for the harvest. This process can be
repeated at intervals. Sage is a very important ingredient in the preparation of
all stuffing mixtures, and it also is valuable as a tea herb. The strength of sage
as a herbal accessory of course determines the advice that it should be used
with a great deal of moderation.
SAVORY, SUMMER: (Satureia hortensis)—This herb, originally
imported from Europe, where it originated, is an annual, and it is extremely
sensitive to cold weather, so it should be cultivated only in months that are
free from frost. It is grown from seed, and in northern climates the proper
time for sowing is the last week in May. The plants are quite tall, and erect.
They will grow to a height of perhaps eighteen inches. The growth is
branching. It is advisable to sow the seeds thickly, because rain or wind will
ruin the growth of the spindly shoots. After they grow taller, they may be
thinned to within four inches. This sweet herb has quite a pungent flavor, and
is especially good with fish, pork, veal, beef, also with string beans or in
salads. In the early days, in Europe and particularly in England, Savory was
looked upon as a medicinal herb, good for the digestion.
Another related plant is WINTER SAVORY (Satureia montana). It is a
hardy perennial. The flavor is much stronger and less agreeable than
SUMMER SAVORY.
ROQUETTE (Eruca sativa) is used in France both for flavor and as a
potherb. It is especially good with lettuce. It is a hardy annual, a member of
the mustard family. The flavor of this herb is quite strong, so it should be
used judiciously, but it is a valuable addition to salads and also as a potherb,
but sparingly. It needs a rich soil and much water.
TARRAGON: (Artemisia dracunculus). It dies to the ground in winter, as
do many true herbs, but is a very hardy perennial, and the summer growth
erects the plant to about two feet high, at which time the small, narrow leaves
are at their best for use. Successive cuttings are possible. There are several
varieties of Tarragon. The best is French Tarragon. It is best propagated from
cuttings or root sections. The seeds on the market are very inferior.
GARDEN THYME: (Thymus vulgaris). This hardy perennial herb can be
grown from seed. It is better to start with yearling plants, however, because
the first year seedlings are hardly large enough for a good crop. Thyme is a
favorite herb with experienced cooks, but it should be used sparingly. It is
especially good with soups, meat stews, stuffing mixtures, sea-food chowders
and a little in salads. It has an interesting history for its medicinal properties.
John Gerard, a surgeon in London, in 1597 recommended thyme for stomach
ailments. He also said, “Thyme, with honey, is good against the cough and ye
shortness of breath.” Oil of Thyme was recommended to relieve toothache, in
the old English days.
FENNEL, SWEET: (Foeniculum dulce). This delicate annual herb should
be grown only in the months that are frost free. A native of the Mediterranean
countries, it is a favorite herb much used in Italian cooking. In growth-
pattern, the stalks are thick, wide, and stocky. If they are banked up with
earth, the blanched stems can be cooked as a vegetable—a potherb. Fennel is
most noted as a “fish-herb” but it is used as a green canape and a general
flavoring agent as well. In ancient Greece, according to the early Greek
herbalist, Dioscorides, it was reputed to be an excellent remedy for stomach
and bladder troubles. He also wrote, “Juice of the bruised stalks, and ye
leaves being dried in ye sun” made a good eye medicine.
TANSY: (Tanacetum vulgare). A very hardy perennial, imported from
Europe by early colonists Tansy has spread, particularly in the Eastern U.S.
until it is almost like a roadside weed. The colonists had many uses for it,
notably in puddings, cakes, and teas. In early days it was reputed to be good
for stomach troubles and it also was used as a vermifuge and “strewing” herb.
William Coles wrote, in 1657, “I have heard that if Maids will take wild
tansy and lay it to sod in Buttermilke for the space of nine days, and wash
their faces therewith, it will make them look very faire.”
FEVERFEW: (Chrysanthemum parthenium) This herb is a perennial, able
to withstand cold weather also. It is a free self-seeder. When new plants are
well started, they should be spaced about ten inches apart, for proper growth.
The mature plants will reach a height of probably one to three feet. It is
particularly interesting as an ancient medicinal herb that originated in Europe
and the Near East. It has been used for many hundreds of years to relieve
nervous headaches, neuralgic pains, and even rheumatic twitches. The
treatment recommended in these ancient records was to steep the small
flowers in hot water to make a tea. Also the entire plant was used to make a
tea that relieved fevers and congestions. Also, a tincture made from this plant
was a relief from insect bites.
ELECAMPANE: (Inula helenium) This hardy, perennial medicinal herb
was imported from Europe by the early colonists. Thoroughly acclimated in
America, it has become almost a “native weed,” that often grows apparently
wild in com fields. There are several varieties, some tall and some short. The
tall ones have tropical-looking foliage and large flowers, up to four inches in
diameter, of a yellow or orange color. When planted in a garden, it needs at
least two feet of space. It has been revered in the past by herbal doctors. Its
roots were used in the treatment of stomach disturbances and heart trouble,
and its leaves to help relieve the pains of sciatica. An ancient English recipe
(Culpepper, 1653) specifies “fresh roots of elecampane preserved with sugar,
or made into a syrup or conserve.” The recipe further states that “Roots thus
prepared are very effectual to warm a cold windy stomach, or the prickling
therein, and stitches in the spleen.” These herbs are easily raised from seed,
or they may be grown from root division in the spring.
