Module 1: Teaching and learning

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Learning a new language can be difficult, so teaching a new language inherently comes with great
obstacles. To effectively teach English to someone new to the language, you must understand many
things, including the basics of the English language, how speakers acquire a new language, and how to
motivate students to succeed when they are struggling. In this module, we will discuss the basics of how
to get started, including taking a hard look at how to access the motivations of new students, how to use
their previous language and cultural background to your advantage, and how to get them started on the
path to English fluency.

Our expert authors hail from countries all around the world, which means that they might be writing in
American English, British English, Australian English, or other variations of our shared language. Please
keep in mind that there might be spelling variations in our courses.

Module 1: Teaching and learning

1.1 Motivation

1.2 Understanding cultural backgrounds

1.3 The importance of a first language

1.4 Getting started

1.1 Motivation

Teaching any subject involves knowing how motivation affects a student. Without proper
motivation, it will be difficult for students to accept what they are learning and commit to
the process. Since learning a new language can be one of the hardest academic endeavors
there is, it is even more important that you, the teacher, understand the motivation behind
your students' commitment to learning, and use it to your advantage. We will discuss
motivation by first breaking it down into its two smaller parts: intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation.

1.1.1 Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is the best stepping stone to success, but you can't teach it. Intrinsic
motivation characterizes someone who is compelled to do something for internal
rewards. This type of motivation is powerful because extrinsic rewards can be fleeting or
disappointing, but an internal drive to succeed will almost always motivate an individual.
While you cannot teach someone to be intrinsically motivated, you can help your
students access intrinsic motivation they may not know they already possess, or that
they may have lost for the moment. If you know your students are intrinsically
motivated, you can help them succeed. Here are some tips to access and use your
students’ intrinsic motivation:
  Get to the root of what is driving the individual. While they may only acknowledge
an extrinsic motivation for learning English, you may be able to help them tie that to
a grander internal drive. For example, if students come to you wanting to learn
English because they are moving to an English-speaking country and it will be
helpful to know the language, the superficial part of their reasoning points toward
extrinsic motivation. However, this extrinsic motivator points to something internal:
the desire to fit in and not feel like an outsider.
 Understand the basis for most forms of intrinsic motivation. William Glasser, an
American psychiatrist, published a theory in 1998 proposing that humans have
essential needs that dictate our emotional health. These needs are the need to
belong or connect, the need for power or competence, the need for freedom, and
the need to have fun. Having these needs in mind could help you when designing
your lessons. Which of these needs is this lesson satisfying? This is a way to get
away from the punishment and reward system that is meant to access an
individual’s extrinsic motivation.

 Be aware that intrinsic motivation cannot be forced, and does not abide by the
classic reward and punishment system that many people follow. For example, if
someone is not reacting to your lessons, it is not going to be helpful to intentionally
make them feel that they don’t belong. For intrinsic motivation to succeed, the
individual needs to feel like he or she is in control of the situation, so try to access
your students’ internal drive but don’t force them.

1.1.2 Extrinsic motivation

While extrinsic motivation is not nearly as strong as intrinsic motivation, it is much easier,
as the teacher, for you to control. Extrinsic motivation refers to the external force
compelling an individual to do something for a reward. Because of their ease of use in
teaching, extrinsic motivators are often the basis for educational programs. The most
common extrinsic motivator the assignment of grades. Teachers can simply reward good
behavior and punish bad behavior by assigning
grades accordingly. (Behavior here refers to whatever the student is expected to do). A
student who hands in their project, follows directions, and effectively addresses the
purpose of the project is rewarded with an A, whereas a student who does not is punished
with an F.

