Ultrasonic Testing

S.P. Srivastava

Centre for Design and Manufacture

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Mumbai 400085
Email: [email protected]

1. Introduction
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency (>20kHz) sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw
detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and alloys, though it can also
be used on concrete, wood and composites, albeit with less resolution. It is a form of non-
destructive testing used in many industries including aerospace, automotive and other
transportation sectors.
2. Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
In ultrasonic testing, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with central frequencies ranging
from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched into materials to detect
internal flaws or to characterize materials. The technique is also commonly used to determine
the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor pipe work corrosion.
2.1 How it works
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine scans the
object being inspected from the accessible surface. The transducer is typically separated from
the test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. The transducer
generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. This sound energy propagates through the
materials in the form of waves.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform, reflection and attenuation. In
reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving
of the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound
comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within
the object. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer
and the diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude
representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of
the reflection. From the signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and
other features can sometimes be gained. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a
typical pulse/echo inspection configuration is illustrated below.
In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one
surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after
traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the
transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their
presence.

11

11
T R

2
T R

2 0 2 4 6 8 10

A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the transducer,
clock, pulser/receiver, horizontal sweep, amplifier and display devices.

3. Piezoelectric Effect
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned
mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active
element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy,
and vice versa. The active element is basically a piece of polarized material (i.e. some parts
of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively
charged) with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is
applied across the material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric
field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material.
This alignment of molecules will cause the material to change dimensions. This phenomenon
is known as electrostriction. In addition, a permanently-polarized material such as quartz
(SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce an electric field when the material changes
dimensions as a result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect.

3.1 Piezoelectric Transducers

The transducer is a very important part of the ultrasonic instrumentation system. The
transducer incorporates a piezoelectric element, which converts electrical signals into
mechanical vibrations (transmit mode) and mechanical vibrations into electrical signals
(receive mode). Many factors, including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and
the external mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior of a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters such as the radiation surface area, mechanical
damping, housing, connector type and other variables of physical construction. A cut away of
a typical contact transducer is shown above.
The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the transducer.
A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its thickness. Therefore,
piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the desired radiated wavelength. The
higher the frequency of the transducer, the thinner the active element. The primary reason
that high frequency contact transducers are not produced is because the element is very thin
and too fragile.
To get as much energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance matching is placed
between the active element and the face of the transducer. Optimal impedance matching is
achieved by sizing the matching layer so that its thickness is 1/4 of the desired wavelength.
This keeps waves that were reflected within the matching layer in phase when they exit the
layer.

For contact transducers, the matching layer is made from a material that has an acoustical
impedance between the active element and steel. Immersion transducers have a matching
layer with an acoustical impedance between the active element and water. Contact
transducers also incorporate a wear plate to protect the matching layer and active element
from scratching.
The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the damping
characteristics of a transducer. Using a backing material with an impedance similar to that of
the active element will produce the most effective damping. Such a transducer will have a
wider bandwidth resulting in higher sensitivity. As the mismatch in impedance between the
active element and the backing material increases, material penetration increases but
transducer sensitivity is reduced.
3.2 Transducer Efficiency, Bandwidth and Frequency
Some transducers are specially fabricated to be more efficient transmitters and others to be
more efficient receivers. A transducer that performs well in one application will not always
produce the desired results in a different application. For example, sensitivity to small defects
is proportional to the product of the efficiency of the transducer as a transmitter and a
receiver. Resolution, the ability to locate defects near the surface or in close proximity in the
material, requires a highly damped transducer.
It is also important to understand the concept of bandwidth, or range of frequencies,
associated with a transducer. The frequency noted on a transducer is the central or center
frequency and depends primarily on the backing material. Highly damped transducers will
respond to frequencies above and below the central frequency. The broad frequency range
provides a transducer with high resolving power. Less damped transducers will exhibit a
narrower frequency range and poorer resolving power, but greater penetration. The central
frequency will also define the capabilities of a transducer. Lower frequencies (0.5MHz-
2.25MHz) provide greater energy and penetration in a material, while high frequency crystals
(15.0MHz-25.0MHz) provide reduced penetration but greater sensitivity to small
discontinuities. High frequency transducers, when used with the proper instrumentation, can
improve flaw resolution and thickness measurement capabilities dramatically. Broadband
transducers with frequencies up to 150 MHz are commercially available.
Transducers are constructed to withstand some abuse, but they should be handled carefully.
Misuse, such as dropping, can cause cracking of the wear plate, element, or the backing
material. Damage to a transducer is often noted on the A-scan presentation as an enlargement
of the initial pulse.
4. Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of ultrasonic energy
from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generally necessary because the
acoustic impedance mismatch between air and solids (i.e. such as the test specimen) is large.
Therefore, nearly all of the energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test
material. The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into
the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact ultrasonic
testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used between the transducer and the
test surface.
When scanning over the part or making precise measurements, an immersion technique is
often used. In immersion ultrasonic testing both the transducer and the part are immersed in
the couplant, which is typically water. This method of coupling makes it easier to maintain
consistent coupling while moving and manipulating the transducer and/or the part.
 
5. Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materials, which is
generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of atoms, which may
be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Many different patterns of
vibrational motion exist at the atomic level, however, most are irrelevant to acoustics and
ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that contain many atoms that move in
unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a material is not stressed in tension or
compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform elastic oscillations.
When the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium positions, internal
(electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restoring forces between particles,
combined with inertia of the particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the medium.
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based on the way the
particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves,
and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of
propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing.
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of
wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces are active in these waves, they
are also called pressure or compressional waves. They are also sometimes called density
waves because their particle density fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be
generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure
by a series of comparison and expansion (rarefaction) movements.
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the
direction of propagation. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective
propagation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or
gasses. Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear
waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from longitudinal waves.

6. Properties of Acoustic Plane Wave

6.1 Wavelength, Frequency and Velocity
Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic solid materials are wavelength,
frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional to the velocity of the wave
and inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. This relationship is shown by the
following equation.

6.2 Wavelength and Defect Detection

In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency of the
transducer that will be used. As we know, changing the frequency when the sound velocity is
fixed, will result in a change in the wavelength of the sound. The wavelength of the
ultrasound used has a significant effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity. A
general rule of thumb is that a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the wavelength to
stand a reasonable chance of being detected.
Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic inspection to
describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the ability to locate small
discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with higher frequency (shorter wavelengths).
Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are close together within
the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also generally increases as the
frequency increases.
The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse ways.
Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves maintaining a balance
between the favorable and unfavorable results of the selection. Before selecting an inspection
frequency, the material's grain structure and thickness, and the discontinuity's type, size, and
probable location should be considered. As frequency increases, sound tends to scatter from
large or course grain structure and from small imperfections within a material. Cast materials
often have coarse grains and scatter more sound and therefore, such products require lower
frequencies to be used for evaluations. Wrought and forged products with directional and
refined grain structure can usually be inspected with higher frequency transducers.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound energy at higher
frequencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth in a material that flaws can be
located) is also reduced. Frequency also has an effect on the shape of the ultrasonic beam.
Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam from the center axis of the transducer, reduces
with the increase of the frequency. Thus, higher the frequency, narrower the beam and higher
the resolution.
7. Acoustic Impedance
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because molecules or
atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess pressure results in a wave
propagating through the solid. The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the
product of its density (p) and acoustic velocity (V), Z = pV.
Acoustic impedance is important in
1. The determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary of two
materials having different acoustic impedances.
2. The design of ultrasonic transducers.
 3. Assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
8. Refraction and Snell's Law
When an ultrasonic wave passes through an interface between two materials at an oblique
angle, and the materials have different indices of refraction, both reflected and refracted
waves are produced. This also occurs with light, which is why objects seen across an
interface appear to be shifted relative to where they really are.
Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic waves
within the two materials. The velocity of sound in each material is determined by the material
properties (elastic modulus and density) for that material. Snell's Law describes the
relationship between the angles and the velocities of the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio
of material velocities V1 and V2 to the ratio of the sine's of incident (θ) and refracted (θ2)
angles, as shown in the following equation.

Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
 

Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave (V L1') shown. This wave is
reflected at the same angle as the incident wave because the two waves are traveling in the
same material, and hence have the same velocities. This reflected wave is unimportant, but it
should be remembered that some of the wave energy is reflected at the interface.
9. Mode Conversion
When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be transformed into
another form. For example, when a longitudinal wave hits an interface at an angle, some of
the energy can cause particle movement in the transverse direction to start a shear
(transverse) wave. Mode conversion occurs when a wave encounters an interface between
materials of different acoustic impedances and the incident angle is not normal to the
interface. It can be seen that since mode conversion occurs every time a wave encounters an
interface at an angle, ultrasonic signals can become confusing at times.
In the previous section, it was pointed out that when sound waves pass through an interface
between materials having different acoustic velocities, refraction takes place at the interface.
The larger the difference in acoustic velocities between the two materials, the more the sound
is refracted. Notice that the shear wave is not refracted as much as the longitudinal wave.
This occurs because shear waves travel slower than longitudinal waves. Therefore, the
velocity difference between the incident longitudinal wave and the shear wave is not as great
as it is between the incident and refracted longitudinal waves. Also note that when a
longitudinal wave is reflected inside the material, the reflected shear wave is reflected at a
smaller angle than the reflected longitudinal wave. This is also due to the fact that the shear
velocity is less than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.
Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal waves and can be written as
follows.

Where:
   VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
   VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
   VS1 is the shear wave velocity in material 1.
   VS2 is the shear wave velocity in material 2.

It can be seen that when a wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is an incident
angle which makes the angle of refraction for the longitudinal wave 90 degrees. This incident
angle is known as the first critical angle and all of the energy from the refracted longitudinal
wave is now converted to a surface following longitudinal wave. This surface following wave
is sometime referred to as a creep wave and it is not very useful in NDT because it dampens
out very rapidly.
Beyond the first critical angle, only the shear wave propagates into the material. For this
reason, most angle beam transducers use a shear wave so that the signal is not complicated by
having two waves present. In many cases there is also an incident angle that makes the angle
of refraction for the shear wave 90 degrees. This is know as the second critical angle and at
this point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface following shear wave
or shear creep wave. Slightly beyond the second critical angle, surface waves will be
generated.
10. Technique
Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided into three primary classifications.
• Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is used)
• Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the test article)
• Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to the test article)
10.1 Normal Beam Inspection
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a part or
structure by accurately measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a
transducer to travel through a thickness of material, reflect from the back or the surface of a
discontinuity, and be returned to the transducer. In most applications, this time interval is a
few microseconds or less. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account
for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material.
The result is expressed in the well-known relationship
d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t
where d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is the velocity
of sound waves in the material, and t is the measured round-trip transit time.
Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at frequencies between 500 kHz and 100
MHz, by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate bursts of sound waves when
excited by electrical pulses. In thickness gauging, ultrasonic techniques permit quick and
reliable measurement of thickness without requiring access to both sides of a part. Accuracy's
as high as ±1 micron or ±0.0001 inch can be achieved in some applications. It is possible to
measure most engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics,
composites, epoxies, and glass as well as liquid levels and the thickness of certain biological
specimens. On-line or in-process measurement of extruded plastics or rolled metal often is
possible, as is measurements of single layers or coatings in multilayer materials. Modern
handheld gages are simple to use and very reliable.
10.2 Angle Beam Technique
Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave
into the test material. An angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in from the side,
thereby improving detectability of flaws in and around welded areas.

11. Weld Inspection

The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag inclusions, lack of
side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root penetration, undercutting, and
longitudinal or transverse cracks.
With the exception of single gas pores all the defects listed are usually well detectable by
ultrasonic. Most applications are on low-alloy construction quality steels, however, welds in
aluminum can also be tested. Ultrasonic flaw detection has long been the preferred method
for nondestructive testing in welding applications. This safe, accurate, and simple technique
has pushed ultrasonics to the forefront of inspection technology.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam transducer in
conjunction with an angle beam transducer and wedge. A straight beam transducer, producing
a longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to locate any
laminations in or near the heat-affected zone. This is important because an angle beam
transducer may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar flaw.

