Psychology Note 2067-Outer Materials Than Book Overt & Covert Behaviour
Psychology Note 2067-Outer Materials Than Book Overt & Covert Behaviour
Psychology Note 2067-Outer Materials Than Book Overt & Covert Behaviour
Psychologists often classify behaviors into two categories: overt and covert. Overt
behaviors are those which are directly observable, such as talking, running, scratching or
blinking. Covert behaviors are those which go on inside the skin. They include such
private events as thinking and imagining. Some covert behaviors are only detectable by
the person who is performing them, in which case they are truly private, whereas others
may be detected by special means.
Overt behaviors have many observable properties, such as form, intensity, duration, and
frequency. Such properties can be perceived by our unaided are always public senses,
measured and classified. Covert behaviors, on the other hand, can only be detected by
inference or through the use of special techniques and devices. For example, some
covert behaviors can be made public by the use of sensitive instruments that pick up
minute electrical impulses from the internal workings of the body. A heart beat, normally
a private event, can be heard and amplified for many people to hear simultaneously.
Using such instruments, it has been shown that the heart rate increases when a person
feels anxious, and muscular activity has been detected in the vocal cords when a person
is thinking to himself. It has been found that public and private behaviors are often
correlated. When a person reports that he is feeling tense, a scientist can often detect
impulses from various muscle groups which indicate a state of tension. Even some
components of the usually very private event of dreaming can be detected in the
measurement of brain waves and in the movement of the eyeballs during sleep.
There are other covert behaviors such as imagining, perceiving, and dreaming, which no
instrumentation has yet been able to detect. Psychologists are by no means unanimous
as to the place of such private events in the science of psychology. Some take an extreme
viewpoint similar to Watson's that only detectable behaviors which are public, and
therefore open to observa- tion by unbiased observers, are proper. But to most
psychologists, private events are as much a part of the real world as their more easily
observable counterparts. Thus, most psychologists do accept private covert behaviors as
an important factor in research and therapy, but with full recognition that they may be
less reliable, and that special methodological care must be taken in using such events as
data. Watson's position had to be modified, but he prompted psychologists to think
about behavior in ways that made it essential to the study of psychology.
Founders and proponents: John B. Watson in the early 20th century. B.F. Skinner,
Ivan Pavlov, and others.
Basic idea: Stimulus-response. All behavior caused by external stimuli (operant
conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal
mental states or consciousness.
Learner viewed as: Passive, responds to environmental stimuli.
Behavior may result in reinforcement (increased likelihood that behavior will occur
in the future); or punishment.
Enduring Issues
All psychologists share a common interesting five enduring issues that override
their areas of specialization and that cut to the core of what it means to be human.
Person-Situation To what extent is behavior caused by processes that occur inside
the person (such as thoughts, emotions, motives, attitudes, values, personality,
and genes)? In contrast, to what extent is behavior caused or triggered by factors
outside the person (such as incentives, cues in the environment, and the presence
of other people)?
Nature-Nurture Is the person we become a product of innate, inborn tendencies,
or a reflection of experiences and upbringing? This is the famous “nature versus
nurture” debate. For decades, psychologists argued about the degree of influence
that heredity or genes versus environment or experience have on thought and
behavior.
Stability-Change Are the characteristics we develop in childhood more or less
permanent and fixed, or do we change in predictable (and unpredictable) ways
over the course of our lives?
Diversity-Universality To what extent is every person in certain respects (a) like all
other people, (b) like some other people, or (c) like no other person? Human
diversity is a central concern for psychologists.
Mind-Body finally, how are mind and body connected? Many psychologists are
fascinated by the relationship between what we experience (such as thoughts and
feelings) and what our biological processes are (such as thoughts and feelings) and
what our biological processes are (such as activity in the nervous system).
Psychology as Science
What does psychology have in common with other sciences?
Earlier we defined psychology as the science of behavior and mental processes.
Psychologists rely on the scientific method when seeking to answer questions.
They collect data through careful, systematic observation; attempt to explain what
they have observed by developing theories; make new predictions based on those
theories; and then systematically test those predictions through additional
observations and experiments to determine whether they are correct. Thus, like
all scientists, psychologists use the scientific method to describe, understand,
predict, and eventually, achieve some measure of control over what they study.
Physiological psychologists - developmental psychologists - social psychologists
Theory Systematic explanation of a phenomenon; it organizes know facts, allows
us to predict new facts, and permits us the exercise a degree of control over the
phenomenon.
Hypotheses Specific, testable predictions derived from a theory.
Critical Thinking: a fringe Benefit of studying Psychology
Collect and examine all the available evidence. In doing so, be skeptical of
people’s self-reports, as they may be subjectively biased.
Analyze assumptions. Because balancing different people’s strengths and
weaknesses is a good way to form a group, it is probably a good basis for personal
relationships as week, and that is why people of opposite temperaments are
naturally attracted to each other.
Avoid oversimplifying. Don’t overlook the evidence that people of similar
temperaments find living together rather difficult in some ways.
Draw conclusions carefully.
Consider every alternative interpretation.
Recognize the relevance of research to events and situations
The Growth of Psychology “Psychology has a long past, but a short history.” What
does that mean?
In the West, since the time of Plato and Aristotle, people have wondered and
written about human behavior and mental processes. But not until the late 1800’s
did they begin to apply the scientific method to questions that had puzzled
philosophers for centuries. The history of psychology can be divided into three
main stages: the emergence of a science of the mind, the behaviorist decades, and
the “cognitive revolution.”
The “New Psychology”: A science of the Mind
How did Wundt help to define psychology as a science of the mind? Why did
James think that sensation and perception alone couldn’t explain behavior? Why
was Freud’s theory of the unconscious shocking at the turn of the twentieth
century?
Wihelm Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchener: Structuralism By general
agreement, psychology was born in 1879, the year that Wilhelm Wundt founded
the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. Wundt
did not attract much attention; only four students attended his first lecture. By the
mid-1890’s, however, his classes were filled to capacity. Wundt set about trying to
explain immediate experience and to develop ways to study it scientifically, though
he also believed that some mental processes could not be studied through
scientific experiments. Wundt was primarily interested in selective attention – the
process by which we determine what we are going to attend to at any given
moment. For Wundt, attention is actively controlled by intentions and motives. In
turn, attention controls other psychological processes, such as perceptions,
thoughts, and memories. Wundt moved psychology out of the realm of
philosophy into the world of science. G. Stanley Hall, who established the first
American psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in 1883, studied with
Wundt; so did J. M. Cattell, the first American to be called a “professor of
psychology” (at the University of Pennsylvania in 1888). Titchener was impressed
by recent advances in chemistry and physics, achieved by analyzing complex
compounds (molecules) in terms of their basic elements (atoms). Titchener broke
down consciousness into three basic elements: physical sensations (what we see),
feelings (such as liking or disliking bananas), and images (memories of other
bananas). Even the most complex thoughts and feelings, he argued, can be
reduced to these simple elements. Titchener saw psychology’s role as identifying
these elements and showing how they can be combined and integrated – an
approach known as structuralism.
William James: Functionalism One of the first academics to challenge
structuralism was American. As a young man, James earned a degree in
physiology and also studied philosophy on his own, unable to decide which
interested him more. In psychology he found the link between the two. In 1875,
James offered a class in psychology a Harvard. He later commented that the first
lecture he ever heard on the subject was his own. James argued that Titchener’s
“atoms of experience” – pure sensations without associations – simply do not exist
in real-life experience. Perceptions, emotions, and images cannot be separated,
James argued; consciousness flows in a continuous steam. Metal associations
allow us to benefit form pervious experience. When we get up in the morning, get
dressed, open the door, and walk down the street, we don’t have to think about
what we are dong; we act out of habit. James suggested that when we repeat
something, our nervous systems are changed so that each repetition is easier than
the last. James developed a functionalist theory of mental processes and behavior
that raised questions about learning, the complexities of mental life, the impact of
experience on the brain, and humankind’s place in the natural world that still seem
current today. James shared Wundt and Tichener’s belief that the goal of
psychology was to analyze experience.
Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic Psychology Of all psychology’s pioneers, Sigmund
Freud is by far the best known-and the most controversial. A medical doctor,
unlike the other figures we have introduced, Freud was fascinated by the central
nervous system. After a trip to Paris, where he studied with a neurologist who was
using hypnosis to treat nervous disorders, Freud established a private practice in
Vienna. His work with patients convinced him that many nervous ailments are
psychological rather than physiological in origin. Freud’s clinical observations led
him to develop a comprehensive. Rather, we are motivated by unconscious
instincts and urges that are not available to the rational, conscious part of our
mind. In contrast, Freud saw the unconscious as a dynamic cauldron of primitive
sexual and aggressive drives, forbidden desires, nameless fears and wishes, and
traumatic childhood memories. To uncover the unconscious, Freud developed the
technique of free association, in which the patient lies on a couch, recounts
dreams, and says whatever comes to mind. Freud’s psychodynamic theory was as
controversial at the turn of the century as Darwin’s theory of evolution had been
twenty-five years earlier. Often unaware of our true motives and thus are not
entirely in control of our thoughts and behavior. Freud’s lectures and writings
attracted considerable attention in the United States as well as in Europe; he had a
profound impact on the arts and philosophy, s well as on psychology.
Psychodynamic theory, as expanded and revised by Freud’s colleagues and
successors, laid the foundation for the study of personality and psychological
disorders. His revolutionary notion of the unconscious and his portrayal of human
beings as constantly at war with themselves are taken for granted today, at least in
literary and artistic circles. Freud’s theories were never totally accepted by
mainstream psychology, however, and in recent decades his influence on clinical
psychology and psychotherapy has declined.
Redefining Psychology: The study of Behavior
Until the beginning of the twentieth century, psychology saw itself as the study of
mental processes, conscious or unconscious (psychodynamic psychology), viewed
as discrete units and compounds (structuralism) or as an ever-changing flow
(functionalism). The primary method of collecting data was introspection or self-
observation, in a laboratory or on an analyst’s couch. At the beginning of the
twentieth century, however, a new generation of psychologists rebelled against
this “soft” approach. The leader of the challenge was the American psychologist
John B. Watson.