Why it works

Even though as stated previously, the drive initiated by extrinsic motivation pales in
comparison to intrinsic motivation, that doesn't mean you cannot find success with
extrinsic motivation. These motivators access an individual’s desire to find success even if
someone else defines that success. Here are some examples of extrinsic motivators that
work in the classroom:
  Grades: This is the most obvious extrinsic motivator. Individuals want to be successful
and they feel better when they receive a high score as opposed to a low score. If you
teach in a high school setting, grades can mean the difference as to whether or not
the student gets into college (or a good college), so grades can be a good motivator for
students. Even when there is no next level, however, many students will be motivated
to succeed by grades.
 Competition: Many individuals have an innate desire to be winners, and putting your
students in competition with each other can be a good way to motivate them to
succeed, especially if the ongoing results are available to all students. This approach
often used by teachers of younger students with such things as performance charts,
where teachers give students who do well some sort of visible reward, such as a gold
star. Conversely, teachers can punish negative behaviors by posting the name of the
student in question on the board as someone who is not behaving. This can
sometimes help motivate students to succeed because they would like to do better
than their classmates.

 Extra rewards and punishments: Besides grades, some teachers will offer extra
incentive to succeed, perhaps in the form of prizes. A teacher might, for example,
make an agreement with a student that if he or she improves, then he or she can go
on the class trip. Conversely, punishments such as detentions or phone calls home
can be a consequence that motivates a student.

1.1.3 Which type of motivation is better?

While intrinsic motivation is stronger than extrinsic motivation, it is not very immediate and
therefore can lose effect in the short-term. Extrinsic motivation can be very helpful in the
short term, but is often only temporary. For that reason, the best type of motivation is a
combination of the two. Even students with intrinsic motivation sometimes need to be
motivated by extrinsic rewards and punishments to keep them on track. Here are some
examples of how you can use both intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation to help
your students:

 We’ll start with an example we have previously used: an individual would like to learn
English because she is moving to an English-speaking country. Whether she realizes it,
this can be an example of intrinsic motivation and her need to fit in and be successful.
You can help her access this by asking her to write down the reasons why she thinks it
would be helpful to learn English, and then look deeply into those reasons. While this
desire can be a strong motivator, you may find that this student begins slacking off
during your lessons. She may be having trouble seeing the light at the end of the
tunnel. Using extrinsic motivators, such as grades or rewards, can help her over the
hurdle and get back on track. The lasting motivation that will drive her to succeed is
 the need to fit in, but the temporary motivation of grades or a reward will help her
succeed when she is having trouble seeing the finish line.

 A man comes to you and tells you he wants to learn English so he can get a
promotion and make more money in his corporate career. While money and
prestige are both extrinsic motivators, the need for approval and competence is
intrinsic. This is an individual who is driven by the desire to succeed, so extrinsic
motivators will be very effective on him. If he wants to use this as a way of
advancing his career, then he will likely want to learn English while attaining the
highest grades or scores possible so he can flaunt his success. This is the extrinsic
carrot that you can use to help him succeed.

 A woman feels stuck in a job that is stifling and wants to pursue a career that
requires her to know English and comes to you for help. This individual is
intrinsically motivated by her need for control and freedom. She is less likely to be
motivated by outside influences and more likely to be motivated by a less
overbearing and prescribed teaching style. However, she may still require some
extrinsic motivators to continue striving for success, so you may need to let her
frame her own definition of success and then grade her on the framework she
created. This will give her the freedom she wants while still holding her personally
accountable for her actions.

1.2 Understanding cultural backgrounds

One of the first steps you need to take as an educator is to take their cultural background
into account. Instead of trying to present you all the potential cultural backgrounds your
students bring to the table (which could be an entire course in itself), we are instead going
to focus on why it is important to consider your students’ backgrounds and why it can be
useful to adjust your instruction to better address the varying backgrounds of your
students

1.2.1 Why is it important to understand your students’ cultural backgrounds?

Language is directly related to culture because language is fluid and changes over time as
the culture of a region changes. This is why such languages like Italian and French can both
originate from Latin but still be fundamentally different. Latin was taken to these regions,
and it developed as the culture of the regions developed, taking two very different paths in
Italian and French. So, as much as it is important to teach cultural elements as you teach
English, it is important to take into account the importance of an individual’s cultural
origins. These cultural backgrounds can not only affect the way they learn a new language,
but also the way they learn in general. Here are some ways that an individual’s cultural
background can affect their learning of a new language:
  A student’s environment can have an enormous effect on the way they learn.
Studies have shown that language acquisition is considerably affected by an
individual’s background, and while learning a new language isn’t the same as
learning your first language, environment can still be important in an individual
learning a second language. A student who comes from a home that values
education comes from a home that nurtures what he or she is learning. A student
who comes from a home that values life experience over formal education might
have more difficulty with traditional lessons.

