lectronic Systems

An Electronic System is a physical interconnection of components, or parts, that gathers various amounts of
information together

It does this with the aid of input devices such as sensors, that respond in some way to this information and
then uses electrical energy in the form of an output action to control a physical process or perform some type
of mathematical operation on the signal.

But electronic control systems can also be regarded as a process that transforms one signal into another so as
to give the desired system response. Then we can say that a simple electronic system consists of an input, a
process, and an output with the input variable to the system and the output variable from the system both
being signals.

There are many ways to represent a system, for example: mathematically, descriptively, pictorially or
schematically. Electronic systems are generally represented schematically as a series of interconnected
blocks and signals with each block having its own set of inputs and outputs.

As a result, even the most complex of electronic control systems can be represented by a combination of
simple blocks, with each block containing or representing an individual component or complete sub-system.
The representing of an electronic system or process control system as a number of interconnected blocks or
boxes is known commonly as “block-diagram representation”.

Block Diagram Representation of a Simple Electronic System

Electronic Systems have both Inputs and Outputs with the output or outputs being produced by processing
the inputs. Also, the input signal(s) may cause the process to change or may itself cause the operation of the
system to change. Therefore the input(s) to a system is the “cause” of the change, while the resulting action
that occurs on the systems output due to this cause being present is called the “effect”, with the effect being
a consequence of the cause.

In other words, an electronic system can be classed as “causal” in nature as there is a direct relationship
between its input and its output. Electronic systems analysis and process control theory are generally based
upon this Cause and Effect analysis.

So for example in an audio system, a microphone (input device) causes sound waves to be converted into
electrical signals for the amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device) produces sound
waves as an effect of being driven by the amplifiers electrical signals.

But an electronic system need not be a simple or single operation. It can also be an interconnection of
several sub-systems all working together within the same overall system.
Our audio system could for example, involve the connection of a CD player, or a DVD player, an MP3
player, or a radio receiver all being multiple inputs to the same amplifier which in turn drives one or more
sets of stereo or home theatre type surround loudspeakers.

But an electronic system can not just be a collection of inputs and outputs, it must “do something”, even if it
is just to monitor a switch or to turn “ON” a light. We know that sensors are input devices that detect or turn
real world measurements into electronic signals which can then be processed. These electrical signals can be
in the form of either voltages or currents within a circuit. The opposite or output device is called an actuator,
that converts the processed signal into some operation or action, usually in the form of mechanical
movement.

Types of Electronic System

Electronic systems operate on either continuous-time (CT) signals or discrete-time (DT) signals. A
continuous-time system is one in which the input signals are defined along a continuum of time, such as an
analogue signal which “continues” over time producing a continuous-time signal.

But a continuous-time signal can also vary in magnitude or be periodic in nature with a time period T. As a
result, continuous-time electronic systems tend to be purely analogue systems producing a linear operation
with both their input and output signals referenced over a set period of time.

For example, the temperature of a room can be classed as a continuous time signal which can be measured
between two values or set points, for example from cold to hot or from Monday to Friday. We can represent
a continuous-time signal by using the independent variable for time t, and where x(t) represents the input
signal and y(t) represents the output signal over a period of time t.

Generally, most of the signals present in the physical world which we can use tend to be continuous-time
signals. For example, voltage, current, temperature, pressure, velocity, etc.

On the other hand, a discrete-time system is one in which the input signals are not continuous but a sequence
or a series of signal values defined in “discrete” points of time. This results in a discrete-time output
generally represented as a sequence of values or numbers.

Generally a discrete signal is specified only at discrete intervals, values or equally spaced points in time. So
for example, the temperature of a room measured at 1pm, at 2pm, at 3pm and again at 4pm without regards
for the actual room temperature in between these points at say, 1:30pm or at 2:45pm.

However, a continuous-time signal, x(t) can be represented as a discrete set of signals only at discrete
intervals or “moments in time”. Discrete signals are not measured versus time, but instead are plotted at
discrete time intervals, where n is the sampling interval. As a result discrete-time signals are usually denoted
as x(n) representing the input and y(n) representing the output.