John B Watson: Behaviorism John B. Watson argued that the whole idea of
mental life was superstition, a relic left over from the Middle Age. In “Psychology
as a Behaviorist Views it” (1913), Watson contended that you cannot see or even
define consciousness any more than you can observe a soul. And if you cannot
locate or measure something, it cannot be the object of scientific study. For
Watson, psychology was the study of observable, measurable behavior-and
nothing more. Watson’s view of psychology, known as behaviorism, was based on
the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who had won a Nobel Prize for
his research on digestion. Pavlov called this simple form of training conditioning.
Thus new school of psychology was inspired by a casual observation – followed by
rigorous experiments. Watson came to believe that all mental experiences –
thinking, feeling, awareness of self- are nothing more than physiological changes in
response to accumulated experiences of conditioning. An infant, he argued, is a
tabula rasa (Latin for “blank slate”) on which experience may write virtually
anything. Watson attempted to demonstrate that all psychological phenomena –
even Freud’s unconscious motivations – are the result of conditioning.
Watson was also interested in showing that fears
Gestalt psychology – School of psychology that studies how people perceive and
experience objects as whole patterns.
Humanistic psychology – School of psychology that emphasizes nonverbal
experience and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one’s full
human potential.
Existential psychology – School of psychology that focuses on the meaninglessness
and alienation of modern life, and how these factors led to apathy and
psychological problems.
Cognitive psychology – School of psychology devoted to the study of mental
processes in the broadest sense.
Evolutionary psychology – An approach to, and subfield of, psychology that is
concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental process, their
adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve.
Explores the origins of human behavior and establishes linds to the behavior of
other animals.
Positive psychology – An emerging field of psychology that focuses on positive
experiences, including subjective well-being, self-determination, the relationship
between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow
individuals, communities, and societies to flourish.
It was not until the late 1800’s or nineteenth century that psychology came into its
own as a separate discipline.
Structuralism is the school of psychology that stresses the basic elements of
experience and the way they combine.
Functionalism theory of mental life and behavior that is concerned with how an
organism uses its perceptual abilities to function in its environment.
Behaviorism school of psychology that studies only observable and measurable
behavior.
Psychodynamic psychology Maintains that hidden motives and unconscious
desires govern much of our behavior
Existential psychology is concerned with alienation in modern life and resulting
psychological problems.
Wilhelm Wundt – Established the first psychological laboratory.
William James – Offered a psychology class at Harvard and developed a
functionalist theory.
Sigmund Freud – Developed psychoanalysis and explored unconscious conflicts.
John b. Watson – Used conditioning principles to demonstrate the conditioning of
fear.
B. F. Skinner – Extensively studied the effects of rewards on behavior.
Behaviourism has parsimonious (i.e. economical / cost cutting) theories of learning, suing
a few simple principles (reinforcement, behaviour shaping, generalisation, etc.) to
explain a vast variety of behaviour from language acquisition to moral development. It
advanced bold, precise and refutable hypotheses (such as Thorndike’s law of effect) and
possessed a hard core of central assumptions such as determinism from the environment
(it was only when this assumption faced overwhelming criticism by the cognitive and
ethological theorists that the behaviourist paradigm / model was overthrown).
Behaviourists firmly believed in the scientific principles of determinism and orderliness,
and thus came up with fairly consistent predictions about when an animal was likely to
respond (although they admitted that perfect prediction for any individual was
impossible). The behaviorists used their predictions to control the behaviour of both
animals (pigeons trained to detect life jackets) and humans (behavioural therapies) and
indeed Skinner, in his book Walden Two (1948), described a society controlled according
to behaviourist principles.
Binet-Simon test
Description:
Intelligence test used particularly on children aged 3 to 15 years.
In the period from 1905 to 1908 the French psychologists Alfred Binet and Théodore
Simon devised a series of tests whereby the intellectual capacity of the subject is
estimated by comparison with that of normal children and adolescents of various ages.
The mental age divided by the chronological age gives the so-called IQ, or intelligence
quotient. Their formula stated that children under nine whose development is retarded
by two years are probably mentally deficient and that children of nine or more who are
retarded by three years are definitely deficient.
Binet's Success
The first successful test of intelligence was developed by French psychologist Alfred Binet
in response to a request by French public school officials for a test that could identify
school children at risk of falling behind their peers in academic achievement. The result
was the Binet-Simon intelligence test.
The Binet-Simon test consists of a variety of items intended to reflect knowledge and
skills the average French school child of a given age would have. These items are graded
in difficulty according to age, so that, for example, items the average twelve-year-old
would be able to answer, a younger child would tend to miss. The test is administered
individually, one-on-one, by a person trained to do so, and requires upwards of two
hours to complete.
The scoring of the test produces a number called the child's mental age. The mental age
reflects the level at which the child performed on the test -- if the child performed at the
level of the average ten-year-old, for example, then the child would be assigned a mental
age of ten, regardless of the child's chronological age (physical age). One compares the
child's mental age to his or her chronological age. If the mental age is the same as the
chronological age, then the child is average. If the mental age is higher than the
chronological age, then the child is mentally "advanced" or gifted. If the mental age is
lower than the chronological age, then the child is mentally "retarded," or behind his or
her peers in intellectual development.
The Binet-Simon test and its successors measure intelligence by assessing intellectual
skills and knowledge. They assume that the individual has had the opportunity to learn
these skills and knowledge; if the person had the opportunity to learn them and did not,
then this is assumed to reflect a defecit in intelligence. On the other hand, if the person
has not had the exposure needed to learn these things, the failure to demonstrate
knowledge of them says nothing about the person's intelligence. Ignoring this truth has
led to some unwarranted conclusions being drawn based on test results.
Illusion
An illusion is a distortion of the senses, revealing how the brain normally organizes and
interprets sensory stimulation. While illusions distort reality, they are generally shared by
most people. Illusions may occur with more of the human senses than vision, but visual
illusions, optical illusions, are the most well known and understood. The emphasis on
visual illusions occurs because vision often dominates the other senses. Some illusions
are based on general assumptions the brain makes during perception. These
assumptions are made using organizational principles, like Gestalt, an individual's ability
of depth perception and motion perception, and perceptual constancy. Other illusions
occur because of biological sensory structures within the human body or conditions
outside of the body within one’s physical environment.
The term illusion refers to a specific form of sensory distortion. Unlike a hallucination,
which is a distortion in the absence of a stimulus, an illusion describes a
misinterpretation of a true sensation. For example, hearing voices regardless of the
environment would be a hallucination, whereas hearing voices in the sound of running
water (or other auditory source) would be an illusion.
Optical illusions
An optical illusion is always characterized by visually perceived images that, at least in
common sense terms, are deceptive or misleading. Therefore, the information gathered
by the eye is processed by the brain to give, on the face of it, a percept that does not
tally with a physical measurement of the stimulus source. A conventional assumption is
that there are physiological illusions that occur naturally and cognitive illusions that can
be demonstrated by specific visual tricks that say something more basic about how
human perceptual systems work. The human brain constructs a world inside our head
based on what it samples from the surrounding environment. However sometimes it
tries to organise this information it thinks best while other times it fills in the gaps. This
way in which our brain works is the basis of an illusion.
Auditory illusions
An auditory illusion is an illusion of hearing, the sound equivalent of an optical illusion:
the listener hears either sounds which are not present in the stimulus, or "impossible"
sounds. In short, audio illusions highlight areas where the human ear and brain, as
organic, makeshift tools, differ from perfect audio receptors (for better or for worse).
One example of an auditory illusion is a Shepard tone.
Other senses
Illusions can occur with the other senses including that of taste and smell. It was
discovered that even if some portion of the taste receptor on the tongue became
damaged that illusory taste could be produced by tactile stimulation. Evidence of
olfactory (smell) illusions occurred when positive or negative verbal labels were given
prior to olfactory stimulation.
Disorders
Some illusions occur as result of an illness or a disorder. While these types of illusions are
not shared with everyone they are typical of each condition. For example migraine
suffers often report Fortification illusions.
Philosophy and Illusion
Just like many other words often used in a different sense in spirituality the word
"illusion" is used to denote different aspects in Hindu Philosophy (Maya). As per Hindu
advaita philosophy, Illusion is something which is not true and not false. Whereas in
general usage it is common to assume that illusion is false Hindu philosophy makes a
distinction between Maya (illusion) and falsehood. In terms of this philosophy maya is
true in itself but it is not true in comparison with the truth. As per this philosophy,
illusion is not the opposite of truth or reality. Based on these assumptions Vedas declare
that the world as humans normally see is illusion (Maya).
Delusion
A delusion, in everyday language, is a fixed belief that is either false, fanciful, or derived
from deception. Psychiatry defines the term more specifically as a belief that is
pathological (the result of an illness or illness process) and is held despite evidence to the
contrary. As a pathology, it is distinct from a belief based on false or incomplete
information, dogma, stupidity, apperception, illusion, or other effects of perception.
Delusions typically occur in the context of neurological or mental illness, although they
are not tied to any particular disease and have been found to occur in the context of
many pathological states (both physical and mental). However, they are of particular
diagnostic importance in psychotic disorders and particularly in schizophrenia,
paraphrenia, manic episodes of bipolar disorder, and psychotic depression.
Definition
Although non-specific concepts of madness have been around for several thousand
years, the psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers was the first to define the three main
criteria for a belief to be considered delusional in his 1917 book General
Psychopathology. These criteria are:
These criteria still continue in modern psychiatric diagnosis. The most recent Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders defines a delusion as:
A false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality that is firmly
sustained despite what almost everybody else believes and despite what
constitutes incontrovertible and obvious proof or evidence to the contrary. The
belief is not one ordinarily accepted by other members of the person's culture or
subculture.
Delusions are not due to a medical condition or substance abuse and they may seem
believable at face value. Also, patients usually appear normal as long as another person
does not touch upon their delusional themes.
Delusions are not tied to any particular disease and they usually occur in the context of
neurological or mental illness. Also, they have been found to occur in the context of
many pathological states.
