Module 7: Pedagogy

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Pedagogy refers to the art and science of teaching and any of the methods that teachers use to teach their
students. Pedagogy is truly both an art and a science because there are infinite strategies you can learn to
use to help your students, but there is also artistry involved in how you implement those strategies. Since
you may not be in the classroom yet, we will focus on the science side of teaching and let you discover
the artistry as you begin working with your students. In this module, we will discuss the best ways to
impart information to your students and how to learn from your experiences and continue improving
throughout your career as an educator.

Module 7: Pedagogy

7.1 Exposition

7.2 Modelling

7.3 Know where you are going

7.4 Constructive criticism

7.1 Exposition

Pedagogy is such a complex topic that it could be its own course, so as we discuss the
theories that inform a teacher’s planning, implementation, and assessment, keep in mind
that we are giving an overview rather than a comprehensive study. Here are some of the
most well-known theories of education.

Considering that education in some form or another has existed since the dawn of man, it
is surprising to know there are so many different theories regarding the best way to
provide education for students. While many of these can work together to inspire teachers
in their planning and instruction, some of them directly contradict each other and have led
to debates within the profession. Here, we will cover a few of those theories and discuss
how they can inform your teaching.

7.1.1 Bloom’s taxonomy

Benjamin Bloom studied learning and concluded that learning activities could be
categorized into six segments based on the level of thinking they require. He framed his
theory into the shape of a triangle with the lowest-level thinking at the bottom. He did this
because even though the lower-level thinking activities require less thinking, they provide
the base for higher-level thinking. He believed (as many do) that it is very hard to extend
your learning on a topic if you do not understand the topic itself. We will discuss each
category in reverse order, starting with what Bloom labeled as the lowest level of thinking.
 1. Remember: At the base of this triangle, representing the lowest level of thinking, is
any activity that requires a student to recall facts and basic concepts. These types of
activities are extremely important in a student’s learning, since it is hard to take the
next step without first knowing the basic facts. Activities that require students to
remember include defining words, memorizing facts, listing things, and repeating
information.
2. Understand: At the next level of thinking, teachers ask students to comprehend
what they are memorizing and repeating. For students to explore content in any
way, they need to be able to comprehend what they are studying. Activities that
require students to explain ideas or concepts include classifying, describing,
discussing, and explaining information.

7.1.2 Bloom’s taxonomy

3. Apply: Once students understand the information they are learning, they can take
the next step and apply what they have learned to new situations. This displays a
higher level of thinking because the student needs to understand the concept
enough to apply it to something different. For example, a student may be able to
recite Romeo & Juliet, which shows they can remember. They may comprehend the
play enough to explain it, which shows they can understand. Now, if they can take
that comprehension of the play and use it to understand Othello, they are applying
their knowledge. Activities that require students to apply their knowledge include
implementing plans, solving problems, and demonstrating knowledge.
4. Analyze: True analysis of a concept requires a student to have accomplished all of
the levels of thinking that come before it. To truly delve into a topic and analyze
more than what is explicitly stated, a student needs to understand it completely.
When students analyze, they draw connections between ideas and explore
connotative and deep meaning. Activities that require students to analyze include
differentiating information, organizing information, comparing and contrasting, and
experimenting.