Then we can represent the input and output signals of a system as x and y respectively with the signal, or
signals themselves being represented by the variable, t, which usually represents time for a continuous
system and the variable n, which represents an integer value for a discrete system as shown.

Continuous-time and Discrete-time System

Interconnection of Systems
One of the practical aspects of electronic systems and block-diagram representation is that they can be
combined together in either a series or parallel combinations to form much bigger systems. Many larger real
systems are built using the interconnection of several sub-systems and by using block diagrams to represent
each subsystem, we can build a graphical representation of the whole system being analysed.

When subsystems are combined to form a series circuit, the overall output at y(t) will be equivalent to the
multiplication of the input signal x(t) as shown as the subsystems are cascaded together.

Series Connected System

For a series connected continuous-time system, the output signal y(t) of the first subsystem, “A” becomes
the input signal of the second subsystem, “B” whose output becomes the input of the third subsystem, “C”
and so on through the series chain giving A x B x C, etc.

Then the original input signal is cascaded through a series connected system, so for two series connected
subsystems, the equivalent single output will be equal to the multiplication of the systems, ie,
y(t) = G1(s) x G2(s). Where G represents the transfer function of the subsystem.

Note that the term “Transfer Function” of a system refers to and is defined as being the mathematical
relationship between the systems input and its output, or output/input and hence describes the behaviour of
the system.

Also, for a series connected system, the order in which a series operation is performed does not matter with
regards to the input and output signals as: G1(s) x G2(s) is the same as G2(s) x G1(s). An example of a simple
series connected circuit could be a single microphone feeding an amplifier followed by a speaker.

Parallel Connected Electronic System

For a parallel connected continuous-time system, each subsystem receives the same input signal, and their
individual outputs are summed together to produce an overall output, y(t). Then for two parallel connected
subsystems, the equivalent single output will be the sum of the two individual inputs, ie, y(t) = G1(s) + G2(s).

An example of a simple parallel connected circuit could be several microphones feeding into a mixing desk
which in turn feeds an amplifier and speaker system.

Electronic Feedback Systems

Another important interconnection of systems which is used extensively in control systems, is the “feedback
configuration”. In feedback systems, a fraction of the output signal is “fed back” and either added to or
subtracted from the original input signal. The result is that the output of the system is continually altering or
updating its input with the purpose of modifying the response of a system to improve stability. A feedback
system is also commonly referred to as a “Closed-loop System” as shown.

Closed-Loop Feedback System

Feedback systems are used a lot in most practical electronic system designs to help stabilise the system and
to increase its control. If the feedback loop reduces the value of the original signal, the feedback loop is
known as “negative feedback”. If the feedback loop adds to the value of the original signal, the feedback
loop is known as “positive feedback”.

An example of a simple feedback system could be a thermostatically controlled heating system in the home.
If the home is too hot, the feedback loop will switch “OFF” the heating system to make it cooler. If the
home is too cold, the feedback loop will switch “ON” the heating system to make it warmer. In this instance,
the system comprises of the heating system, the air temperature and the thermostatically controlled feedback
loop.

Transfer Function of Systems

Any subsystem can be represented as a simple block with an input and output as shown. Generally, the input
is designated as: θi and the output as: θo. The ratio of output over input represents the gain, ( G ) of the
subsystem and is therefore defined as: G = θo/θi

In this case, G represents the Transfer Function of the system or subsystem. When discussing electronic
systems in terms of their transfer function, the complex operator, s is used, then the equation for the gain is
rewritten as: G(s) = θo(s)/θi(s)

Electronic System Summary

We have seen that a simple Electronic System consists of an input, a process, an output and possibly
feedback. Electronic systems can be represented using interconnected block diagrams where the lines
between each block or subsystem represents both the flow and direction of a signal through the system.

Block diagrams need not represent a simple single system but can represent very complex systems made
from many interconnected subsystems. These subsystems can be connected together in series, parallel or
combinations of both depending upon the flow of the signals.