 Students from various cultural backgrounds will react to different styles of teaching
in different ways. Some of your students may be coming from a background of very
strict, teacher-led instruction. Others may be coming from a background of more
free, student-led instruction. While both styles have merit, you will find yourself
needing to use differentiation to properly reach both of these students. You can
determine how to best meet the needs of your students by simply asking them
through an informal conversation or a standard pre-test. Let your students tell you
how they learn best, and adjust your teaching to appeal to their needs.
 An individual’s cultural background can affect the way they think, which can affect
the student’s performance in your classroom. Taking your students’ cultural
backgrounds into account when you are designing and implementing your
instruction will help you account for the potential different ways that your students
think.

1.3 The importance of a first language

More important than understanding your students’ cultural background is understanding

how their first language will affect the speed and ease with which they learn English as a
new language. While a student’s cultural background can affect the way they learn, a
student’s native language can affect the way they view language to begin with. What are
some of the obstacles students face when trying to learn English as a second language?

1.3.1 Language barriers

Every language has its own rules, and while many languages share similarities that make
new language acquisition simpler, some students will be trying to transition to a new set of
rules and language structure. Here are some examples of how language is structured
differently:

 Some languages have been created based on symbols or pictures that represent
ideas rather than words made of letters. The transition to English from languages
that follow such a structure can be very difficult.
 Some languages are read from right to left rather than left to right, which is how
English is read. This does not necessarily affect a student’s ability to gain proficiency
 in speaking the language, but it certainly presents a hurdle for students trying to
learn to read English.
 Many languages require a different sentence structure than English does. One of
the most common examples is when languages place adjectives differently in a
sentence than they are in English. In English someone might say “go get the blue
car.” That same sentence in some languages would translate back to English as “go
get the car blue.” This can make fluency difficult.
 Many students will be confused by the way verbs are conjugated in English. Many
languages have set rules that apply to the conjugation of most verbs, while English
can seem like a free-for-all at times.

1.3.2 How can we use our students’ native languages to our advantage?

While a new language like English will cerainly present obstacles for your students to
overcome, there are ways you can take those obstacles and turn them into advantages. If
your students are coming to class already understanding a language other than English,
why not use that to help them learn better? Here are some ways that teachers can use a
student’s native language to help them learn a new language:

 It is important that you understand cognates, and how to use them. A cognate is a
word, or root word, used in different languages and has a similar etymological
background. In other words, you can provide a link for your students between their
native language and English. These cognates can be little pockets of comfort for
your students as they tread into the unknown territory of a new language.
 Developing further on the above point, emphasize breaking words down to their
roots as you are teaching them. This helps students have a better understanding of
the patterns of the English language, which will help them succeed more quickly.
This makes it easier for students to link the two languages through cognates, but
also makes it easier for students to make connections between new words they are
learning.
 Using different texts is a good way to help students ease into the new language.
Providing a translated version of the text may change the structure, connotation,
and intent, but it will give the student a frame of reference for when they get stuck.
Translated texts can be a crutch for new language learners, but if they are used
properly, they can work as a guide to help students feel more comfortable with a
new language.

 Try asking questions in the student’s native language, but ask them to answer in
English. Or switch it around and ask them questions in English that they need to
answer in their native language. This may be more work for you, depending on the
diversity of your classroom, but it can help students ease into understanding
English.
  Use your students’ native language to help scaffold and model in English. This can
be as simple as having your students write in their native language and then
showing them how it would look in English. You could then ask them to do the same
thing following your model. Unfortunately, this may require you to be fluent in many
of languages, but you can work through it with the student if you don’t speak their
native language.
 Have your students help each other. Even if the students do not speak the same
native language, they are going through the same process and can bond in their
desire to learn English and help each other learn.