Types
Delusions are categorized into four different groups:
Causes
To define delusional thinking in a specific patient, it is important to consult a local
psychiatrist who can make a thorough examination before diagnosing the problem.
Explaining the causes of delusions has been challenging and several theories have been
developed. One of them is the genetic or biological one which states that close relatives
of people with delusional disorder have increased possibilities to show delusional traits.
Another theory is the dysfunctional cognitive processing which states that delusions may
arise from distorted ways people have of explaining life to themselves. A third theory is
called motivated or defensive delusions. This one states that some of those persons who
are predisposed might suffer the onset of delusional disorder in those moments when
coping with life and maintaining high self-esteem becomes a significant challenge. In this
case, the person views others as the cause of their personal difficulties in order to
preserve a positive view of oneself.
This condition is more common among people who have poor hearing or sight. Also,
ongoing stressors have been associated with a higher possibility of developing delusions.
Examples of such stressors are immigration or low socio-economic status.
Hallucination
A hallucination, in the broadest sense of the word, is a perception in the absence of a
stimulus. In a stricter sense, hallucinations are defined as perceptions in a conscious and
awake state in the absence of external stimuli which have qualities of real perception, in
that they are vivid, substantial, and located in external objective space. The latter
definition distinguishes hallucinations from the related phenomena of dreaming, which
does not involve wakefulness; illusion, which involves distorted or misinterpreted real
perception; imagery, which does not mimic real perception and is under voluntary
control; and pseudohallucination, which does not mimic real perception, but is not under
voluntary control. Hallucinations also differ from "delusional perceptions", in which a
correctly sensed and interpreted genuine perception is given some additional (and
typically bizarre) significance.
Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality — visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory,
tactile, proprioceptive, equilibrioceptive, nociceptive, thermoceptive and chronoceptive.
A mild form of hallucination is known as a disturbance, and can occur in any of the
senses above. These may be things like seeing movement in peripheral vision, or hearing
faint noises and/or voices. Auditory hallucinations are very common in schizophrenia of
the paranoid type. They may be benevolent (telling the patient good things about
themselves) or malicious, cursing the patient etc. Auditory hallucinations of the malicious
type are frequently heard like people talking about the patient behind their back. Like
auditory hallucinations, the source of their visual counterpart can also be behind the
patient's back. Their visual counterpart is the feeling of being looked-stared at, usually
with malicious intent. Not infrequently, auditory hallucinations and their visual
counterpart are experienced by the patient together.
Classification
Visual
The most common modality referred to when people speak of hallucinations. These
include the phenomena of seeing things which are not present or visual perception
which does not reconcile with the consensus reality. There are many different causes,
which have been classed as psychophysiologic (a disturbance of brain structure),
psychobiochemical (a disturbance of neurotransmitters), and psychological (e.g.
meaningful experiences intruding into consciousness). Numerous disorders can involve
visual hallucinations, ranging from psychotic disorders to dementia to migraine, but
experiencing visual hallucinations does not in itself mean there is necessarily a disorder.
Auditory
Auditory hallucinations (also known as Paracusia), particularly of one or more talking
voices, are particularly associated with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia or
mania, and hold special significance in diagnosing these conditions, although many
people not suffering from diagnosable mental illness may sometimes hear voices as well.
Auditory hallucinations of non-organic origin are most often met with in paranoid
schizophrenia. their visual counterpart in that disease is the non-reality-based feeling of
being looked or stared at.
Other types of auditory hallucination include exploding head syndrome and musical ear
syndrome, and may occur during sleep paralysis. In the latter, people will hear music
playing in their mind, usually songs they are familiar with. Recent reports have also
mentioned that it is also possible to get musical hallucinations from listening to music for
long periods of time. This can be caused by: lesions on the brain stem (often resulting
from a stroke); also, tumors, encephalitis, or abscesses.[6] Other reasons include hearing
loss and epileptic activity. Auditory hallucinations are also a result of attempting wake-
initiation of lucid dreams.
Olfactory
Phantosmia is the phenomenon of smelling odors that aren't really present. The most
common odors are unpleasant smells such as rotting flesh, vomit, urine, feces, smoke, or
others. Phantosmia often results from damage to the nervous tissue in the olfactory
system. The damage can be caused by viral infection, brain tumor, trauma, surgery, and
possibly exposure to toxins or drugs. Phantosmia can also be induced by epilepsy
affecting the olfactory cortex and is also thought to possibly have psychiatric origins.
[
Phantosmia is different from parosmia, in which a smell is actually present, but
perceived differently from its usual smell.
Olfactory hallucinations have also been reported in migraine, although the frequency of
such hallucinations is unclear.
Tactile
Other types of hallucinations create the sensation of tactile sensory input, simulating
various types of pressure to the skin or other organs. This type of hallucination is often
associated with substance use, such as someone who feels bugs crawling on them
(known as formication) after a prolonged period of cocaine or amphetamine use.
Stages of a hallucination
Cause
Hallucinations can be caused by a number of factors.
Hypnagogic hallucination
These hallucinations occur just before falling asleep, and affect a surprisingly high
proportion of the population. The hallucinations can last from seconds to minutes, all the
while the subject usually remains aware of the true nature of the images. These may be
associated with narcolepsy. Hypnagogic hallucinations are sometimes associated with
brainstem abnormalities, but this is rare.
Peduncular hallucinosis
Peduncular means pertaining to the peduncle, which is a neural tract running to and
from the pons on the brain stem. These hallucinations usually occur in the evenings, but
not during drowsiness, as in the case of hypnagogic hallucination. The subject is usually
fully conscious and then can interact with the hallucinatory characters for extended
periods of time. As in the case of hypnagogic hallucinations, insight into the nature of the
images remains intact. The false images can occur in any part of the visual field, and are
rarely polymodal.
Delirium tremens
One of the more enigmatic forms of visual hallucination is the highly variable, possibly
polymodal delirium tremens. Individuals suffering from delirium tremens may be
agitated and confused, especially in the later stages of this disease. Insight is gradually
reduced with the progression of this disorder. Sleep is disturbed and occurs for a shorter
period of time, with Rapid eye movement sleep.
Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia
Parkinson's disease is linked with Lewy body dementia for their similar hallucinatory
symptoms. The symptoms strike during the evening in any part of the visual field, and are
rarely polymodal. The segue into hallucination may begin with illusions where sensory
perception is greatly distorted, but no novel sensory information is present. These
typically last for several minutes, during which time the subject may be either conscious
and normal or drowsy/inaccessible. Insight into these hallucinations is usually preserved
and REM sleep is usually reduced. Parkinson's disease is usually associated with a
degraded substantia nigra pars compacta, but recent evidence suggests that PD affects a
number of sites in the brain. Some places of noted degradation include the median raphe
nuclei, the noradrenergic parts of the locus coeruleus, and the cholinergic neurons in the
parabrachial and pedunculopontine nuclei of the tegmentum.
Migraine coma
This type of hallucination is usually experienced during the recovery from a comatose
state. The migraine coma can last for up to two days, and a state of depression is
sometimes comorbid. The hallucinations occur during states of full consciousness, and
insight into the hallucinatory nature of the images is preserved. It has been noted that
ataxic lesions accompany the migraine coma.
Charles Bonnet syndrome
Charles Bonnet syndrome is the name given to visual hallucinations experienced by blind
patients. The hallucinations can usually be dispersed by opening or closing the eyelids
until the visual images disappear. The hallucinations usually occur during the morning or
evening, but are not dependent on low light conditions. These prolonged hallucinations
usually do not disturb the patients very much, as they are aware that they are
hallucinating.[13] A differential diagnosis are opthalmopathic hallucinations.
Schizophrenic hallucination
Hallucinations caused by schizophrenia.
Drug-induced hallucination
Hallucinations caused by the consumption of psychoactive substances.
What Is Stress?
Stress is your body's way of responding to any kind of demand. It can be caused by both
good and bad experiences. When people feel stressed by something going on around
them, their bodies react by releasing chemicals into the blood. These chemicals give
people more energy and strength, which can be a good thing if their stress is caused by
physical danger. But this can also be a bad thing, if their stress is in response to
something emotional and there is no outlet for this extra energy and strength. This class
will discuss different causes of stress, how stress affects you, the difference between
'good' or 'positive' stress and 'bad' or 'negative' stress, and some common facts about
how stress affects people today.
What Causes Stress?
Many different things can cause stress -- from physical (such as fear of something
dangerous) to emotional (such as worry over your family or job.) Identifying what may be
causing you stress is often the first step in learning how to better deal with your stress.
Some of the most common sources of stress are:
Survival Stress - You may have heard the phrase "fight or flight" before. This is a common
response to danger in all people and animals. When you are afraid that someone or
something may physically hurt you, your body naturally responds with a burst of energy
so that you will be better able to survive the dangerous situation (fight) or escape it all
together (flight). This is survival stress.
Internal Stress - Have you ever caught yourself worrying about things you can do nothing
about or worrying for no reason at all? This is internal stress and it is one of the most
important kinds of stress to understand and manage. Internal stress is when people
make themselves stressed. This often happens when we worry about things we can't
control or put ourselves in situations we know will cause us stress. Some people become
addicted to the kind of hurried, tense, lifestyle that results from being under stress. They
even look for stressful situations and feel stress about things that aren't stressful.
Environmental Stress - This is a response to things around you that cause stress, such as
noise, crowding, and pressure from work or family. Identifying these environmental
stresses and learning to avoid them or deal with them will help lower your stress level.
Fatigue and Overwork - This kind of stress builds up over a long time and can take a hard
toll on your body. It can be caused by working too much or too hard at your job(s),
school, or home. It can also be caused by not knowing how to manage your time well or
how to take time out for rest and relaxation. This can be one of the hardest kinds of
stress to avoid because many people feel this is out of their control. Later in this course
we will show you that you DO have options and offer some useful tips for dealing with
fatigue.
How Does Stress Affect You?
Stress can affect both your body and your mind. People under large amounts of stress
can become tired, sick, and unable to concentrate or think clearly. Sometimes, they even
suffer mental breakdowns.