We have also seen that electronic signals and systems can be of continuous-time or discrete-time in nature
and may be analogue, digital or both. Feedback loops can be used be used to increase or reduce the
performance of a particular system by providing better stability and control. Control is the process of
making a system variable adhere to a particular value, called the reference value.

In the next tutorial about Electronic Systems, we will look at a types of electronic control system called an
Open-loop System which generates an output signal, y(t) based on its present input values and as such does
not monitor its output or make adjustments based on the condition of its output.

Open-loop System
The open-loop configuration does not monitor or measure the condition of its output signal as there is no
feedback

In the previous tutorial about Electronic Systems, we saw that a system can be defined as a collection of
subsystems which direct or control an input signal to produce the desired output condition.

The function of any electronic system is to automatically regulate the output and keep it within the systems
desired input value or “set point”. If the systems input changes for whatever reason, the output of the system
must respond accordingly and change itself to reflect the new input value.

Likewise, if something happens to disturb the systems output without any change to the input value, the
output must respond by returning back to its previous set value. In the past, electrical control systems were
basically manual or what is called an Open-loop System with very few automatic control or feedback
features built in to regulate the process variable so as to maintain the desired output level or value.
For example, an electric clothes dryer. Depending upon the amount of clothes or how wet they are, a user or
operator would set a timer (controller) to say 30 minutes and at the end of the 30 minutes the drier will
automatically stop and turn-off even if the clothes where still wet or damp.

In this case, the control action is the manual operator assessing the wetness of the clothes and setting the
process (the drier) accordingly.

So in this example, the clothes dryer would be an open-loop system as it does not monitor or measure the
condition of the output signal, which is the dryness of the clothes. Then the accuracy of the drying process,
or success of drying the clothes will depend on the experience of the user (operator).

However, the user may adjust or fine tune the drying process of the system at any time by increasing or
decreasing the timing controllers drying time, if they think that the original drying process will not be met.
For example, increasing the timing controller to 40 minutes to extend the drying process. Consider the
following open-loop block diagram.

Open-loop Drying System

Then an Open-loop system, also referred to as non-feedback system, is a type of continuous control system
in which the output has no influence or effect on the control action of the input signal. In other words, in an
open-loop control system the output is neither measured nor “fed back” for comparison with the input.
Therefore, an open-loop system is expected to faithfully follow its input command or set point regardless of
the final result.

Also, an open-loop system has no knowledge of the output condition so cannot self-correct any errors it
could make when the preset value drifts, even if this results in large deviations from the preset value.

Another disadvantage of open-loop systems is that they are poorly equipped to handle disturbances or
changes in the conditions which may reduce its ability to complete the desired task. For example, the dryer
door opens and heat is lost. The timing controller continues regardless for the full 30 minutes but the clothes
are not heated or dried at the end of the drying process. This is because there is no information fed back to
maintain a constant temperature.

 
Then we can see that open-loop system errors can disturb the drying process and therefore requires extra
supervisory attention of a user (operator). The problem with this anticipatory control approach is that the
user would need to look at the process temperature frequently and take any corrective control action
whenever the drying process deviated from its desired value of drying the clothes. This type of manual open-
loop control which reacts before an error actually occurs is called Feed forward Control

The objective of feed forward control, also known as predictive control, is to measure or predict any
potential open-loop disturbances and compensate for them manually before the controlled variable deviates
too far from the original set point. So for our simple example above, if the dryers door was open it would be
detected and closed allowing the drying process to continue.

If applied correctly, the deviation from wet clothes to dry clothes at the end of the 30 minutes would be
minimal if the user responded to the error situation (door open) very quickly. However, this feed forward
approach may not be completely accurate if the system changes, for example the drop in drying temperature
was not noticed during the 30 minute process.

Then we can define the main characteristics of an “Open-loop system” as being:

 There is no comparison between actual and desired values.