5. Evaluate: Simply the act of evaluating something does not necessarily require much
thinking; we are constantly judging things we may know nothing about. To make an
accurate judgment about something, however, you need to understand it
completely. If you ask your students if Americans were justified in fighting against
the British in the American Revolution, they will need to understand how the war
began, why each side fought, and then make a determination about the colonies’
justification. Activities that require students to justify a stand or decision include
appraisals, arguments, judgments, and critiques.
6. Create: According to Bloom, the highest level of thinking is when you ask your
students to synthesize what they have learned and create something new. The idea
behind his emphasis on this skill is that students need to be able to understand
something completely and have high skills to be able to now create something of
 their own that is related. Activities that require students to synthesize their
knowledge include designing, assembling, constructing, and writing (something
original).
7. 7.1.3 Behaviorism (1 of 2)
8. Behaviorist theory is an idea that hinges completely on motivation and how teachers
can get students to succeed in the classroom. While many thinkers contributed to the
formation of behaviorism, the ideas can be easily summed up by the famous
experiment conducted by Ivan Pavlov, who proved that a dog could be conditioned to
respond to a specific stimulus that does not inherently cause that response. He did
this by essentially ringing a bell every time before he gave a dog food to the point
where the dog began to salivate in anticipation of food. After some conditioning with
this model, he removed the original stimulus and found that the dog continued to
salivate at the sound of the bell even when it was not followed by food. The dog had
now been conditioned to feel hungry whenever he heard the bell according to Pavlov.
9. To understand the educational theory, we first need to clear up a few phrases that are
often misunderstood. Since behaviorism depends heavily on response to a stimulus,
the following phrases refer to the manipulation of stimuli by an outsider (in our case,
the teacher):
10.
11. Positive reinforcement: When an outsider rewards a desired behavior by
providing a desired stimulus. An example is giving a student a good grade for
working hard on an assignment.
12. Negative reinforcement: This is probably the most misunderstood term in
behaviorism. The word “negative” refers to removal, and the word “reinforcement”
refers to a stimulus. Therefore, negative reinforcement is when an outsider rewards
a desired behavior by removing an undesirable stimulus. An example would be
rewarding a student for good behavior by not yelling at him or her as you normally
would.
13. Positive punishment: This is when an outsider presents the subject with an
undesirable stimulus as a consequence of doing something wrong or not doing
something right. An example would be giving a student an F for not doing his or her
work.
14. Negative punishment: This is when an outsider removes a desired stimulus from
the subject as a consequence of doing something wrong or not doing something
right. An example would be telling a student that he or she can no longer sit with
friends because he or she is misbehaving.
15. Pavlov’s experiment displayed classic conditioning, which refers to conditioning
involuntary behavior (a dog does not choose when to salivate). B.F. Skinner
extended this idea, referring to his ideas as operant conditioning, which refers to
conditioning voluntary actions through reinforcement and punishment.

7.1.4 Behaviorism (2 of 2)
According to this theory:

 Learners are not really active in the learning process but rather passive participants
who are simply responding to stimuli.

 Learners begin as a blank page, and behavior is only shaped when stimuli provide
either positive or negative reinforcement.

 The more that a behavior is reinforced, whether negatively or positively, the more
likely the student is to repeat that behavior.

 In the same way, the more that a behavior is punished, whether negatively or
positively, the less likely the student is to repeat that behavior.

 In operant conditioning, B.F. Skinner tested the efficacy of different methods of

disbursements for reinforcement and punishments. In other words, how often do you
need to reinforce or punish behavior for it to have the most lasting effect on the
subject?

o Continuous reinforcement: This is when a subject is reinforced every time

he or she performs the desired behavior. Skinner found that this did not
motivate subjects. They did not work as hard, and when the reinforcement
was removed, they quickly stopped performing the desired behavior.
o Fixed ratio reinforcement: This is when the subject is reinforced after a
specific amount of times that he or she performs the desired behavior.
Skinner found that subjects worked harder with this method, and that they
were less likely to stop the desired behavior after the reinforcement was
removed. However, this still was not the most effective method.
o Fixed interval reinforcement: This is when a subject is reinforced after a
designated amount of time, provided the desired behavior has been
performed at least once during that time. Skinner found that the subjects
worked moderately hard and were about as likely to stop the behavior as the
previous model after the reinforcement was removed.
o Variable ratio reinforcement: This is when the subject is reinforced after a
random number of times performing the desired behavior. Skinner found
that this method made subjects work hard and take a long time to stop the
behavior after the reinforcement was removed.
o Variable interval reinforcement: This is when the subject is reinforced
after a random amount of time has elapsed, provided that the subject has
performed the desired behavior at least once during that time. Skinner found
that this worked equally as well as the previous model, with subjects working
 hard and taking a long time to stop the desired behavior after the
reinforcement was stopped.

7.1.5 Constructivism

Constructivism hinges on the idea that educators need to meet students wherever they are
(in terms of skills and knowledge) and help them build on previous knowledge. It is also a
theory that seeks to help students find their own way as they experience learning and
come to their own conclusions.

According to this theory:

 The teacher takes a backseat and monitors students as they take control of their
learning. A traditional classroom is teacher centered, but a constructivist classroom
is student centered.

 Students are actively involved in the lesson. Instead of passively accepting the work
given by the teacher and completing it to receive a grade, the student drives the
lesson and works towards a goal with the teacher’s guidance.