Signs, Symptoms, Causes, and Effects
Modern life is full of hassles, deadlines, frustrations, and demands. For many people,
stress is so commonplace that it has become a way of life. Stress isn’t always bad. In
small doses, it can help you perform under pressure and motivate you to do your best.
But when you’re constantly running in emergency mode, your mind and body pay the
price.
If you frequently find yourself feeling frazzled and overwhelmed, it’s time to take action
to bring your nervous system back into balance. You can protect yourself by learning how
to recognize the signs and symptoms of stress and taking steps to reduce its harmful
effects.
Effects of chronic stress
The body doesn’t distinguish between physical and psychological threats. When you’re
stressed over a busy schedule, an argument with a friend, a traffic jam, or a mountain of
bills, your body reacts just as strongly as if you were facing a life-or-death situation. If
you have a lot of responsibilities and worries, your emergency stress response may be
“on” most of the time. The more your body’s stress system is activated, the easier it is to
trip and the harder it is to shut off.
Long-term exposure to stress can lead to serious health problems. Chronic stress disrupts
nearly every system in your body. It can raise blood pressure, suppress the immune
system, increase the risk of heart attack and stroke, contribute to infertility, and speed
up the aging process. Long-term stress can even rewire the brain, leaving you more
vulnerable to anxiety and depression.
Many health problems are caused or exacerbated by stress, including:
When I feel agitated, do I know how to quickly calm and soothe myself?
Can I easily let go of my anger?
Can I turn to others at work to help me calm down and feel better?
When I come home at night, do I walk in the door feeling alert and relaxed?
Am I seldom distracted or moody?
Am I able to recognize upsets that others seem to be experiencing?
Do I easily turn to friends or family members for a calming influence?
When my energy is low, do I know how to boost it?
Causes of stress
1. Spouse’s death
2. Divorce
3. Marriage separation
4. Jail term
5. Death of a close relative
6. Injury or illness
7. Marriage
8. Fired from job
9. Marriage reconciliation
10.Retirement
The situations and pressures that cause stress are known as stressors. We usually think
of stressors as being negative, such as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky
relationship.
However, anything that puts high demands on you or forces you to adjust can be
stressful. This includes positive events such as getting married, buying a house, going to
college, or receiving a promotion.
What causes stress depends, at least in part, on your perception of it. Something that's
stressful to you may not faze someone else; they may even enjoy it.
For example, your morning commute may make you anxious and tense because you
worry that traffic will make you late. Others, however, may find the trip relaxing because
they allow more than enough time and enjoy listening to music while they drive.
Common external causes of stress
Not all stress is caused by external factors. Stress can also be self-generated:
Foot on the gas – An angry or agitated stress response. You’re heated, keyed up,
overly emotional, and unable to sit still.
Foot on the brake – A withdrawn or depressed stress response. You shut down,
space out, and show very little energy or emotion.
Foot on both – A tense and frozen stress response. You “freeze” under pressure
and can’t do anything. You look paralyzed, but under the surface you’re extremely
agitated.
The following table lists some of the common warning signs and symptoms of stress. The
more signs and symptoms you notice in yourself, the closer you may be to stress
overload.
Stress Warning Signs and Symptoms
Eustress
Eustress is a term coined by endocrinologist Hans Selye which is defined in the model of
Richard Lazarus (1974) as stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of fulfillment or
other positive feelings. Eustress is a process of exploring potential gains.
Eustress
Definition: This is the type of ‘positive’ stress that keeps us vital and excited about life.
The excitement of a roller-coaster ride, a scary movie, or a fun challenge are all examples
of eustress.
Eustress is actually important for us to have in our lives. Without it, we would become
depressed and perhaps feel a lack of meaning in life. Not striving for goals, not
overcoming challenges, not having a reason to wake up in the morning would be
damaging to us, so eustress is considered 'good' stress. It keeps us healthy and happy.
Eustress also reminds us that we can view many of the stressors in our lives as
'challenges' rather than 'threats', and have extra vital energy to handle these stressors,
without a feeling of being overwhelmed or unhappy. (Read this for more on threats vs.
challenges, and find ways to change your perspective.)
That said, while eustress doesn't generally carry the same type of damage as chronic
stress, too much eustress can still tax your system. That's why it's important to have
'down time' and balance in one's life. Read this article for more on finding balance, or
this one on the importance of fun.
Etymology
Eustress is a word consisting of two parts. The prefix derives from the Greek eu meaning
either "well" or "good". When attached to the word "stress", it literally means "good
stress".
Origins
The term eustress was first used by endocrinologist Hans Selye in 1975, when he
published a model dividing stress into two major categories: eustress and distress. This
article was an expansion on an earlier article he wrote, where he discussed the idea of a
General Adaptation Syndrome, or a system of how the body responds to stress.[2]
In his 1975 article, Selye talked about how persistent stress that is not resolved through
coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression)
behavior. In contrast, if the stress involved enhances function (physical or mental, such
as through strength training or challenging work) it may be considered eustress.
Compared with distress
Distress is the most commonly-referred to type of stress, having negative implications,
whereas eustress is a positive form of stress, usually related to desirable events in a
person's life. Both can be equally taxing on the body, and are cumulative in nature,
depending on a person's way of adapting to a change that has caused it. The body itself
cannot physically discern between distress or eustress.[3]
Workplace stress
Workplace stress is the harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when there
is a poor match between job demands and the capabilities, resources, or needs of the
worker.
Stress-related disorders encompass a broad array of conditions, including psychological
disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder) and other types of
emotional strain (e.g., dissatisfaction, fatigue, tension, etc.), maladaptive behaviors (e.g.,
aggression, substance abuse), and cognitive impairment (e.g., concentration and memory
problems). In turn, these conditions may lead to poor work performance or even injury.
Job stress is also associated with various biological reactions that may lead ultimately to
compromised health, such as cardiovascular disease, or in extreme cases, death.
Causes of Workplace Stress
Job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work. Views
differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the
primary cause of job stress. The differing viewpoints suggest different ways to prevent
stress at work. According to one school of thought, differences in individual
characteristics such as personality and coping skills are very important in predicting
whether certain job conditions will result in stress. In other words, what is stressful for
one person may not be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint underlies prevention
strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with demanding job
conditions
Although the importance of individual differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence
suggests that certain working conditions are stressful to most people. Such evidence
argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key source of job stress, and
for job redesign as a primary prevention strategy.Large surveys of working conditions,
including conditions recognized as risk factors for job stress, were conducted in member
states of the European Union in 1990, 1995, and 2000. Results showed a time trend
suggesting an increase in work intensity. In 1990, the percentage of workers reporting
that they worked at high speeds at least one-quarter of their working time was 48%,
increasing to 54% in 1995 and to 56% in 2000. Similarly, 50% of workers reported they
work against tight deadlines at least one-fourth of their working time in 1990, increasing
to 56% in 1995 and 60 % in 2000. However, no change was noted in the period 1995–
2000 (data not collected in 1990) in the percentage of workers reporting sufficient time
to complete tasks
A substantial percentage of Americans work very long hours. By one estimate, more than
26% of men and more than 11% of women worked 50 hours per week or more in 2000.
These figures represent a considerable increase over the previous three decades,
especially for women. According to the Department of Labor, there has been an upward
trend in hours worked among employed women, an increase in extended work weeks
(>40 hours) by men, and a considerable increase in combined working hours among
working couples, particularly couples with young children
A person's status in the workplace can also affect levels of stress. While workplace stress
has the potential to affect employees of all categories; those who have very little
influence to those who make major decisions for the company. However, less powerful
employees (that is, those who have less control over their jobs) are more likely to suffer
stress than powerful workers. Managers as well as other kinds of workers are vulnerable
to work overload(Primm, 2005).
Economic factors that employees are facing in the 21st century have been linked to
increased stress levels. Researchers and social commentators have pointed out that the
computer and communications revolutions have made companies more efficient and
productive than ever before. This boon in productivity however, has caused higher
expectations and greater competition, putting more stress on the employee(Primm,
2005).
The following economic factors may lead to workplace stress:
Pressure from investors, who can quickly withdraw their money from company
stocks.
The lack of trade and professional unions in the workplace.
Inter-company rivalries caused by the efforts of companies to compete globally
The willingness of companies to swiftly lay off workers to cope with changing
business environments.
New information enters your If you’ve concentrated well When you need to recall
brain along pathways between enough to encode new information, your brain
neurons in the appropriate information in your brain, the has to activate the same
area of the brain. The key to hippocampus sends a signal to pattern of nerve cells it
encoding information into your store the information as long- used to store it. The more
memory is concentration; term memory. This happens frequently you need the
unless you focus on more easily if it’s related to information, the easier it
information intently, it goes “in something you already know, is to retrieve it along
one ear and out the other.” or if it stimulates an healthy nerve cell
This is why teachers are always emotional response. connections.
nagging students to pay
attention!
Tips for memory improvements
Do you feel that you have a poor memory? You may just have some less-than-effective
habits when it comes to taking in and processing information. Barring disease, disorder,
or injury, you can improve your ability to learn and retain information.
Brain exercises
Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use it or lose it” proposition. The more you work
out your brain, the better you’ll be able to process and remember information.
Novelty and sensory stimulation are the foundation of brain exercise. If you break your
routine in a challenging way, you’re using brain pathways you weren’t using before. This
can involve something as simple as brushing your teeth with your nondominant hand,
which activates little-used connections on the nondominant side of your brain. Or try a
“neurobic” exercise – an aerobic exercise for your brain – (see Keep Your Brain Alive
Exercise) that forces you to use your faculties in unusual ways, like showering and getting
dressed with your eyes closed. Take a course in a subject you don’t know much about,
learn a new game of strategy, or cook up some recipes in an unfamiliar cuisine. That’s
the most effective way to keep your synapses firingi.
General guidelines to improve memory
In addition to exercising your brain, there are some basic things you can do to improve
your ability to retain and retrieve m/emories:
1. Pay attention. You can’t remember something if you never learned it, and you
can’t learn something — that is, encode it into your brain — if you don’t pay
enough attention to it. It takes about eight seconds of intent focus to process a
piece of information through your hippocampus and into the appropriate memory
center. So, no multitasking when you need to concentrate! If you distract easily,
try to receive information in a quiet place where you won’t be interrupted.