The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to inspect the
actual weld. Angle beam transducers use the principles of refraction and mode conversion to
produce refracted shear or longitudinal waves in the test material. [Note: Many AWS
inspections are performed using refracted shear waves. However, material having a large
grain structure, such as stainless steel may require refracted longitudinal waves for successful
inspections.] This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and heat-affected zones
of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the material around the weldment
with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will bounce off a reflector (discontinuity) in
the path of the sound beam. With proper angle beam techniques, echoes returned from the
weld zone may allow the operator to determine the location and type of discontinuity.

12. Data Presentation

Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats. The three
most common formats are know in the NDT world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan
presentations. Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and evaluating
the region of material being inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning systems can
display data in all three presentation forms simultaneously.
12.1 A-Scan Presentation
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a function of
time. The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical axis and the elapsed
time (which may be related to the sound energy travel time within the material) is displayed
along the horizontal axis. Most instruments with an A-scan display allow the signal to be
displayed in its natural radio frequency form (RF), as a fully rectified RF signal, or as either
the positive or negative half of the RF signal. In the A-scan presentation, relative
discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the signal amplitude obtained from an
unknown reflector to that from a known reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the
position of the signal on the horizontal sweep.

In the illustration of the A-scan presentation, the initial pulse generated by the transducer is
represented by the signal IP, which is near time zero. As the transducer is scanned along the
surface of the part, four other signals are likely to appear at different times on the screen.
When the transducer is in its far left position, only the IP signal and signal A, the sound
energy reflecting from surface A, will be seen on the trace. As the transducer is scanned to
the right, a signal from the backwall BW will appear later in time, showing that the sound has
traveled farther to reach this surface. When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear
at a point on the time scale that is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BW
signal. Since the IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates that
flaw B is about halfway between the front and back surfaces of the sample. When the
transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since the sound travel
path is shorter and signal B will disappear since sound will no longer be reflecting from it.
12.2 B-Scan Presentation
The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test specimen. In the B-
scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is displayed along the vertical axis
and the linear position of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis. From the B-
scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan direction can
be determined. The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan.
Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point is produced on the
B-scan. The gate is triggered by the sound reflecting from the backwall of the specimen and
by smaller reflectors within the material. In the B-scan image above, line A is produced as the
transducer is scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen. When the
transducer moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BW is produced. When the
transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar to the length of the flaws and at similar
depths within the material are drawn on the B-scan. It should be noted that a limitation to this
display technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near the surface.
12.2 C-Scan Presentation
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of
the location and size of test specimen features. The
plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern of the
transducer. C-scan presentations are produced with an
automated data acquisition system, such as a computer
controlled immersion scanning system. Typically, a
data collection gate is established on the A-scan and
the amplitude or the time-of-flight of the signal is
recorded at regular intervals as the transducer is
scanned over the test piece. The relative signal
amplitude or the time-of-flight is displayed as a shade
of gray or a color for each of the positions where data
was recorded. The C-scan presentation provides an
image of the features that reflect and scatter the sound
within and on the surfaces of the test piece.
High resolution scans can produce very detailed
images. Below are two ultrasonic C-scan images of a
US quarter. Both images were produced using a pulse-
echo technique with the transducer scanned over the
head side in an immersion scanning system. For the C-
scan image on the left, the gate was setup to capture
the amplitude of the sound reflecting from the front
surface of the quarter. Light areas in the image indicate
areas that reflected a greater amount of energy back to
the transducer.
13. Calibration Methods
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy of
measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of calibration must occur. First,
the electronics of the equipment must be calibrated to ensure that they are performing as
designed. This operation is usually performed by the equipment manufacturer and will not be
discussed further in this material. It is also usually necessary for the operator to perform a
"user calibration" of the equipment. This user calibration is necessary because most ultrasonic
equipment can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications. The user must
"calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings, the transducer, and the test
setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and accuracy are achieved. The term
calibration standard is usually only used when an absolute value is measured and in many
cases, the standards are traceable back to standards at the National Institute for Standards and
Technology.
In ultrasonic testing, there is also a need for reference standards. Reference standards are used
to establish a general level of consistency in measurements and to help interpret and quantify
the information contained in the received signal. Reference standards are used to validate that
the equipment and the setup provide similar results from one day to the next and that similar
results are produced by different systems. Reference standards also help the inspector to
estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type setup, signal strength depends on both the size
of the flaw and the distance between the flaw and the transducer. The inspector can use a
reference standard with an artificially induced flaw of known size and at approximately the
same distance away for the transducer to produce a signal. By comparing the signal from the
reference standard to that received from the actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw
size.
This section will discuss some of the more common calibration and reference specimen that
are used in ultrasonic inspection. Some of these specimens are shown in the figure above. Be
aware that are other standards available and that specially designed standards may be
required for many applications. The information provided here is intended to serve a general
introduction to the standards and not to be instruction on the proper use of the standards.
13.1 Introduction to the Common Standards
Calibration and reference standards for ultrasonic testing come in many shapes and sizes. The
type of standard used is dependent on the NDE application and the form and shape of the
object being evaluated. The material of the reference standard should be the same as the
material being inspected and the artificially induced flaw should closely resemble that of the
actual flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most standard reference
samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely represent real flaws. In most
cases the artificially induced defects in reference standards are better reflectors of sound