1.4 Getting started

It is no mystery that teaching students a new language is a difficult task, but it can be
infinitely rewarding. So, how do you actually get started on your career? The first step, of
course, you have already taken, which is to seek training. Let’s take a look at some other
important aspects of successfully helping your students.

1.4.1 Ensuring your success

Here are some basic tips to ensure that you are successful and able to help your students
learn English as a second language:

 Make sure you are well versed in the structure and makeup of the English language.
We will discuss many things you need to know, but it couldn’t hurt to supplement
this course with further study of the language. The English language is incredibly
complex and full of rules that are not necessarily logical, so it will always help you to
study up.

 While we will give you many tools to become an effective teacher of English as a
second language, it is important you continually seek out research and professional
journal articles to keep up with the current educational trends. We are constantly
discovering how we attain language and how we learn, so teaching English as a
second language is a lifelong educational commitment.

 Make sure you understand how learners acquire new knowledge. As we have
discussed earlier in this module, that does not just refer to language acquisition, but
to knowledge acquisition as a whole. Learn everything you need to know about
differentiation (which we will discuss at length in a future module) to give your
students the best chance to succeed in learning their new language.
 Be prepared to be patient. If you do not come from a teaching background, you may
not be aware the patience it takes to help someone learn something new. If you do
 come from a teaching background, then understand this may be the most difficult
thing to teach someone, and you will need to be even more patient than you may
have expected.
 Continually use your experiences to build strategies and concepts that work for your
students. All the training in the world will help you, but the true answers to your
questions of “how?” will come from experience. Make sure you don’t forget any of
the lessons you learn along the way.

1.4.2 Understanding the basics

There is a basic framework you will need to follow to be successful in helping students
learn a new language. While we will discuss most of these concepts in detail in future
modules, here is an overview to help you get started on your path to success:

 Linguistics:

Helping your students understand the basics of linguistics will help ensure that they
understand the basics of how the English language is structured, how we break
down and diagram the components of a sentence, and how we communicate in
English. This concept will give students a structure on which to build their true
understanding of the language.

 Reading:

Reading is one of the first skills you will develop with your students. It is typically
where most teachers of English as a second language begin, because having words
in front of the student can make them feel more comfortable when trying to
decipher them. Students can learn to see words and sound them out with the
guidance of the word in front of them.

 Writing:

The next step is usually to work on your student’s skills in writing in English. They
will have the guidance of the words in front of them as they do when they learn to
read, but it requires them to take the next step because they will be the ones
producing the words. This is a great time for students to work on the linguistic
principles they already studied, and practice sentence structure, syntax, and other
basic concepts of English.

 Speaking:

Speaking can be the most difficult part of learning a new language. Having to sound
the words out loud can add an extra level of anxiety because everyone in the class will
 hear the student if they make a mistake. Creating a classroom of respect and support
can go a long way to assuage your students’ anxiety. If the student feels comfortable
enough that they are not afraid to make mistakes in front of the class, they will be
more willing to take risks.

 Listening:

While listening is arguably a more difficult skill than speaking concerning a new
language, students often feel more comfortable with it because they are not required
to put themselves out there as much. However, listening is the next step after the
students begin learning to speak the language. If a student can listen to something in
English, comprehend it, and respond properly, they are exhibiting a complex
understanding of the language, and is usually doing it without a visual reference
(besides body language).

Module 2: Linguistics

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2.1 Phonology

Phonology is the study of the sound and structure of a language. Essentially, phonology concerns itself
with the mental representation of a sound, so understanding phonology means that you understand how to
break down a word into its smaller sounds and pronounce it. This can help students tremendously in
learning English for the first time because it gives them a great tool for breaking down new words and
pronouncing words that they have not necessarily seen before. Let’s take a look at some of the basic
concepts within phonology.

2.1.1 Basics of phonology

You can’t study phonology without discussing phonetics, but for the purposes of this course, phonology is
more important. Phonology deals with how we mentally break down the pronunciation of words, while
phonetics deals with producing the sounds; therefore, phonology is more relevant for people who are
learning a new language, not learning spoken language for the first time.