2. Tailor information acquisition to your learning style. Most people are visual
learners; they learn best by reading or otherwise seeing what it is they have to
know. But some are auditory learners who learn better by listening. They might
benefit by recording information they need and listening to it until they remember
it.
3. Involve as many senses as possible. Even if you’re a visual learner, read out loud
what you want to remember. If you can recite it rhythmically, even better. Try to
relate information to colors, textures, smells and tastes. The physical act of
rewriting information can help imprint it onto your brain.
4. Relate information to what you already know. Connect new data to information
you already remember, whether it’s new material that builds on previous
knowledge, or something as simple as an address of someone who lives on a street
where you already know someone.
5. Organize information. Write things down in address books and datebooks and on
calendars; take notes on more complex material and reorganize the notes into
categories later. Use both words and pictures in learning information.
6. Understand and be able to interpret complex material. For more complex
material, focus on understanding basic ideas rather than memorizing isolated
details. Be able to explain it to someone else in your own words.
7. Rehearse information frequently and “over-learn”. Review what you’ve learned
the same day you learn it, and at intervals thereafter. What researchers call
“spaced rehearsal” is more effective than “cramming.” If you’re able to “over-
learn” information so that recalling it becomes second nature, so much the better.
8. Be motivated and keep a positive attitude. Tell yourself that you want to learn
what you need to remember, and that you can learn and remember it. Telling
yourself you have a bad memory actually hampers the ability of your brain to
remember, while positive mental feedback sets up an expectation of success.
1. Visual images - a microphone to remember the name “Mike,” a rose for “Rosie.”
Use positive, pleasant images, because the brain often blocks out unpleasant ones,
and make them vivid, colorful, and three-dimensional — they’ll be easier to
remember.
2. Sentences in which the first letter of each word is part of or represents the initial
of what you want to remember. Millions of musicians, for example, first
memorized the lines of the treble staff with the sentence “Every good boy does
fine” (or “deserves favor”), representing the notes E, G, B, D, and F. Medical
students often learn groups of nerves, bones, and other anatomical features using
nonsense sentences.
3. Acronyms, which are initials that creates pronounceable words. The spaces
between the lines on the treble staff, for example, are F, A, C, and E: FACE.
4. Rhymes and alliteration: remember learning “30 days hath September, April, June,
and November”? A hefty guy named Robert can be remembered as “Big Bob” and
a smiley co-worker as “Perky Pat” (though it might be best to keep such names to
yourself).
5. Jokes or even off-color associations using facts, figures, and names you need to
recall, because funny or peculiar things are easier to remember than mundane
images.
6. “Chunking” information; that is, arranging a long list in smaller units or categories
that are easier to remember. If you can reel off your Social Security number
without looking at it, that’s probably because it’s arranged in groups of 3, 2, and 4
digits, not a string of 9.
7. “Method of loci”: This is an ancient and effective way of remembering a lot of
material, such as a speech. You associate each part of what you have to remember
with a landmark in a route you know well, such as your commute to work.
Managing Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage the hippocampus if the
stress stress is unrelieved.
Stress makes it difficult to concentrate.
Not smoking Smoking heightens the risk of vascular disorders that can cause
stroke and constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the brain.
Nutrition and Memory improvement
You probably know already that a diet based on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and
“healthy” fats will provide lots of health benefits, but such a diet can also improve
memory. Research indicates that certain nutrients nurture and stimulate brain function.
B vitamins, especially B6, B12, and folic acid, protects neurons by breaking down
homocysteine, an amino acid that is toxic to nerve cells. They’re also involved in
making red blood cells, which carry oxygen. (Best sources: spinach and other dark
leafy greens, broccoli, asparagus, strawberries, melons, black beans and other
legumes, citrus fruits, soybeans.)
Antioxidants like vitamins C and E, and beta carotene, fight free radicals, which
are atoms formed when oxygen interacts with certain molecules. Free radicals are
highly reactive and can damage cells, but antioxidants can interact with them
safely and neutralize them. Antioxidants also improve the flow of oxygen through
the body and brain. (Best sources: blueberries and other berries, sweet potatoes,
red tomatoes, spinach, broccoli, green tea, nuts and seeds, citrus fruits, liver.)
Omega-3 fatty acids are concentrated in the brain and are associated with
cognitive function. They count as “healthy” fats, as opposed to saturated fats and
trans fats, protecting against inflammation and high cholesterol. (Best sources:
cold-water fish such as salmon, herring, tuna, halibut, and mackerel; walnuts and
walnut oil; flaxseed and flaxseed oil)
Because older adults are more prone to B12 and folic acid deficiencies, a
supplement may be a good idea for seniors. An omega-3 supplement (at any age)
if you don’t like eating fish. But nutrients work best when they’re consumed in
foods, so try your best to eat a broad spectrum of colorful plant foods and choose
fats that will help clear, not clog, your arteries. Your brain will thank you!
However, in healthy older adults, these changes represent more of a slowing in the
ability to absorb, store, and retrieve new information, not a loss. The factual information
you’ve accumulated over the years remains largely intact, as does procedural memory.
You can make and recall new long-term memories; the process just takes a little longer.
Of course, some older adults do develop more significant problems with memory that
are the result of diseases such as Alzheimer’s or stroke; injury; poor nutrition; other
physiological issues; or emotional problems.
Five Simple Techniques to Improve Your Memory
"All improvement in memory consists of one's habitual method of recording facts"
- Dr. William James, Father of American Psychology
Introduction
Most of us might have complained about our memory one time or other. But some of
you have been frequently complaining about your poor memory. When we generally talk
about poor memory we are really talking about poor recollection. Recollection is possible
only if the content is retained in memory. This is possible only if we have recorded it into
memory. That is, unless we have not assimilated, we cannot recall at all. That is why
William James and many others including mnemonists give emphasis to how we record
things into our memory.
Even if we record something correctly in our memory, we may not be able to recall it.
This is due to many reasons, the main reasons being problems in retention and stress.
The former can be solved by systematic revision and the latter by practicing some Stress
Management Techniques or using Stress Management Tools like HIT (Holistic Integration
Technique) of Dr.V.George Mathew or the Award winning Guided Somato-Psychic
Relaxation (GSPR) Technique of Dr.Krishna Prasad Sreedhar The latter can be learned by
using audio cassettes.
Now let us discuss five simple techniques to improve memory: Four of these techniques
are used to improve assimilation and thus to have longer retention. The last one is a
simple strategy for recollection.
Chunking
Perhaps Chunking is the oldest method used in memorization. In this method, the items
to be memorized are divided into small and easily memorizable chunks or groups. This
method works best when the order of the items is not important.
This method is found to be particularly well suited for memorizing multi-digit numbers
(eg., ID nos., telephone nos., etc.) and for committing complicated spellings to memory.
Example:
If possible, organize the material as meaningfully as you can and think out relationships
among each group. This not only improves learnability and retention but also aids in
faster and effortless recollection.
Psychologists doing research on Human Memory have found that the capacity of Short
Term Memory (STM) for humans is 7± 2 that is from the range 5 to 9 items. So you
should take care to keep the chunks you create within this limit.
Rhyming
This is also one of the popular and oldest methods in memorization. This technique
makes use of the fact that we have a natural tendency to remember rhymes and
rhythms. The following is a very popular example of application of this technique which
almost all school students are familiar with.
"Thirty days haveth September
April, June and November
All the rest have thirty-one
February has twenty-eight alone
Except in leap year, then the time
When Febs days are twenty-nine."
If possible create rhymes like this and it will not only aid in improving your memory but in
improving your creativity as well.
Mediation/Bridging
In this method, a bridge is built in between the items given to be memorized. This
technique is best suited for learning material involving word pairs or material that can be
reduced to word pairs. An example often cited by memory experts is the learning of the
capital of Poland. The capital of Poland is Warsaw. World War II started with Germany's
attack on Poland. Thus it may be arranged as Poland SAW War first.
Here, the word pair to be connected together is Poland and Warsaw. The additional
information of the World War II is used as a bridge or mediator in bringing these two
words together.
Again, like other techniques, the mediation technique calls for the learner's active
participation in the learning process. This is because one is to bring in the mediator or
the bridge from relevant items one has learned.
Bed-time Recital
In this technique, you do your recital or rote learning just before going to bed. The mind
in the process of sleeping would then arrange the information in a systematic and
effective way when you are sleeping. Psychologists have also found that if you sleep after
thinking about your problems there is a better chance that you arrive at a solution the
next day.
Steps for Memory Improvement
1. Be in a relaxed mood
2. Write down the things that you are supposed to remember in a piece of paper.
3. Read it aloud (if possible) once or twice and recite it two to three times.
4. Now go to sleep without worrying or thinking about anything.
You will surely retain the item longer and find it more easy to recall it when in need.
Trying by Not Trying
All of us apply this method knowingly or unknowingly. Sometimes when you try to recall
you may not be able to recall it at that time even if you are sure that you know it very
well. You experience a blocking that prevents you from recalling it. Normally you tend to
try again and again but in vain. To handle this situation you just keep away from trying to
recollect it and do something else; to your pleasant surprise that information
automatically pops up into your mind after some time. This is because even if you
stopped trying, the mind is searching for that information and brings it to awareness
when it is found. Sometimes the information was blocked when you wanted, and mind
brings it forward when the blocking is removed. This is where stress plays its role in
hindering recall.
If you are very anxious by nature or very stressful in nature, you may encounter this type
of blockage very often. In such case, it is highly recommended that you practise some
kind of relaxation technique and thus keep your anxiety and stress away. This is very
important because this behavior can bring many undesirable psychological and
physiological conditions. You may even consult a Clinical Psychologist in extreme cases.
Improve Learning and Reduce Forgetting
The SAFMEDS model of Remembering
Probably the most used method of studying is Flash Cards. You pick a chapter to study
and take notes. You then transcribe them onto flash cards and rapid test yourself. You
use them to write speeches, either by writing point form or the even whole speech. You
use them for rapid learning, as with Multiplication Tables. These are just a few examples
of the many uses of flash cards. They are pretty handy to have around.
