Investigation of Subsurface Conditions
Investigation of Subsurface Conditions
Investigation of Subsurface Conditions
INVESTIGATION OF
SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
the site will be valuable in planning and executing the subsurface inves-
tigation.
A field trip will determine the nature of other structures near the proposed
site. If possible, information should be gained on the kinds of foundations
employed in nearby buildings, any problems encountered during construction,
response of the foundations since construction, and if any undesired move-
ments have occurred. On occasion, the results will be available for nearby
structures from previous subsurface investigations. Municipal agencies will
provide drawings showing the location of underground lines, and power lines
should be noted, along with any obstructions that would limit access by soil-
boring equipment.
The condition of the site with respect to the operation of machinery for
the investigation of the subsurface is important. With regard to movement of
construction equipment, countries in Europe are providing guidelines for what
is termed the working platform (European Foundations, 2004). The purpose
of such guidelines is to provide a clear statement on the safety of personnel
and machinery on the site. If the site is unsuitable for the operation of boring
machines for soil sampling, and later for the operation of construction equip-
ment, such guidelines will inform the owner of the site about improvements
required. For example, drainage may be needed, as well as treatment of the
surface of the site by an appropriate form of soil stabilization.
Meetings with other professionals on the project are essential. The toler-
ance of the proposed structure to movement, both vertical and lateral, should
be established. The requirements of the requisite building code should be
reviewed. Of most importance is the magnitude and nature of the expected
loadings, whether short-term, sustained, cyclic, and/or seismic. In some in-
stances, the probability of certain loads may be considered. The maximum
loads on the foundations of many offshore structures occur during storms,
whose frequency must be estimated on the basis of historical information.
Discussions among the principals should address the possible effects of a
foundation failure, whether a minor monetary loss, a major monetary loss, or
a catastrophic failure with loss of life.
The details of the site investigation should be addressed in meetings of the
principals for the project. Field and laboratory testing can be done that will
have little relevance to the success of the foundation. On the other hand,
evidence is clear that a thorough and proper soil investigation will affect
favorably the initial and final costs of the structure. Some contracts include a
clause placing responsibility on the general contractor for the subsurface in-
vestigation, possibly leading to problems as construction progresses. A better
solution is to employ the phased method, noted below, and then to require
the geotechnical contractor to comply with specifications tailored for the
structure and site conditions.
The importance of investing appropriately in the soil investigation is illus-
trated in Figure 4.1. If no money is spent, the structure may collapse. Spend-
ing a small amount could lead to later expenditures to correct for unequal
settlement of the foundation. As shown in Figure 4.1, an optimum amount
136 INVESTIGATION OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
Figure 4.1 The effect of soil investigation on the final cost of structures.
the equipment employed, samples can be taken with a variety of tools, and
in situ tests can be performed as the borehole is advanced. A typical drilling
machine and its associated equipment are shown in Figure 4.2. The derrick
is for handling the hollow drill pile that passes through a rotary table, powered
by an engine with the necessary power. The hollow drill pipe carries an
appropriate cutting tool. A surface casing is set with a T-section above the
ground to direct the drilling water to a holding tank. A pump will drive water
down the drill pile to raise the cuttings, which may be examined to gain an
idea of the formation being drilled. The water is pumped from the top of the
tank, with additional water provided as necessary. Drilling fluid can replace
the water if caving occurs.
The system can be scaled up for drilling deeper holes and scaled down for
hand operation. The Raymond Concrete Pile Company, now out of existence,
distributed a movie for the classroom showing the use of a tripod, assembled
on site, for raising and lowering the drill pipe by use of a pulley. A small
gasoline engine rotated a capstan head used to apply tension to a rope that
passed through the pulley to the drill pipe. A small gasoline pump picked up
the drilling water from a tank or from an excavation on site. The entire system
could be transported with a light truck and assembled and operated by two
workmen. The components of such a system are shown in Figure 4.3.
ROPE
TING
A HOIS
T-SECTION
SWIVEL
OR WATER
SWIVEL
MANIL
WATER
TILLER FOR PARTIAL HOSE
ROTATION OF DRILL ROD
PU DRILL ROD
LL
T-SECTION FOR RETURN FLOW
MOTOR
PUMP
CAT HEAD NIPPLE
COUPLING
CASING COUPLING
DRIVE SHOE
DRILL BIT
The drill rod fits inside the central pipe of the auger and includes a point
that is in place while the auger is advanced. When the desired depth is
achieved, the drill rod with the drilling point is removed, a sampling tube is
put on the drill rod, the sample is taken by pushing or driving, and the desired
sample is retrieved for testing. Alternatively, an in situ testing device, as
described below, can be lowered with the drill rod. After testing at a particular
depth, the drill rod with the drill point can be replaced and drilling to the
desired depth can be done in preparation for the acquisition of the next sample
or in situ data.