 The class feels less like dictatorship, which is run solely by one person, and more like
an environment that is run by the entire class.

 Teachers allow students to find their own answers rather than telling them what
answers to look for. Students are able to explore things in their own way and come to
their own conclusions instead of exploring things the way the teacher tells them to
and coming to the conclusions that the teacher wants them to come to.

 Teachers encourage students to be autonomous, which means they encourage

students to be independent and motivated by their own goals and interests.

Many modern classrooms are moving towards this model or at least towards a model that
is similar, following the next theory we will discuss.

7.1.6 Student-centered learning

While constructivism was student centered, there is a movement in modern education for a
broader embrace of student-centered learning, even if it is not technically considered
constructivist. Since the ideas of student-centered learning have already been covered in
constructivism and by the clarity of the title, we will focus this section on how theorists
believe student-centered learning benefits students.
  Research shows that student-centered learning works because a student’s potential
for learning relies heavily on what he or she already knows. This can affect what
new information is important to the student, how he or she processes new
information, and how he or she determines what is important. With student-
centered learning, students are more free and able to work at their own pace,
starting at their ability level or base of knowledge.

 One of the most important parts of learning is reflection; having students look back
at what they learned, how they learned it, and where they need to go from here. A
less teacher-centered environment allows students more opportunities for this type
of reflection on learning.

 Students who are involved in student-centered learning have reportedly been more
motivated and satisfied by the school experience. This is because they are more
likely to feel satisfied with their work than if they were simply doing what the
teacher told them to do.

 Student-centered learning is more open to differentiation, which allows all students

with developmental, cognitive, or other differences to progress. A teacher leading
the class is much more likely to need all of his or her students to reach a specific
point at the end of the lesson. Students working independently can set their own
goals.

 One of the biggest obstacles that teachers have to face is the student who is not
engaged. Studies have shown that asking students to move around, control their
learning, and take responsibility for their development leads to more motivation
and progress than in traditional classrooms.

7.2 Modeling

One of the best ways to help students understand new knowledge or grasp difficult skills is
through modeling and scaffolding, which both involve the teacher showing students how
things are done. Too often in education, teachers assume that students already know
exactly what they need to do. More often than not, this is just not true. Students will always
benefit from watching the teacher model a skill or an activity. Students are easily
influenced and will often look to the teacher for how to act, what to do, and how to
succeed. Here are some different ways that you can model for your students:

 Model desired personal characteristics: It can be extremely beneficial to present

yourself as a role model for optimal behavior during a lesson. At any given time in
your classroom, you are asking students to be responsible, creative, diligent,
thoughtful, and respectful (to name a few). Students are much more likely to meet
these expectations if they see you meeting them as well.
  Model a task: Let’s say you want to teach active reading and annotation strategies to
your students. You can do one of two things. You could tell the students exactly
what they should do and let them do it, or you could show them what they should
do and help them work on it. Select a piece of reading and read it with the class,
annotating it in the same way that you expect your students to annotate. This way
there will be no confusion about what you are expecting from them.

 Model metacognitive thinking: When you are trying to help your students become
better thinkers and arrive at conclusions more efficiently and effectively, it can help
to show them how your thought process works. In math class, this works perfectly
because you can walk your students through the process of solving a problem. In
language classes, you could walk your students through how you would break down
a word for proper pronunciation and potential meaning.

 Let the students do the modeling: Assess your students’ strengths and
weaknesses, and give them opportunities throughout the year or course to model
their strengths to the class. Not only will you be reinforcing their success and
solidifying their mastery of the skill, but you will also be letting students learn from
other students.

In whatever way you choose to use modeling, you will make a significant impact on how
well your students understand the skill or knowledge that you are working on. Sometimes,
students just need to see how it is done and not just hear how it should be done to be
successful.

7.3 Know where you are going

Planning for instruction is not an aimless adventure where teachers decide what they are
going to do as they go; it takes a lot of forethought. To be effective as an educator, you will
have to understand what you are leading to on day one and categorically take steps to
prepare your students to reach your goal. To be an effective teacher, you absolutely have
to know where you are going, and if you want to have an impact on your students, you
should also let them know where you are going.