Have you ever noticed that using flash cards doesn’t really benefit you? This article is for
you. To put it bluntly, you are probably using them incorrectly. This leads to hours of
wasted time and lots of frustration.
Ogden Lindsay invented the SAFMED method of using flash cards that has been proven
through studies to actually work. The SAFMED method is used once you have transcribed
the needed information onto the flash cards.
Say All Fast Minute Each Day Shuffle
This experimentally proven method goes as follows:
Say the answer before you turn over the card. This will be an indicator to whether
you really know the answer.
Go through All the cards, as many as you can at a time of course, as Fast as you
can. This has to be done in one Minute. Do this Each Day. Do not study your
speech or your chapter notes the night before. Of course, you have heard this
already. Countless studies have shown that studying the night before is helpful
only up to a certain point. After this point it is detrimental to study. You will forget
more easily because information will start working against you. New information
will replace old information and old information will make it impossible to learn
new information. These are called Retroactive Interference and Proactive
Interference. These interferences will stress you out even more causing you to do
even more horribly on your speech or test.
Shuffle your cards so that you are not learning them in a specific order. Sure, you
may get to the point where you can speed through the cards getting everything
right. This is because you are always cueing the next answer. Shuffle them so that
you will learn them out of order and then it will not matter what order they are on
your test.
As with any method, this may take practice to work. With time and dedication not only
will your learning and retention improve but also your learning rate will also get better. It
will be difficult as first. I know when I use cue cards that I get these urges to peek at the
answers. I tell myself “I know this! I need a little hint!” Don’t look at the answer. If you
cannot get it right in the time allotted, put that card aside in the “not yet ready” pile. Go
over that pile over and over. Then integrate it into the “I know this pile”! Don’t forget to
Shuffle!!!
Some General Suggestions for Improvement in Learning
We are interested in maximum learning by the child. This can be achieved. Here are the
various factors which influence the learning of the child.
A. Physiological Factors :
The following factors are included in this aspect.
• Physical Health : Maximum learning by the child is only possible when he has a
sound mind. A sound mind is always associated with a sound health. Hence, health child
can learn much more than an ill child.
• A Balanced Diet : The child should take a balanced diet and avoid bad habits like
smoking and drinking. These affect the neuro-muscular system and indirectly influence
the learning activities of the child.
• Age : The learning capacity of the individual varies with age. The child can easily
learn some subjects at an early age. They have a will and capacity to learn.
• Time of Learning : Our mental capacity to learn differs during the difference hours
of the day. Morning hours are the best for children to learn.
• The Weather : Extremes of weather both heat and cold and a humid climate affect
mental efficiency. Absence of proper atmospheric conditions like fresh air, proper light,
noise, physical discomforts, hamper the learning capacity of the child. They obstruct his
power of concentration and therefore his efficiency of learning.
• Fatigue : A child, when fresh is full of energy and can learn much more than a child
who has fatigue of any type. This fatigue leads to boredom and indolence which affect
learning. The fatigue may be due to various conditions either at home or in the school. Its
presence reduces the learning capacity of the child.
• Sense Perception : Our senses are our gateways of knowledge which is acquired
through learning. A child who has strong sense perceptions comes to have a better
judgment about objects, persons and situations in which he is placed. He has a better
capacity of learning in comparison with a child who has weak sense of perception.
B. Psychological Factors :
Psychological factors play a vital role in the learning of the child. The following
suggestions may be kept in view by the teacher to achieve his target:
• A Sound Mental Health : The child should have a mental balance and should be
free from all mental conflicts. The outstanding complex from which the children may
suffer is inferiority complex.
• Proper Motivation : Children should be properly motivated to learn. The teacher
should try to create an urge in the child to learn through motivation. This urge will
energize the behavior of the child and he will put in best in learning and achieve the goal.
The teacher also should proceed from simple to complex and make the subject of
learning as enjoyable as possible.
• Praise, Blame and Punishment : Whenever the child achieves success in learning
he should be praised. Hi sense of achievement will motivate him for a higher success. He
maybe suitably rewarded if he deserves it.
If the child shows any indifference in learning due to the difficulty of the subject matter
try to meet it. He may be encouraged to master easier portions first and difficult parts
later on. We should not blame the child unnecessarily specially grown-up children. They
take things to their heart.
Punishment is the last resort and should be sparingly used. However, the fear of
punishment should always remain in the mind of the child.
C. Environmental Factors:
• Proper Learning Conditions : Provide a healthy atmosphere in the classroom. Bad
learning conditions like noise, poor lighting and ventilation do not lead to proper learning
by the child.
• Organizational Set-up :
1. The time-table should well-framed and based on psychological principles. Dr.
Mathur, S. S., is of the view that in proper learning there should be a proper schedule of
work and play. This child should know when he is expected to devote his attention to
learning.
2. Children should be given freedom to learn as they like. There is no fixed and rigid
rule to be followed.
3. There should be a proper ration between pupils and one teacher.
4. The entire class may be divided into three or four groups. There may be group
competitions in learning. Dr. Mathur is of the view that competition often produces good
results as far as learning is concerned in spite of its limitations.
5. A well organized Educational Guidance Service would enable children certain
limitations which they might not be able to find themselves.
D. Methods of Instruction:
• Proper Presentation of Teaching Materials : The teacher should properly present
the learning materials in the class. It may be divided into units or sub-units. They should
be properly graded according to the age and ability of the pupils.
• Emphasis on Learning by Doing : The different units of learning materials should
provide for some activity. The child learns unconsciously when he is busy in some
activity.
• Discourage Postponement of Learning : Children should not be allowed to
postpone their learning activities. Dr. Mathus is of the view that after psychological
investigation, it has been found that students who postponed their learning for a future
date did not enjoy the satisfaction of ‘work well done’. They were also found to be
inefficient in their learning.
• Understanding the Basics of Learning : If the child understands the meaning of the
material to be learnt it leads to better retention of the subject matter. The child may not
remember the actual words but a brief summary of the matter learnt is equally
meaningful.
• Concentration of Attention : Ask the child to concentrate for enough time and
devote himself to learning. Study for short durations or few minutes is not correct. It has
been correctly said ‘ill got, ill spent‘.
• Continued Practice Helps Learning : The child should learn the subject matter
again and again. This will yield maximum results. This is established from the field of type
writing. Learning on the whole requires constant practice.
• Forgetting Wrong Learning : If the child has wrongly learnt some thing he should
try to forget or not repeat it again or he may practice a new and better activity in place of
the wrong activity.
• Special Methods for Special Subjects : The teacher should teach poetry by the
whole and the parts methods and mathematics by giving concrete examples - Numbers
and numerical tables by the recitation method.
E. Evaluation:
1. Children should be timely and properly evaluated. This will enable them to
correctly estimate the learning acquired by them
2. The teacher should constantly inform children the results of their achievements.
This will encourage children to progress further in their learning.
So, these above mentioned factors are very important to all who are involved in
teaching-learning including the guardians, teachers and pupils.
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Is the “Mental Set” necessary in problem solving? Explain.
People differ in the manner they gather, store, and process information when solving a
problem.
Students Possess:
A wide variety of problem solving styles and temperaments, including:
Logical Problem Solvers: spatial thinkers who tend to use linear methods. They set a
specific goal, determine the steps necessary to achieve that goal, and then embark on
the effort to accomplish those steps.
Intuitive Problem Solvers: temporal thinkers who tend to holistic methods. They get a
sense of the way they want things to be, determine how things need to be balanced to
bring about those changes, and then make adjustments to create that balance.
Flexible Problem Solvers: use both logical and intuitive methods readily.
Some students possess obstacles that impede the problem solving process and often
lead to an inability to solve problems correctly. Cognitive psychologists, who study the
mental processes associated with processing and understanding information, have
identified very common obstacles to problem solving. These obstacles include:
Confirmation Bias: Confirmation Bias is the tendency to search for only the information
that supports our ideas. Our initial perceptions and ideas about a problem often shape
the search process by which we evaluate these ideas. It is important to maintain
objectivity in evaluating ideas so that we are not biased toward our initial perceptions.
Possible Solutions
Insufficiency of Hypotheses. Often when solving problems, a solver seizes upon the first
explanation that comes to mind and stops thinking about the problem. This difficulty is
related to confirmation bias, but reflects insufficient thought applied to a problem. Many
times, the immediate answer is sufficient. Other times, however, only a careful analysis
of a situation beyond the immediate response is necessary to ensure a correct solution.
Possible Solutions
Develop alternative ideas, rather than seizing upon the first idea as the solution.
Spend time thinking about the issues- allow time for reflection and incubation.
Avoid framing the problem so that only one idea emerges.
Fixation. Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. Again, our
initial perceptions and structuring of a problem often determine the approaches we use
to solve that problem. Structuring a problem incorrectly is a prime contributor to the
inability to solve a problem correctly. The adage to see a problem with "fresh eyes" is a
statement of the importance of viewing a problem from different perspectives.
Two examples of fixation are mental set and functional fixedness. A mental set is the
tendency to approach a new problem with the same approach that worked previously
for different problems. While part of learning is developing effective strategies for
dealing with problems, the automatic or rote application of a strategy to a problem can
lead a person down the wrong path and impede problem solving. Much of effective
problem solving lies in knowing which approach to use to solve the problem. Functional
fixedness is the tendency to view physical objects in terms of their traditional uses. By
doing so, we greatly limit the possibilities for creative uses of objects in nontraditional
ways. For example, a hammer not only can be used for driving or removing nails, but also
serves as an effective paperweight, nutcracker, pendulum weight, or murder weapon!
Possible Solutions
See the problem with "fresh eyes"- allow time for reflection and incubation.
Consider alternative hypotheses- view the problem from different perspectives.
Focus on other issues, then return to the original problem. Time away from a
problem allows one to forget incorrect solutions and focus on developing new
ideas.
This page outlines some of the main psychological concepts and evidence that relates to
explaining individual differences in intelligence.