energy (due to their flatter and smoother surfaces) and produce indications that are larger than
those that a similar sized flaw would produce. Producing more "realistic" defects is cost
prohibitive in most cases and, therefore, the inspector can only make an estimate of the flaw
size. Computer programs that allow the inspector to create computer simulated models of the
part and flaw may one day lessen this limitation.
14. Application
• Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection, evaluation, dimensional
measurements, material characterization, and more.
• It can be used for raw material, manufactured and fabricated part.
• It can be used during the manufacturing process, in situ or in-service inspection.
Some of the applications for which ultrasonic testing may be employed include:
• Flaw detection (cracks, inclusions, porosity, etc.)
• Erosion & corrosion thickness gauging
• Assessment of bond integrity in adhesively joined and brazed components
• Estimation of void content in composites and plastics
• Measurement of case hardening depth in steels
• Estimation of grain size in metals
14. Features
14.1 Advantages
1. High penetrating power, which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part.
2. High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small flaws.
3. Only one surface need be accessible.
4. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of
internal flaws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces.
5. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects.
6. Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no effect on equipment
and materials in the vicinity.
7. Capable of portable or highly automated operation.
14.2 Disadvantages
1. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians
2. Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection
procedures.
3. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
4. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc, although
paint that is properly bonded to a surface usually need not be removed.
5. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Non-
contact techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers
(EMAT).
6. Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not
contain rust inhibitors.
 Bond integrity of weld and brazed joints by UT

Ultrasonic testing is one of the most popular nondestructive testing techniques for the
evaluation of bond quality and defects, such as delaminations. The amplitude of the interface
echo is dependent upon the acoustic impedance (Z= ρV, where ρ is density and V is
velocity of ultrasonic wave) of the two media on both sides of the interface. The reflection
coefficient is given as: R=(Z2-Z1)/ (Z2+Z1) where, Z1 and Z2 are the acoustic impedances of
the first and the second media respectively. In the case of a good bond, the amplitude of the
interface echo is less, because of the small difference between the acoustic impedances of the
two metals. Whereas, in the case of any debond, because of the presence of metal air
interface, all the energy gets reflected back due to the large difference in acoustic impedance
between the metal and the air and hence a signal with large amplitude is observed. This is
indicated as a gray or black area in the C-scan.

Ringdown Test for Bond Integrity

Application: Ultrasonically identifying presence or

absence of bonding between an outer layer of high
impedance material such as metal or ceramic and an
inner layer of low impedance material such as plastic,
composite, or rubber. This technique also applies to
many metal-to-metal glue joints.