7.3.1 Planning for assessments

Backwards planning is an educational strategy that helps teachers make sure that
everything they do leads to student assessment. It is a pretty simple idea, though it is fairly
difficult to execute perfectly. Here are the steps you need to take if you would like to
implement backwards planning.
 1. You first need to decide exactly what you are trying to do with the unit that you are
planning. At the end of the unit, what are you hoping that your students will be able
to do? These are your unit objectives and should be created with care because
everything you do during the unit will have to work towards these objectives. When
you are creating these objectives, focus on what the students will be able to do by
the end of the unit rather than the content you want to cover. Your ultimate goal is
to lead your students to success, not to get to a specific point in your curriculum.

2. Design an assessment that is in line with the objectives you have created. If your
objectives are an expression of what your students should be able to do by the end
of your unit, then your assessment needs to assess whether or not your students
are able to do these things. Think of it this way: if you bring your car to a mechanic’s
shop and they tell you they will fix your car, you will assess their success by whether
or not your car is fixed when they are done with it. If you say that your students will
be able to do A, B, and C by the end of your unit, you need to assess if they can do it.

3. Now that you have created objectives and designed an assessment, you need to
determine what your students will need to achieve your objectives. What skills do
they need to improve on? What knowledge do they need? What do they need to
practice? What steps do they need to take to get to the point where they can be
successful on the assessment and therefore fulfill your objectives?

7.3.2 Planning for assessments

4. Design a unit’s worth of lesson plans to target the specific skills, knowledge, and
areas that you have already identified as necessary for your students to find
success. The whole planning process is recursive. Make objectives, make a tool for
assessing whether or not students have reached the objectives, identify what the
students need to succeed on the assessment, and design instructions that target the
students’ needs.

5. After you have taken your students through the unit and graded the assessment, it
is time for you to reflect on your teaching. Your objectives were to help your
students be able to do A, B, and C. Were you successful? Did enough students
succeed that you can move ahead without worrying about their progress? If
students did not succeed, what kept them from succeeding? How can you do things
differently the next time you implement the unit to ensure that your students are
more successful?

6. There are two ways in which the previous reflection can inform your teaching. First,
redesign your unit so that it more effectively helps students achieve your objectives.
 When you teach the unit next year, you should have more success. Second, what
skills did the students miss in this unit that they will need in the next unit? Their
performance in this unit should inform your planning of the next unit. If most of
your students did not get the skill you were planning for them to hone, then it
should now become one of your objectives for the next unit. You cannot just write
them off and hope for better results next year. You need to make up for it with
these students and then adjust your instruction so that it is more effective next
year.

7.4 Constructive criticism

The whole process we discussed in the previous section does not have to fall only on your
shoulders as the teacher. Great teachers make students part of the process, asking them to
reflect on their own learning and identify what kept them from being successful. To do that,
they need to receive honest and specific feedback from you on their performance. Telling a
student “good job” isn’t going to help them improve at all. They don’t even know what they
did well when you say something like that. Honesty is important, but it is also important
that you are sensitive to the fact that excessive criticism could simply demotivate your
students. Here are some tips for providing your students with constructive criticism:

 First of all, you need to make sure that your expectations for student work are very
clear to them. If they properly understand what is expected, you can get a true
picture of what they are able to accomplish, and they don’t feel blindsided by your
feedback. If you have the opportunity, you may even want to provide your students
with examples to show them what a successful assessment looks like as opposed to
an unsuccessful assessment.

 When you are providing feedback, be specific. There is nothing more worthless than
vague, general feedback. You are already going to have to overcome the obstacle of
students not paying attention to your feedback; if you provide meaningless
feedback, they are even less likely to focus on it. This is important when you are
giving feedback on what they did well as much as it is when you are providing
feedback on their weaknesses.

 Try to balance your positive and negative feedback. Never provide just negative
feedback; there is always something good that you can say. While a student will still
be pretty upset getting overwhelmingly negative feedback, it will definitely help that
you have provided a silver lining so that they see that their work was not worthless.

 Refer back to your instruction. If students are struggling with something you
have not taught in the unit, then it is something you will have to discuss with them;
if it is something that you have gone over, then you will probably have to go over it
again. When the students are struggling with something you haven’t taught, it may
 not be fair for you to punish them for it, so instead provide them with encouraging
feedback that identifies the weakness and promises you’ll discuss as a class.

 Require your students to do some sort of reflection activity that forces them to read
or review the feedback you have provided. If they do not receive the feedback, what
is it accomplishing