Introduction:
The aspects of the existence of an individual are numerous, most of which are genetically
determined and in the majority of cases, environment has a critical role in the
completion of what nature has started. Personality and its changes over life span are a
good example on such phenomenon. Personality is defined as the distinguishing
characteristics of an individual which differentiate him/her from others when displayed
in a wide variety of situations and circumstances especially social ones (1). In fact, the
development of personality which is the outcome as previously mentioned of interaction
between genetic make-up of an individual and his environment, starts prenatally or even
before conception since genetics has something to do with it. In children, personality has
a considerable potential for growth and changes i.e. very flexible, but it is rigid i.e.
unalterable in adults (1). Personality and its development are under influence of some
determinants. Environment is considered the major extrinsic one (2). Cultural, racial,
socioeconomic, educational, social guidance and health conditions could be
environmental factors playing a critical role in personality development (3). The intrinsic
factors could be biological drives, such as the homeostatic, sexual, defensive and
assimilatory drives, and hereditary temperamental differences (2). Parental education,
health and emotional states, social interaction are other factors which influence
personality development. Several theories were stated explaining the development of
personality, each of which dealt with the concept of personality development from a
different point of view. For example, the Psychoanalytic theory that was developed by
Freud dealt with personality development from a sexual point of view and was
concerned mainly with emotional development (4). The learning theory is another
theory of personality development that is concerned mainly with child and his social
background and which rose the idea of that behavior is modified by experience (4). The
Psychoanalytic development theory was modified by Erik Erikson and Stack Sullivan. The
later emphasized the importance of interpersonal transactions between parents and
child and the child's development in a social system. Erikson formulated eight stages of
psychosocial development focusing upon the specific developmental tasks of each phase
(psychosocial crisis) (4). Generally, the life cycle is divided into eight developmental
stages the details of each of which are going to be discussed in the body of this essay.
These stages are: infancy, toddler hood, preschool child, school child, adolescence, young
adulthood, middle years and old age (5).
Infancy stage:
The infancy stage is the first year of life. It occurs from one month to the end of the first
year. This period is characterized by very rapid physical, psychological, and social growth
and development (4). Developmentally, it is during this stage that the infant begins to
establish himself as a dependent being and begins to establish self-awareness.
Rudimentary social interaction is developed as the infant begins to explore the physical
world (6). The nurturing persons must limitate their behavior in addition to fulfilling
their needs such as food and warmth. In addition, attachment is best established during
this period of development (5). Further more, this period of life witnesses the
establishment of foundations of future emotional stability and intellectual development
(6). Infants need stimulating and socializing experiences to provide aliment for
developing into a person (7). A critical issue concerning infancy is whether or not a
feeling of confidence in the world is established. The sense of confidence is established
when the infant gains a feeling that caregivers on whom they depend to fulfill their
needs are dependable (8) , as Erikson has thought about when he considered trust Vs
mistrust to be the psychosocial crisis during this period of life (4) . Establishing a sense of
trust in caregiver will constitute the nucleus of confidence and trust in self (9). One
cannot recall infancy experiences although no part of life experience will be as solidly
incorporated in the individual as infancy (5). The developmental tasks of infancy have
been identified as: learning to walk, beginning to talk and communicate with others,
beginning to have emotional relationships with primary caregivers, learning to eat solid
foods and developing stable sleep and eating periods (10).
Preschool stage:
The preschool stage, also called early childhood, occurs from three to six years of age
(4). The preschooler's world is expanding. New experiences and the child's social role
are tried during play (3). During this stage, there is tremendous growth in vocabulary
and continuos chatter is a characteristic feature of this stage as intense curiosity was in
the previous one. In addition, persistent questioning is the tool by which the preschooler
explores and knows more and more about his/her world and environment. Moreover,
fantasy characterized by making unbelievable long stories and pretended play mates may
worry the parents, but is an important component of the child's growth and
development during this period (5) . During this stage, a child becomes more cooperative
with his/her family as he/she becomes amenable to parental demands. In spite of that
the child is still emotionally linked and dependent on his/her parents, the child becomes
socially interacting and cooperative patterns of play develop (3). According to Erikson’s
psychosocial theory, this stage represents the stage of initiative when stimulated Vs
guilt when discouraged (4). The developmental tasks of the preschool years include:
increasing the ability to communicate and understand others, performing self-care
activities, learning the difference between sexes and developing sexual modesty,
learning right from wrong and good from bad and developing family relationships (10).
Adolescence stage:
The adolescence stage of growth and development, which represent the industry Vs role
confusion stage of the psychosocial theory of development, occurs from 12 to 20 years of
age (4). Adolescence is a transitional stage between childhood and adult life and is
characterized by rapid physical growth and psychological, mental and social maturity
(5). This stage of development officially begins at puberty and ends with person
achieving a level of maturity enough to deal with and manage realities of life and be able
to bear responsibility of him/her self and his/her actions (6). The developmental tasks
faced by the child at this age are accepting changes in the body and appearance,
developing appropriate relationships with males and females of the same age, accepting
the male and female role appropriate for one's age, becoming independent from parents
and adults ,developing morals, attitudes, and values needed for functioning in society
(10). Adolescence is thought to be the period of emotional upheard and rebellion,
sudden changes of mood, shifting ideologies and clashes with authority (4). During
adolescence, although emancipation from parents in order to achieve independence and
learning to accept responsibility for one’s self takes place, an adolescent still fluctuates
between child-like dependency and stubborn independence. During this critical stage an
adolescent is ambivalent since he or she does not like adults’ control but still seek their
guidance. In addition, sudden fluctuations in mood are common to which erratic
behavior can be related (6). Peer groups play a critical role in the process of socialization
and social interaction and self concept is gradually acquired as a result of reactions of his
peers towards him (1). As mentioned previously, an adolescent undergoes active mental
maturity since an adolescent becomes capable of more than abstract mode of thinking
and the capacity of receiving new information reaches its peak. This sort of
development results in endless speculations about abstract issues. In spite of that, the
adolescent still feels uncertain i.e. lacks the ability to direct him/her self and the
confidence to translate his/her thoughts and ideas into a definite course of action.
Persistent arguing and pretended wisdom are characteristic features of adolescents (7).
Moreover, an adolescent rethinks about matters of life he learnt to be true from his/her
parents early in life (3). What the adolescent needs by the end of this stage is to find out
what sort of person he or she is and what his/her abilities and limitations are, therefore
the period of adolescence can be called the period of readjustment (8).
Older adulthood stage:
The stage of older adulthood is considered to begin at 65 years of age. Many physical,
psychological, and social changes occur during later adulthood (1). The critical transition
comes at the time of retirement for both the husband and the wife. In old age persons
are moving toward completion of their life cycles. Old age can be a time when a person
can enjoy his/her time with his/her grandchildren and leisure time activities, and forget
about things caused him/her a great deal of stress and anxiety in the past three or four
decades (7). During this stage a person must adapt to changing physical abilities. This
stage is characterized by increased wisdom although many other things are lost such as
health, friends, family and independence. The aging process of people in this stage of
development varies greatly (9). Ego integrity Vs despair represents this stage in the
Psychosocial theory (4). The developmental tasks of the older adult are: adjusting to
decreases physical strength and loss of health, adjusting to retirement and reduced
income, coping with death of a husband or wife and preparing for one's own deatheating
periods (10).
Summary:
To sum up, individuals are characterized by their personalities which develop over life
span under influence of both intrinsic factors such as biological drives and extrinsic
factors such as the several components of environment, society and family. Several
theories were stated explaining the development of personality, the most famous of
which is the Psychoanalytic theory developed by Freud. Personality development is
divided into eight major stages each with its own features, developmental tasks and
abnormalities. Such abnormalities could be repeated frustrations and thumb sucking
during infancy, maladjustment, educational problems and nail biting in school children
and in childhood in general and Anorexia nervosa in adolescence (4).
This is "The Iron Law of the Community," that we cannot escape or avoid being part of,
and being a responsible member of, the human community.
"Character" is who you are (and how you display your personality) to other people. It is
the social side of personality.
The theory of Culture and Personality was based on Boas’ cultural relativism and Freud’s
psychoanalysis about early childhood. If we premise that all humans are hereditarily
equal, why are people so unique from society to society? The theoretical school
answered this question by using Freud’s psychoanalysis: the differences between people
in various societies usually stem from cultural differences installed in childhood. In other
words, the foundations of personality development are set in early childhood according
to each society’s unique cultural traits. Based on this basis, the theoretical school of
Culture
and Personality researched childrearing in different societies and compared the results
cross-culturally. They described distinctive characteristics of people in certain cultures
and attributed these unique traits to the different methods of childrearing. The aim of
this comparison was to show the correlation between childrearing practices and adult
personality types.
The theory of Culture and Personality was on the cutting edge when it emerged in the
early 20th century. Its analysis of the correlation between childrearing customs and
human behaviors was, at that time, a practical alternative to using racism explanations
for analyzing different human behaviors.
Motivational Conflicts
Sometimes the urge to do something worthy or good or
pleasurable is directly opposed by the fact that it involves pain or
inconvenience or hard work. Then the organism is in conflict
between two opposite motives. That is one form of motivational
conflict called an approach/avoidance conflict. One may also feel
torn between two different pleasures. Or one may be forced to
choose between two pains. Each of these is a classic motivational
conflict.
What are the classic motivational conflicts?
1. Approach/avoidance conflicts. The organism is
attracted and repulsed by the same stimulus or
situation.
2. Approach/approach conflicts. The organism is
forced to choose between two different desirable
stimuli.
3. Avoidance/avoidance conflicts. The organism is
forced to choose between two different undesirable
alternatives.
Avoidance tendencies tend to grow stronger as an event
approaches. This has implications you can observe in your own
life. A distant event such as a dentist appointment might seem
desirable, and you make plans for it. But as the day approaches,
the event seems less desirable, or you are more inclined to avoid
it. This can happen with desirable goals as well as things you
would rather avoid: it is called "getting cold feet."
What sort of behavior is common in situations of motivational conflict?