Background: When materials of similar acoustic

impedance (density multiplied by sound velocity) are
joined to each other, such as metal welded or brazed to
metal, or plastic fused to plastic, the presence or
absence of bonding can usually be determined from the
amplitude of the first reflection from the boundary. Typically there will be a significant
difference in reflected signal amplitude between bonded and disbonded conditions. However,
if there is a large difference in the acoustic impedance of the two materials, as in the case of
bonds between metal and polymers, then due to that acoustic impedance mismatch there will
be a significant reflection from the boundary even if the materials are mechanically bonded.
The change in echo amplitude between bonded and disbonded conditions may be small and
hard to detect, especially in situations where transducer coupling conditions are not uniform.
This same situation often occurs in cases where metal is bonded to metal by means of epoxy
or other low impedance adhesive. Unless the adhesive layer is extremely thin, it will
constitute a low impedance bond line with a significant reflection even from a good joint.

Note that in cases where the low impedance material is on the outside, or part geometry
otherwise permits coupling to the low impedance side of the joint, then the recommended
procedure is a phase shift test. In cases where the test must be performed from the high
impedance side of the joint, the ringdown technique described in this application note is often
the best approach. This involves observing a series of multiple reflections from the boundary
and looking for a difference in the rate at which the amplitude of successive echoes, or the
ringdown envelope, changes between bond and disbond conditions. As the sound wave
reverberates in the metal or other high impedance material, the amplitude change is
multiplied at each bounce, so for example a hard-to-see 5% amplitude drop between disbond
and bond conditions at the first echo becomes a 25% drop at the fifth echo and a 50% drop at
the tenth echo. While the change in a single echo may be small, the collective change across a
series of multiple echoes will be much larger and easier to identify. In a typical joint, bond
and disbond conditions will each produce their own distinctive ring down pattern.

Procedure: As with any other ultrasonic flaw detection procedure, setting up this test
requires reference standards representing the conditions to be detected, in this case samples of
the specific materials and geometry in question with known good and band bonds.A delay
line (or immersion) transducer is normally used for this type of test because it will typically
generate more multiple echoes from a high impedance test piece than a contact transducer
whose wearplate is closely matched to the target. Select a delay line transducer that generates
at least five multiple backwall echoes, preferably more, from the bond line at the backwall of
the outer material. Set the instrument time base to a large enough range to display a series of
at least five multiple echoes on the screen. Couple the transducer to a reference standard
representing unbonded material and adjust damping, filtering, and rectification as necessary
to generate the cleanest and sharpest peaks. Set gain such that the first backwall echo is at full
screen height. In the waveform below, the first peak is the delay line interface echo and the
subsequent peaks are multiple echoes from a 0.1" (2.5 mm) unbonded steel standard. Because
the metal is air-backed, the multiple echoes diminish at a relatively slow rate.

Slow ringdown pattern from unbonded metal:

Then couple the transducer to the bonded reference standard and observe the change in the
rate at which the height of the peaks diminishes. The waveform below represents a 0.1" (2.5
mm) bonded steel standard in which the steel is bonded to a polymer liner. The rate at which
the peaks diminish is faster than in the first waveform.

Fast ring down pattern from bonded metal

Notice that the amplitude of the multiple echoes decreases rapidly towards the right side of
the screen. The bonded polymer on the back side of the steel acts as a mechanical damping
mechanism and causes the multiple echoes to decay more quickly. The exact variance in the
ringdown pattern between bonded and unbonded conditions will depend on the relative
acoustic impedance of the two materials as well as attenuation factors, but in principle this
test works for any situation involving a high impedance material bonded to one of low
impedance. By recording the two characteristic patterns observed in the reference standards
and comparing them to the waveforms from a test piece, the presence or absence of bonding
in the test piece can be determined.
When using instruments that incorporate Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) software, it
will often be helpful to use the DAC function to draw the ringdown profile of a properly
bonded part on the screen. That DAC curve may then be used to quickly identify absence of
bonding, which will be indicated by a series of peaks that rise above the line as seen below.
Additionally, instrument alarms may be set to trigger on echoes that rise above the curve to
further identify suspect bond conditions.
DAC curve marking ring-down profile of good bond, with waveform from bad bond:

It is important to remember that this type of test qualifies the presence or absence of bonding
only, not the strength of bonding. Also, the materials must be acoustically bonded by an
adhesive or similar bonding agent. Pressure alone is rarely sufficient to create an acoustic
bond.