4.3.1 Introduction
In a remarkable effort, the late Dr. M. Juul Hvorslev, working at the Water-
ways Experiment Station in Vicksburg, Mississippi, and supported by a num-
ber of other agencies, presented a comprehensive document on subsurface
exploration and sampling of soils for purposes of civil engineering (Hvorslev,
1949). The document has been reprinted by the Waterways Experiment Sta-
tion and remains a valuable reference.
The term undisturbed is used to designate samples of high quality. The
ASTM uses the term relatively undisturbed in describing the use of sampling
with thin-walled tubes (ASTM-D 1587). Disturbance of samples is due to a
number of factors: change in the state of stress as the sample is retrieved
from the soil, especially if the sample contains gas; disturbance due to resis-
tance against the sides of the sample as it enters the sampling tube; distur-
bance during transportation to the laboratory; and disturbance as the sample
is retrieved from the sampling tube.
Disturbance due to the presence of gas in soils is difficult to overcome.
Methods must be implemented to prevent the specimen from expanding
throughout the sampling, transportation, trimming, and testing periods. A
most severe problem involves the sampling and testing of hydrates that occur
in frozen layers at offshore sites.
Sampling disturbance due to resistance against the sample as it is pushed
into the sampling tube can be significant. Hvorslev (1949) includes some
remarkable photographs of samples that have been distorted in the sampling
process (pp. 95, 96, 98, 104, 106, 112, 115, 116). In accounting for the effects
of sampling disturbance, Ladd and Foott (1974) proposed experimental pro-
cedures for use in the laboratory to determine the strength of most soft, sat-
urated clays.
Two mounting holes are required for 2- to 3.5-in. samplers and four mount-
ing holes for larger sizes. Hardened screws are required for the mounting.
Dimensions for tubes of three diameters are given in Table 4.1, but tubes of
intermediate or larger sizes are acceptable. The lengths shown are for illus-
tration; the proper length is to be determined by field conditions.
The preparation of the tip of the sampler is specified, and the clearance of
1 percent is designed to minimize disturbance due to resistance to penetration
of the sample. The interior of the sampling tube must be clean, and a coating
is sometimes recommended. Procedures for the transportation of thin-walled
tubes are specified in ASTM D 4220, Standard Practice for Preserving and
Transporting Soil Samples.
Special tools have been developed to eliminate disturbance partially due
to the interior resistance of the sampling tool. At the Swedish Geotechnical
Institute, a sample more than 2 m long was laid out for examination. The
sample had been taken by the Swedish Foil Sampler, which consisted of a
short, thin-walled section followed by a thick-walled section in which was
embedded a series of rolls of foil. As the sample was pushed into full pen-
etration, the rolls of foil were simultaneously pulled back to eliminate com-
pletely resistance due to sample penetration. The description of a similar
device is presented in ASTM D 3550, Standard Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel
Sampling of Soils. A sketch of the sampling tool is shown in Figure 4.5.
The ASTM Book of Standards presents 13 standards, in addition to D1587,
related to surface and subsurface characterization of soil and rock. A list of
the relevant ASTM standards is presented in Appendix 4.1.
Vent Hole
1/2˝ (13 mm) minimum Waste
Barrel
Shoe
During the investigation of the site, the face of the rock for the foundation
may be exposed. If so, a comprehensive examination of the face of the rock
is recommended (Gaich et al., 2003; Lemy and Hadjigeorgiou, 2003).
ASTM provides the following statement about the quality of the data col-
lected by the cone penetrometer (ASTM D 3441, p. 475): ‘‘Because of the
many variables involved and the lack of a superior standard, engineers have
no direct data to determine the bias of this method. Judging from its observed
reproducibility in approximately uniform soil deposits, plus the qc and ƒc
measurement effects of special equipment and operator care, persons familiar
with this method estimate its precision as follows: mechanical tips—standard
deviation of 10% in qc and 20% in ƒc; electric tips—standard deviation of
5% in qc and 10% in ƒc.’’ If the shear strength of clay is to be determined,
the engineer must divide the value of qc by a bearing-capacity factor; opinions
vary about what value of that factor should be employed.
T
s (4.1)
K
K 冉 冊冉 冊冉 冉 冊冊
1,728
D2H
2
1
D
3H
(4.2)
where
A problem with no easy solution is one in which the soil has inclusions
such as shells. The value of s from the vane would be higher than the actual
shear strength and could lead to an unsafe design.
4.4.3 Pressuremeter
The pressuremeter test consists of placing an inflatable cylindrical probe into
a predrilled hole and expanding the probe in increments of volume or pres-
sure. A curve is obtained showing the reading of the volume as a function of
the pressure at the wall of the borehole. Baguelin et al., (1978) state that
Louis Ménard was the driving force behind the development of the pres-
suremeter. Early tests were carried out in 1955 with a pressuremeter designed
by Ménard, a graduate student at the University of Illinois. Ménard later
established a firm in France where the pressuremeter was used extensively in
design.
The components of the pressuremeter system are shown in Figure 4.12.