In phonology, words are broken down into smaller units that represent sounds to make it easier for new
learners to understand how to pronounce new words. If students understand the common sound units in
the English language, they will be able to sound out most words, making language acquisition much more
comfortable. Here is a breakdown of some of those units of sound:

Phonemes: A phoneme is a unit of sound that when replaced changes the sound of a word in a particular
language. English is a complicated language for people to learn because even though there are twenty-six
letters, there are forty-four phonemes. These phonemes represent all iterations of sounds that a letter can
make. For example, a “c” can sound like a “k” or an “s,” depending on its position in a word. If an
individual understands phonemes, he or she will understand all the different sounds in the English
language. Phonemes are broken down into two categories: vowels and consonants.
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Vowels: A vowel is an open sound that is spoken without blockage from the lips or tongue. Vowels can
be difficult because they are very versatile and shift and change a lot depending on the word in which
they appear. Vowels are typically broken down into the following categories:

 Single vowels
 Short vowels
 Schwa
 Long vowels
 Diphthongs

Consonants: Consonants are sounds that are spoken with obstruction from the lips, teeth, or tongue. Just
like vowels, they can be complicated to understand because there are so many variations of similar
sounds. Consonants can be broken down into the following categories:

 Voiced consonants
 Unvoiced consonants

Minimal pair: Two words that differ in meaning because they contain one phoneme that is different are
called minimal pairs. Minimal pairs are often words that rhyme or at least form a near rhyme.

Phone: A phone is the smallest unit of sound and refers to the way in which an individual pronounces a
sound. It can therefore exist in more than one language. This is different from a phoneme, which refers
specifically to the sound that is assigned to a letter or group of letters in a given language. For this reason,
phones can be universal to all languages, while phonemes are specific to individual languages.

Module 2: Linguistics

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Accents: When a syllable or sound within a word is given more attention than the others. This changes
the way an individual pronounces a word.

 Stress accent, dynamic accent, or stress: When an accented syllable is given a change in pitch and
volume, it is referred by any of these three names.
 Pitch accent: When the accented syllable is differentiated through a change in only the pitch which
it is pronounced.
 Quantitative accent: When the accented syllable is differentiated through only a lengthening of the
syllable.

Intonations: A change in the pitch of a word or syllable that does not change the meaning of the word or
syllable but rather indicates any of a number of different situations, including:

 Revealing the feelings of the speaker.

 Identifying the phrase as a question or distinguishing between different types of questions.
 Giving importance to a word or phrase in the statement or question.
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2.2 Morphology

Morphology is very closely related to phonology in that it is concerned with the structure of language.
Specifically, however, morphology deals with the structure of language morphemes, phonemes, and other
linguistic units. The English language relies heavily on morphology, especially regarding English
language acquisition. Understanding the morphological relationship between two words can help an
individual recognize a similar morphological relationship between two different words, which helps them
better understand new words and phrases. For example, if an individual can recognize the morphological
relationship between the words “heart” and “monitor” in the phrase “heart monitor,” then he or she can
use that to understand other complex nouns. Using this knowledge, an English language learner can take
an educated guess to determine what the phrase “hall monitor” means.

2.2.1 Basics of morphology

To truly understand morphology, one must fully understand morphemes, which are the basis of the area of
study. While phonemes refer to the sounds that make up the structure of words, morphemes are the
physical structural units in a word.

Morphemes: Morphemes are sometimes referred to as the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning.
While phonemes are smaller, they essentially build towards pronunciation rather than meaning. Breaking
a word into its morphemes allows an individual to separate and (better understand) the root words,
prefixes, and suffixes. Here is an example:

In the sentence, “Send these schematics down to the marketers.” the word, “marketers”
has 3 morphemes.

Morpheme 1: Market. The root of the word that carries the major meaning of the word.
This word could stand alone and make sense if it needed to (though not in the sentence we
plucked it from). This morpheme is called the free lexical morpheme.

Morpheme 2: -er. This is the suffix that is added to the word, carrying with it the inherent
meaning of “one who does something.” Understanding the suffix allows a student to
understand that a marketer is one who markets. This morpheme is called the bound lexical
morpheme.