Vacillation (going back and forth) is common in situations of
motivational conflict. If you are attracted to a person (an approach
tendency) but feel shy and inhibited (an avoidance tendency) you
may "go back and forth" a lot, in your thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. First you lean one way, then the other. This
phenomenon is also found in control systems where opponent
processes are used. In that context, it is called oscillating instead
of vacillating. All control systems oscillate when trying to mediate
between two opposing forces, and vacillation is one example.
Approach/avoidance conflicts cause an animal to be torn between
opposite forces. Animals caught between strong but opposite
drive states may vacillate, going first one direction then the other.
Or they may perform displacement activities as discussed in
Chapter 8. Displacement activities appear to express nervousness
or divert attention from a conflict.
Approach-approach conflicts involve a choice between two
desirable goals when you can only have one. Sitting in front of a
display of merchandise, when you can only afford to buy one
thing, you may find yourself engaged in a displacement activity
such as scratching your head. The conflict between large late
rewards and short early rewards is a form of approach/approach
conflict.
A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an optimist sees the opportunity in
every difficulty. - Winston Churchill
1) Process of receiving stimuli: stimuli are received from various sources through the five
sense organs. And the reception of stimuli is a physiological aspect of perception.
2) Process of selecting stimuli: After receiving the stimuli, only some are selected for our
attention. Generally, people selectively perceive objects which interest to them most.
This selection process is influenced by intensity, size, repetition and familiarity of object.
Also the personality, psychological need, interest, background and experience of the
individual plays a major role.
3) Organizing: in this process the received stimuli are organized in some pattern. It is
necessary to make sense out of the data received.
4) Interpreting: the perceiver gives meaning to the received data and interprets the data.
5) Checking: the perceiver checks whether his interpretations are right or wrong.
6) Reacting: In the last phase, the perceiver reacts to his perception. The cycle of
perception is not completed unless it leads to some action. The person may act on the
basis of favorable or unfavorable perception.
The way we perceive others is reflected in our behavior towards them. An inaccurate
perception will lead to conflicts and distorted behavior. There are some simple ways to
improve our perception.
1) Perceiving yourself accurately. This requires more awareness about you. It’s possible
by better interaction and open communication with others.
2) Improving self concept.
3) Looking at a problem from other’s point of view.
4) Having positive attitude. Positive attitude makes our perception more accurate.
5) Avoiding first impression and stereotypes.
6) Making effective communication.
Five Kinds of Stressors
The five kinds of stressors can tell you a lot about why you always seem to be on edge. A
stressor doesn't always have to be something that all of sudden makes you feel
uncomfortable or upset, it can also be something that has been brewing inside you for
years.
Acute time-limited
Brief naturalistic
Chronic
Distant
Acute Time-Limited Stressors
Acute time-limited stressors are ones given in a controlled environment such as a lab. If
you are part of a study, the tech may present you with a stimulus that causes some level
of anxiety for you. This could be presenting you with something that you have a phobia
of or making you do something you don't feel comfortable doing. The stressor sparks
intense stress but only for the time it takes to illicit a response.
Brief Naturalistic Stressors
Brief naturalistic stressors are ones that occur naturally in your environment such as
taking a test. The stress you experience usually only lasts for the time you are in the
stressful situation.
Stressful Events Sequences
Stressful events sequences happen when there is a traumatic event that causes
additional stressors. An example of this is if you are a victim of a natural disaster and
then have to deal with the loss of loved ones, belongings, and pulling your life back
together.
Chronic Stressors
Chronic stressors are situations that happen that force you to change your identity or
social roles. If you become disabled, you will need to adjust your life to accommodate
your disabilities.
Distant Stressors
Distant stressors are stress that happened a long time ago but continue to affect your
immune system negatively because of emotional and cognitive issues. Some examples of
distant stressors include:
Child abuse
Prisoner of war
War trauma
Knowledge Is Power in Stress Management
Now that you understand the five kinds of stressors, you can understand why you feel so
anxious, overwhelmed, and exhausted. You can easily manage some stressors while
others need a bit more work to overcome. Acute time-limited stressors and brief
naturalistic stressors only last for a short time and usually do not have lasting negative
effects. However, stressful events sequences, chronic stressors, and distant stressors can
affect your health over time. It's important to know that you may not be able to control
the occurrence of stressors but you are able to control your reaction to them.
The reason why stressors are a problem for people is that it causes them to feel out of
control. If someone close to you dies or endures an injury causing a disability or you
become a victim of a natural disaster, you did nothing to cause those situations and that
frightens you, which makes you feel stress. The key to overcoming that stress is to do
things that make you feel that you are in control. This is why people often change the
way they eat and exercise when someone close to them dies or takes extra precautions
when someone becomes injured. In a natural disaster, you will often see people coming
together to help others recover while helping themselves by taking advantage of
available resources.
If you are experiencing a great deal of stress, it's time to take back control. Accept the
source of your stress and ask yourself what you can do to help it. The steps you take will
help you feel like you can control your life and your stress.
This technique can be used with a variety of activities including homework, chores, or art
activities. There are two main components outlined below and followed by examples.
The first component is the use of brief subgoals. Setting a brief goal helps the child focus.
In any activity, watch for the child to begin to lose interest, become bored, become
distracted, or get frustrated. At that point, set a brief goal that requires the child to
attend only slightly longer than he or she initially desires. For a 4 or 5 year old, this may
mean a subgoal that can be completed in 15 to 20 seconds. For an 8 or 9 year old, a
subgoal that lasts 2 or 3 minutes may be more appropriate. The goal is to give the child
brief practice in frustration tolerance without overloading the child by extensive
demands.
Whenever possible the child puts in "a little extra effort" or works beyond the frustration
point, the second component of the intervention can be used. This is praise-based-on-
effort rather than level of performance. Typically, parents brag on a child’s worksheets or
art work rather than focusing on the amount of energy the child had to devote. When
using praise, acknowledge the amount of effort and point out that the child’s effort paid
off (e.g., "You worked really hard and put these extra pieces in the puzzle!"). If you build
pride in this extra effort, frustration tolerance will improve.
EXAMPLES
COMPLICATIONS
The most frequent complication with this technique involves angry outbursts by the child
when the subgoal is set. Often, the best way to respond is to give the child an
opportunity to take a time-out before working. Thus, the choice for the child is either to
work on the subgoal or to go to a designated area until they calm down (e.g., "You can
finish your homework now or take a time-out then finish it."). However, make it clear
that once they are calm, the only choice is to return to work on the subgoal. This
provides the child a chance for an outlet for their anger, but it also sets clear limits so
that they must eventually complete the goal. This can also help parents limit their own
angry lectures. This technique may have the most impact if it is used at least once daily.
Look for opportunities involving schoolwork, homework, or play activities. It is important
to look for every opportunity to build pride and effort to increase frustration tolerance.
For more ideas, talk with other parents, teachers, school psychologists, or mental health
service providers.
Concept Formation
information processing theory adolescence logical thinking concepts example learn
children cognitive development examples feature
Learning process by which items are categorized and related to each other.
A concept is a generalization that helps to organize information into categories. For
example, the concept "square" is used to describe those things that have four equal sides
and four right angles. Thus, the concept categorize things whose properties meet the set
requirements. The way young children learn concepts has been studied in experimental
situations using so-called artificial concepts such as "square." In contrast, real-life, or
natural, concepts have characteristic rather than defining features. For example, a robin
would be a prototypical or "good" example of the concept "bird." A penguin lacks an
important defining feature of this category—flight, and thus is not as strong an example
of a "bird." Similarly, for many children the concept "house" represents a squarish
structure with walls, windows, and a chimney that provides shelter. In later
development, the child's concept of house would be expanded to include nontypical
examples, such as "teepee" or "igloo," both of which have some but not all of the
prototypical characteristics that the children have learned for this concept.
Natural concepts are often learned through the use of prototypes, highly typical
examples of a category— like the robin cited above. The other major method of concept
learning is through the trial-and-error method of testing hypotheses. People will guess or
assume that a certain item is an instance of a particular concept; they then learn more
about the concept when they see whether their hypothesis is correct or not.
People learn simple concepts more readily than complex ones. For example, the easiest
concept to learn is one with only a single defining feature. The next easiest is one with
multiple features, all of which must be present in every case, known as the conjunctive
concept. In conjunctive concepts, and links all the required attributes. For example, the
concept square is defined by four sides and four 90-degree angles. It is more difficult to
master a so-called disjunctive concept, when either one feature or another must be
present. People also learn concepts more easily when they are given positive rather than
negative examples of a concept (e.g., shown what it is rather than what it is not).
a delusion is a false idea: this means something someone believes is true however
it is not possible
(there can be mild delusions, such as believing someone is watching you when
there is no one around; or severe such as a person believing that the government
is trying to kidnap their family to sell them to aliens... which for all that I know
COULD be true)
Think about a situation you considered to be stressful. Did you feel overwhelmed,
helpless and frustrated or were you energized, challenged and hopeful? What was your
body’s reaction to the situation? Did your muscles tense up or was your heart racing?
Was your first reaction to ignore the situation by avoiding it/running away or did you stay
and confront the issue? Your response to these questions is as important as the way you
view situations and will determine how you deal with it. In fact, how you perceive both
the situation and your ability to handle situations is what causes stress.
1:Physicals Environment:
Physical environment affect human personality, consists of land, fertility of land, forests,
hills etc. for example, a person of hilly areas has different physique and outlook as
compared to person of urban area.
2: Social Environment:
Social environment also change and affect the human personality. In a society people
learn from his parents, his family members, friends etc. He accepts all the attributes and
qualities which are inculcated to him.
3: Cultural Environment:
4: Biological Environment:
5: Role Playing:
Each and every individual act and react according to his due role and status assigned to
him, which affect his personality.
We can describe almost any human emotion using these three dimensions or axes. E.g.,
“admiration” could be considered a positive, aroused, submissive emotion. Or
“boredom” could be considered a negative, relaxed, dominant emotion.
The “valence” of emotions is usually pretty straightforward for us to immediately grasp.
“Activation” and “power”, though, may not typically spring to mind for most people
when trying to analyze emotions. Yet thinking about the activation and power
dimensions of any emotion can help us recognize and adapt to emotionally-driven urges
and impulses.