The probe consists of a measuring cell and two guard cells. The cells are
filled with water, and gas is used to expand the cells against the wall of the
borehole. The guard cells are subjected independently to the same pressure
as the measuring cell, and all three cells are expanded at the same rate,
ensuring two-dimensional behavior of the measuring cell. A borehole is dug
slightly larger in diameter than the diameter of the pressuremeter probe, with
the nature of the soil being noted at the depths of the tests. The test is per-
Figure 4.12 Components of the pressuremeter system (from Baguelin et al., 1978).
4.4 IN SITU TESTING OF SOIL 149
⌬P
Ep 2(1 v)(V0 Vm) (4.3)
⌬V
where
Some error is inherent in the value of Ep due to the measurements and the
value is an arbitrary measure of the stiffness of the soil, but the engineer can
gain some useful information. The most useful information is presented by
Baguelin et al. (1968), where correlations are given for the net limit pressure
and properties of clay and sand (see Tables 4.2 and 4.3.)
The net limit pressure, p*1 , is equal to the limit pressure minus the total
initial horizontal pressure where the pressuremeter test was performed, as
found from the following equation:
where
150 INVESTIGATION OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
0–75 Very soft Penetrated by fist; squeezes easily between fingers 0–10
75–150 Soft Penetrated easily by finger; easily molded 10–20
150–350 Firm Penetrated with difficulty; molded by strong finger 20–50
pressure
350–800 Stiff Indented by strong finger pressure 50–110
800–1600 Very stiff Indented only slightly by strong finger pressure 110–230
1600 Hard Cannot be indented by finger pressure; penetrated by 230
fingernail or pencil point
Source: Baguelin et al. (1968).
151
152 INVESTIGATION OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
TABLE 4.3 Correlations between Properties of Sand and Limit Pressure from
the Pressuremeter Test
p*,
1 kPa Description SPT N p*,
1 psi
drilling fluid must be dissipated in order to get the depth to the water table.
If the water table is in granular soil, sounding of the borehole with a tape
will reveal its location with little delay. However, if the water table is in fine-
grained soil, the borehole must be left open for some time, requiring a work-
man to return to the site, perhaps on several occasions. After the water in the
borehole achieves the same level for some time, the borehole may be filled
with grout if required by the specifications.
The engineer must decide how deeply to drill the boreholes for the sub-
surface investigation. The problem has a ready solution if a founding stratum,
such as bedrock, with substantial thickness exists at a reasonable depth. If no
preliminary design has been made, the engineer charged with the subsurface
investigation must decide on the probable type of foundation based on avail-
able information. For shallow foundations, computations should be made
showing the distribution of pressure with depth. The borings should be ex-
tended to the depth below which the reduced pressure will cause no mean-
ingful settlement. For deep foundations, computations should be made for the
distribution of pressure below the tips of the piles to check for undesirable
settlement. A problem would occur if the piles are designed as end bearing
in a relatively thin stratum above compressible soil.
Figure 4.14 Sketches of different types of ships and drilling systems (from Richards
and Zuidberg, 1983).
the tool is driven into position. The end of the drill string and the sampling
tool are shown on the left-hand side of Figure 4.15 (Richards and Zuidberg,
1983). The sample is retrieved by lifting the wire line, and the borehole is
advanced by drilling to the next position for sampling.
An alternative method of sampling is shown on the right-hand side of
Figure 4.15. The wire line lowers a hydraulic piston and sampling tube. The
tool can be activated from the drill ship, and the thin-walled sampler is pushed
into place. A number of other tools may be lowered; however, the hammer
sampler is the most common because of the extra work in latching more
complex tools to the bottom of the drill string.
Figure 4.15 Diagrams of two types of wire line samplers (from Richards and Zuid-
berg, 1983).
PROBLEMS 155
PROBLEMS
P4.1. Prepare a list of eight items you would investigate during a visit to the
site of a new project.
P4.2. A meeting has been scheduled with the representatives of the owner of
the project, the architect, and the structural engineer. List the questions
you would ask to obtain needed information prior to going to the site
and initiating the soil investigation.
156 INVESTIGATION OF SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS
P4.3. Soil investigations in the past have shown that the soil at the site of
the project consists of soft clay over a founding stratum of dense sand.
The decision has been made to use axially loaded piles with end bear-
ing in the sand. Describe the techniques you would employ to obtain
the thickness of the clay layer and the relative density of the sand.
P4.4. You are the owner of an established geotechnical firm with experience
and are to be interviewed by representatives of the owner of a site
where a high-rise building is to be constructed about performing a
subsurface investigation at the site. (a) List the points you would make
in stating that a preliminary investigation should be funded before
reaching an agreement for the comprehensive investigation. (b) You
need the work; if the owner insisted, would you give a fixed price for
the comprehensive investigation?
P4.5. Discuss whether or not, as an owner of a geotechnical firm, you would
want an engineer at the site of a subsurface investigation or would be
comfortable having an experienced technician in charge.
P4.6. List the in situ methods mentioned in the text in the order of their
complexity, with the least complex method first.
APPENDIX 4.1 157
APPENDIX 4.1