Morpheme 3: -s. This letter is added so that the amount is clear and that the word fits in
the sentence grammatically with the intended meaning. The sentence would still make
sense without this morpheme, but it would change the meaning. This morpheme is called
the bound grammatical morpheme.

In the above example, we discussed some classifications for morphemes. Let’s look closer
at these.
Free lexical morpheme: This term is used to describe a morpheme that can exist on its
own and make sense. In the previous example, the free lexical morpheme was “market.”
Alone, “market” is a word. Conversely, “er” is not a word that can exist on its own and still
make sense. While in this case the free lexical morpheme was the root word, it does not
have to be. The word “classroom” is composed of two free lexical morphemes—“class” and
“room.”

Bound lexical morpheme: This term is used to describe a morpheme that is bound to
another morpheme lexically and cannot make sense without it. This term often refers to
prefixes and suffixes that are added to words to adjust their meaning. These morphemes
cannot function alone and serve to simply modify the meaning of the free lexical
morpheme to which they are attached.

Bound grammatical morpheme: This term is used to describe a morpheme that is bound
to another morpheme and serves the purpose of helping its word fit into a sentence
grammatically. In the following example, notice the importance of the bound grammatical
morpheme (we will use “s” in the same way we used it in the previous example). In the
phrase, “John threw two balls to Mike,” the “s” in the word “balls” is the bound grammatical
morpheme. The sentence would not make grammatical sense without it, as it would read
“John threw two ball at Mike.”

Free grammatical morpheme: While we did not clearly identify this in the previous
examples, free grammatical morpheme is a term used to describe morphemes that are not
bound to other morphemes but are there to serve a grammatical purpose. Usually, these
words are articles, conjunctions, and prepositions. In the sentence above, “John threw the
ball at Mike,” “at” is a free grammatical morpheme.

Understanding these basic concepts can help a new language learner get a sense of how a
language is structured and help them be able to make connections and learn new words
and phrases more easily.

2.3 Lexicology

Lexicology is the study of words and therefore includes elements of many other aspects of
linguistics that we will discuss in this module. When we study words in lexicology, we look
closely at how words are formed, what makes them different from other words, uniform
rules that affect usage and/or conjugation, and the different connotations and meanings of
synonyms. All of these ideas will help your students move from understanding the sounds
that make up the English language to understanding the words that make up the English
language. Here is an overview of some of the basic principles of lexicology and its
associated vocabulary:
2.3.1 Basics of lexicology

To understand lexicology, it is important to break it down into its smaller parts to look at
how each works to create the overall study of lexicology. A clear understanding of
lexicology and its basic principles and terminology will help you and your students find
more success by easing their understanding of words and their function within a sentence.

Lexeme: A lexeme is a lexicological unit of linguistics, which, for the most part, refers to a
root word. The lexeme is the part of a word (even if that is the whole word) that imparts the
most meaning, with conjugation or prefixes and suffixes added to adjust the meaning. In
other words, the word “snow” is a lexeme, and all iterations of that word, such as “snows,”
“snowed”, or “snowing,” all share this same lexeme. By breaking down words to their roots,
students can better break down new words, connect to a word’s etymology, or even find a
cognate they can relate to.

Lexical items: Whereas a lexeme is the root of a word, a lexical item is the entirety of a
word or phrase that imparts meaning. In our previous example, we mentioned that
“snows,” “snowed,” and “snowing” all have the same lexeme, which is “snow.” In that
example, all of those words are different lexical items. A lexical item can also be a
combination of words, such as “class work,” or a phrase, such as “in the way.” Essentially,
lexical items are the units in a sentence that have separate meaning.

Word forms: The term “word forms” encompasses all the iterations of a similar lexeme. In
other words, some word forms of the lexeme “go” are “goes,” “went,” and “will go.” This
term is used to describe the different conjugations of a verb, the different tenses of a word,
or the different forms of a word based on amount.

Another important idea that would be helpful to know is that lexicology also encompasses
lexical structure, which deals with the structure of words and their parts. Let’s take a closer
look at lexical structure:

Lexical structure: Lexical structure refers to the internal structure of lexemes as well as
the structure of the lexicon of a language. The “lexicon” is just a fancy term for all of the
words in a group.