ANGELICA: (Angelica archangelica). This hardy biennial herb is reputed
to have received its name because of its angelic medicinal properties. The
English herbalist, William Coles, in 1657, wrote that it was “Soveraigne
against the plague; also good for the heart, and if carried on the person will
ward off witches!” Angelica is quite tropical in appearance, with large,
separated, or divided leaves. The flowers are greenish white, in big umbels.
The stalk, which has a sweet taste, is often candied by confectioners. The
leaves, which are bittersweet, may be cooked with rhubarb in pie. Normally a
biennial, if it is not allowed to bloom, the plant will last for several years. It is
a showy plant for the garden, and should be spaced two feet apart. It needs a
damp soil, and likes semishade. It may be propagated by root division of two-
year-old plants. An oil made from its roots and seeds is used in flavoring
vermouth and other liquors.
CHICORY: (Cichorium intebus). This hardy perennial herb was a native of
Europe. Imported into America by the early colonists, it quickly became
naturalized, and “escaped” from careful garden planting. It is familiar today,
particularly in Eastern United States, as a beautiful roadside growth,
frequently admired because of the beauty of its light-blue flowers. This herb
often grows to a height of six feet. It is both a salad herb and a potherb. Its
seeds, roasted, have been and are used as a substitute for coffee. There are
certain “Coffee and Chicory” mixtures on the markets today. If planted in the
spring, the units should be approximately six inches apart, for best growth.
WORMWOOD: (Artemisia absinthium). There are several different plants
popularly called WORMWOOD but the species absinthium is perhaps the
most common and familiar one. It is the herb which furnishes the bitter oil
that is the ingredient of the liquor, ABSINTHE, also used in other liquors and
appetizers, and this oil is an ingredient in a few medicines, as well.
Wormwood is a hardy perennial. It grows to an approximate height of from
two to four feet. The leaves are gray-green in color, quite abundant, and the
flowers, while comparatively small, are greenish yellow. The reputation of
WORMWOOD has persisted for many centuries in its native South European
habitat as a valuable medicinal herb, particularly for disturbances of stomach
and spleen. It is also used as a vermifuge. This true herb dies down to the
roots in the fall, but revives in the spring. It is easy to raise it, either from
seeds or from cuttings.
ANOTHER VARIETY OF WORMWOOD (Artemisia pontifica) is worthy
of mention. It also is a hardy perennial. It has been called ROMAN
WORMWOOD, with somewhat different leaves. This herb has feathery,
silver leaves, and it is a little smaller than the “absinthium,” although the
properties and uses are similar. ROMAN WORMWOOD was said by
Dioscorides, (ancient Greek herbalist), to be a moth repellent, and an
excellent remedy for “healing ye bites of ye shrew mouse!” It was also
recommended for use with wine, to counteract the effects of poison hemlock.
Plants in the garden should be spaced about fifteen inches apart, for proper
growth.
 WHITE YARROW: (Achillea millefolium) is familiar to many, as a
fragrant wild flower common along roadsides. It is common in Europe and in
Asiatic lands as well as America. It spreads too rapidly and prolifically for a
garden, but it is interesting as a medicinal herb, that has been used for bladder
troubles, sores of various kinds, and for similar ailments. There is another
variety of the same herb, that has red flowers instead of white, that shows the
same properties, but is not so spreading, and this red variety makes an
excellent garden plant. It is showy, with crimson, rosy flowers, and
‘’Thousand-leafed” (millefolium) gray foliage.
There is a very interesting herb that has a practical, modem use in the
weaving and dyeing industry, but which also has had a vital place in mystical
history, particularly in ancient Britain and Gaul. A member of the
Brassicaceae, The Mustard Family, it is a hardy biennial of quite striking
appearance. Because of its renown in the ritualistic practices of the early
inhabitants of northern and central Europe, especially among the Druids, it
has been given the title, “Honorable.” So let it be known as THE
HONORABLE WOAD!
WOAD: (Isatis tinctoria) needs good rich soil for best results. The first
season’s growth results in a mass of intensely blue-green lance-shaped leaves
that are shiny with a mysterious “aliveness.” In early spring of the second
season, blue-green thick stems grow up as high as four feet and produce a
broad panicle of hundreds of yellow flowers, the effect resembling a huge
shallow filigree of delicate lace. When these flowers fade and die, a mass of
brown seeds appears, which, if left to mature, will self sow. It is the leaves of
this herb that produce the valuable blue dye. This was mentioned in Chapter
Three, MYSTERIOUS STONEHENGE, in the discussion of Druidic
ritualistic rites. During the Middle Ages in Europe, the commercial culture of
WOAD was so important that it was taxed and regulated by governmental
decree. Today it is used in the manufacture of blue dyes and as a mordant in
the use of indigo. Despite the fact that it is not a food, it will make an
attractive addition to any herb garden. Several plants, spaced perhaps six
inches apart, will make a good showing.