 Paradigms: Differences in meaning that rely on the substitution of words. In other

words, if you look closely at a phrase, such as “Bill ran to his truck,” making a
paradigmatic change would require a substitution. This would result in a different
phrase, for example, “Bill ran to his wife” or “Frank ran to his truck.” These changes
completely change the meaning of the sentence because different subjects and
objects can be substituted.
  Syntagms: These are differences that result from the positioning of words in a
phrase. In other words, to make a syntagmatic change in a sentence, you would
change the order of the words to adjust the meaning of the sentence. For example,
if the sentence “Johnny threw the ball to Mary” is changed to “Mary threw the ball to
Johnny,” then the difference is syntagmatic.
 Co-text: We will discuss semantic ideas in detail later in the module, but this term is
relevant to both aspects of linguistics. The co-text of a word is the linguistic context,
which means that it is the linguistic meaning of a word or the meaning that a word
inherently carries with it.
 Context: Context is another semantic term but also a concept that even laymen
know. The context of a word is the words and sentences around it that give it
meaning. Whereas co-text covers the various meanings that can be attributed to a
word, the context refers to the specific meaning of the word that is intended based
on the surrounding words and sentences.
 Now that we have learned about how sounds and words are created, it is time to
discuss how sentences are formed. Syntax is the set of rules that govern the
grammatical construction of sentences in a language. For English, these rules are
fairly complicated, but let’s take a close look at some of the basic ideas behind
English grammar and syntax.
 2.4.1 Basics of syntax
 To understand syntax, we have to look more closely at all of the parts that make up a
sentence. The first step is to understand how sentences are classified:
 Clausal sentence (simple sentence): A clausal sentence is a simple sentence that
contains only one clause or one complete proposition (subject and predicate). For
example, the sentence “Gloria is going to the store” contains only one clause, which
includes a subject (“Gloria), a verb (“is going”), and an object (“the store”).
 Compound sentence: A compound sentence is a sentence that consists of more than
one clause (known in this case as coordinating clauses because they work together to
complete an idea). For example, the sentence “Maryann went to the mall and got a
new shirt” is a compound sentence containing the clauses “Maryann went to the mall”
and “got a new shirt.” In the second clause, the subject (“Maryann) is implicit.

What about the words that make up these clauses? The English language has innumerable
rules for how words should be structured and organized within a sentence. The first
categories you need to know to understand these rules, though, are the parts of speech.

 Noun: A noun is word that describes a person, place, thing, or idea.

 Verb: A verb describes an action or a state of being.
 Adjective: An adjective is a word that modifies a noun.
 Adverb: An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
 Preposition: A preposition is a word that describes the relationship between a verb
and its object.
 Pronoun: A pronoun is a more general word that takes the place of a specific noun.
  Conjunction: A conjunction is a word that links two coordinating clauses together.

Now that we know the parts of speech, we can begin diagramming sentences. Here is an
example of a sentence with all of the parts of speech labeled:

Lei quickly ran down the dark street to find and catch his dog.

Lei Noun
quickly Adverb
ran Verb
down Preposition
the Adjective (article)
dark Adjective
street Noun
to Preposition
find Verb
and Conjunction
catch Verb
his Pronoun
dog Noun

While it would be impossible for us to cover every single syntactical rule in the English
language, here are a few more that are directly relevant to your students who are learning
English for the first time:

 Every sentence needs at least a subject and a predicate. The subject of the
sentence is the noun that is acting or being. The predicate is the phrase that
consists of the verb and the object (not every sentence needs an explicit object).
 The verb and the subject of the sentence need to agree, meaning that if you are
using a plural noun, you need to use the plural form of a verb.
 For the most part, the best way to frame a sentence is in active rather than passive
voice. This means that the sentence “Sammy threw the ball to Jane” is more
grammatically sound than if it were passive and written “The ball was thrown to Jane
by Sammy.”
 Verb tense needs to agree throughout a piece of writing or spoken language. If the
first verb you use is in past tense, then all subsequent verbs with the same intention
should be past tense.
2.5 Semantics

We have successfully worked our way up to understanding how sentences are structured,
and now it is time to discuss words again, but this time we will look at the connotative and
complex meanings that they carry. Semantics is a branch of linguistics that involves the
study of words and their meanings.