VALERIAN: (Valeriana offecinalis) A hardy perennial, has rootstalks that
have medicinal properties. Its leaves are used to flavor tobacco. The flowers
are very fragrant, and a beautiful pink color. It has been called “Garden
Heliotrope.”
 MANDRAKE: (Atropa mandragora) has a long history in legend and
romance. It is one of the herbs mentioned in the Bible story of Leah, Rachel,
and Jacob. It was thought to have and to confer romantic emotion and fertility
powers, as well as its delightful odor and beauty.
The fruits of the true Plant, which is often given the botanical name,
Madragora officinarum, when ripe, resemble a small tomato, with a pale
orange to reddish color, which have a delightful perfume that was mentioned
in the Bible, in the story of Solomon.
Mandrake roots, in Roman days, according to Pliny, were said to have the
property of anaesthesia. A piece of the root was given to a patient to be
chewed during an operation. In those ancient times the Mandrake plant was
thought to be excellent to provide restful sleep, to ease pain, to be an aid in
cases of mild insanity.
In early England and among the Druids, it was treasured as quite
efficacious in combating evil spirits and demons. Today, the leaves are
sometimes used in manufacturing external ointments, and its roots have
apparent emetic properties. It can be propagated best by root division in the
spring.
Another sweet herb mentioned in the Bible (Mark 14:5,6.) is
SPIKENARD: (Nardostachys jatamansi). This perennial is a native of Nepal
and Tibet. In the Song of Solomon, in the Old Testament, it is related, that
“While the King sitteth at his table, my SPIKENARD sendeth forth the smell
thereof.” In ancient times, the fragrant ointment from this small herb was
very precious, expensive, and highly prized. Even today, it still is transported
in alabaster boxes, on camel back, from the Tibet region where it is still
grown. In color, the ointment is a rich rose red, and the odor is “out of this
world.”
The American variety of this herb is called ARALEA. The botanical name
is Aralea racemosa. However, it has not yet produced the wonderful
properties of the true SPIKENARD. An experiment in plant breeding is
suggested, which should prove interesting, indeed.
The following quotation is taken from a book published in 1779, THE
TOILET OF FLORA. The author is unknown.
“The Vinegar Of The Four Thieves: Take the tops of Sea and Roman
Wormwood, Rosemary, Sage, Mint and Rue, each an ounce and a half; of
Lavender flowers two ounces; of Calamus aromaticus, Cinnamon, Cloves,
Nutmeg, and Garlic, of each a quarter of an ounce; of Camphire, half an
ounce; of Red Wine Vinegar, a gallon.”
This concoction was reputed to be so powerful that it would protect the
thieves who were robbing the dead bodies of Plague victims, and render them
immune to contagion of the dread disease! It shows quite dramatically the
widespread belief in the efficacy of herbs, even in the underworld in the early
days. Times have indeed changed. Many of those ancient beliefs are
considered to be mere superstitions, in the light of modern scientific
knowledge. However, all thinking people will realize that in recent years
many things that were formerly considered fanciful dreams have become
accepted facts. Space travel is one example. The marvels of electronics also
demonstrate the truth that science is an orderly, systematic pursuit of
knowledge. Modern medicine owes much of its success to the adaptations of
ancient herbal healing lore. In every phase of life, herbs and herbal products
are vital.
Truly, modern civilization owes its very existence to the not-so-lowly herb.
In order to progress mentally, health is required. Physical and mental health
depend on nourishment which means food and the prevention and treatment
of disease. The greater portion of our food is derived from herbs and herbal
products, and most of our medicines have been developed by observation of
the healing principles of Nature.
 THE ROSICRUCIAN ORDER, AMORC
Purpose and Work of the Order
The Rosicrucian Order, AMORC, is a philosophical and initiatic tradition.
As students progress in their studies, they are initiated into the next level or
degree.
Rosicrucians are men and women around the world who study the laws of
nature in order to live in harmony with them. Individuals study the
Rosicrucian lessons in the privacy of their own homes on subjects such as the
nature of the soul, developing intuition, classical Greek philosophy, energy
centers in the body, and self-healing techniques.
The Rosicrucian tradition encourages each student to discover the wisdom,
compassion, strength, and peace that already reside within each of us.
www.rosicrucian.org
 Table of Contents
Foreword
PART ONE
LEGEND, ANTIQUITY, AND EARLY HISTORY
From the Dawn of Civilization
Aromas for the Gods
Mysterious Stonehenge
God’s Gift to Man
PART TWO
FOLKLORE AND TRANSITION
“Everything Is Becoming”
Herbs in the Colonies
Indian Culture Regions
Indian Herbal Rituals
The Earliest Agriculturists
PART THREE
THE AMERICAN HERITAGE
Herbs Are Health Builders
Nature Knows Best
Food, Medicine, and Pleasure
PART FOUR
EPILOGUE
For Reference and Information