2.5.1 Theories of semantics

Typically, the concept of semantics is divided into three theories of semantics: formal
semantics, lexical semantics, and conceptual semantics. Each of these types of semantics
delves into the true meanings of words and will help your students understand the
intricacies of the English language.

Formal semantics: Formal semantics is a very mathematical theory that strives to

understand the meaning of words by forming exact mathematical principles and ideals that
speakers and writers can use. People who subscribe to the formal semantics theory look
for the relationship between how language forms and the world in which it forms to try to
understand how people create meaningful discourse.

Lexical semantics: Lexical semantics is a theory that the meaning of a word is understood
by looking at its context. In this way, sentences can be broken down into semantic
constituents or words and phrases that carry meaning and context. This theory promotes
the analysis of how words and phrases play off each other to build meaning.

Conceptual semantics: Conceptual semantics is a theory that highlights the importance of

the internal structure of words. Theorists believe that the best way to understand the
meaning of a word in a sentence is to look at the word itself, its internal structure, and how
it combines different, smaller elements.

2.5.1 Extending word meaning

Truly understanding the English language means understanding the complexities of the
language that allow speakers of the language to build different layers of meaning in their
speech. Understanding these complexities takes a strong grasp of semantics and the ability
to analyze context. When we talk about word meaning, we can generally break it down into
two categories:

Denotation: Denotation refers to the literal meaning of a word. You can easily find the
denotation for a word in the dictionary. With synonyms, the denotation is similar or the
same.
Connotation: Connotation refers to the implied meaning that the word often has because
the word is used to describe something beyond what the denotation states. Take a look at
two synonyms, such as “skinny” and “thin.” If you use these two words to describe a person,
their denotations are pretty much the same, but the connotation behind “skinny” is more
negative than the connotation behind “thin.” Thin implies someone who is at a healthy
weight, while skinny implies that the person is frail or weak. It takes true understanding of
a language to get such small, but important complexities of meaning.

Because of the complexity of language, speakers and writers can build meaning that is
implicit rather than explicit and sometimes difficult to decipher even for the most fluent
English speaker.

Literal language: Literal language is when a speaker or writer directly describes what they
mean.

Figurative language: When the writer builds meaning that goes beyond the literal
meaning. Here are some examples of figurative language:

 Metaphors
 Similes
 Personification
 Irony
 Symbolism
 2.5.3 More semantic terminology
 Beyond what we already described are important terms within the study of
semantics you should be aware of.
 Synonymy: This word literally translates to “sameness of meaning” and is the root of
the word “synonym.” As we displayed in our discussion of connotation, however, while
two words can be synonyms, they do not necessarily mean the same thing. If two
words meant exactly the same thing, then one would be extraneous. Synonyms are
necessary because they represent the detail and specificity of the English language.
 Hyponymy: This term literally translates to “inclusion of meaning” and essentially
refers to words that belong in groups. A fork is a hyponym of silverware because it is a
member of the silverware group.
 Antonymy: This term literally translates to “oppositeness of meaning,” which means
that antonyms are meant to be opposites. It is very difficult to find an exact antonym
for most words, however, so words are often paired up because they’re close to being
antonyms, much like how synonyms have similar but not exact meanings.
 Incompatibility: This term literally translates to “mutual exclusiveness within the
same subordinate category,” which means that it refers to two members of a
group that are different entities. For example, cats and dogs are both animals, so
they would fit under the purview of this term.
 Homonymy: This is a term that refers to when two words sound the same even
though they have different meanings. These can be especially confusing to new
language learners because they require a strong idea of context to identify. A good
example of a group of homonyms is “there,” “their,” and “they’re.”
 Polysemy: This term refers to when a word has more than one meaning. This is
different from a homonym because the spelling of the word does not change
depending on the meaning. For example, the word “close” can refer to two items
that are in near proximity to each other, or it can refer to something being shut.