 An open-loop system has no self-regulation or control action over the output value.
 Each input setting determines a fixed operating position for the controller.
 Changes or disturbances in external conditions does not result in a direct output change    (unless the
controller setting is altered manually).

Any open-loop system can be represented as multiple cascaded blocks in series or a single block diagram
with an input and output. The block diagram of an open-loop system shows that the signal path from input to
output represents a linear path with no feedback loop and for any type of control system the input is given
the designation θi and the output θo.

Generally, we do not have to manipulate the open-loop block diagram to calculate its actual transfer
function. We can just write down the proper relationships or equations from each block diagram, and then
calculate the final transfer function from these equations as shown.

Open-loop System

The Transfer Function of each block is therefore:

 

The overall transfer function is given as:

Then the Open-loop Gain is given simply as:

When G represents the Transfer Function of the system or subsystem, it can be rewritten as:
G(s) = θo(s)/θi(s)

Open-loop control systems are often used with processes that require the sequencing of events with the aid
of “ON-OFF” signals. For example a washing machines which requires the water to be switched “ON” and
then when full is switched “OFF” followed by the heater element being switched “ON” to heat the water and
then at a suitable temperature is switched “OFF”, and so on.

This type of “ON-OFF” open-loop control is suitable for systems where the changes in load occur slowly
and the process is very slow acting, necessitating infrequent changes to the control action by an operator.

Open-loop Control Systems Summary

We have seen that a controller can manipulate its inputs to obtain the desired effect on the output of a
system. One type of control system in which the output has no influence or effect on the control action of the
input signal is called an Open-loop system.

An “open-loop system” is defined by the fact that the output signal or condition is neither measured nor “fed
back” for comparison with the input signal or system set point. Therefore open-loop systems are commonly
referred to as “Non-feedback systems”.

Also, as an open-loop system does not use feedback to determine if its required output was achieved, it
“assumes” that the desired goal of the input was successful because it cannot correct any errors it could
make, and so cannot compensate for any external disturbances to the system.

Open-loop Motor Control

So for example, assume the DC motor controller as shown. The speed of rotation of the motor will depend
upon the voltage supplied to the amplifier (the controller) by the potentiometer. The value of the input
voltage could be proportional to the position of the potentiometer.
If the potentiometer is moved to the top of the resistance the maximum positive voltage will be supplied to
the amplifier representing full speed. Likewise, if the potentiometer wiper is moved to the bottom of the
resistance, zero voltage will be supplied representing a very slow speed or stop.

Then the position of the potentiometers slider represents the input, θi which is amplified by the amplifier
(controller) to drive the DC motor (process) at a set speed N representing the output, θo of the system. The
motor will continue to rotate at a fixed speed determined by the position of the potentiometer.

As the signal path from the input to the output is a direct path not forming part of any loop, the overall gain
of the system will the cascaded values of the individual gains from the potentiometer, amplifier, motor and
load. It is clearly desirable that the output speed of the motor should be identical to the position of the
potentiometer, giving the overall gain of the system as unity.

However, the individual gains of the potentiometer, amplifier and motor may vary over time with changes in
supply voltage or temperature, or the motors load may increase representing external disturbances to the
open-loop motor control system.

But the user will eventually become aware of the change in the systems performance (change in motor
speed) and may correct it by increasing or decreasing the potentiometers input signal accordingly to
maintain the original or desired speed.

The advantages of this type of “open-loop motor control” is that it is potentially cheap and simple to
implement making it ideal for use in well-defined systems were the relationship between input and output is
direct and not influenced by any outside disturbances. Unfortunately this type of open-loop system is
inadequate as variations or disturbances in the system affect the speed of the motor. Then another form of
control is required.

In the next tutorial about Electronics Systems, we will look at the effect of feeding back some of the output
signal to the input so that the systems control is based on the difference between actual and desired values.
This type of electronics control system is called Closed-loop Control.

Closed-loop Systems
Closed-loop Systems use feedback where a portion of the output signal is fed back to the input to reduce
errors and improve stability
Systems in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input to the control process are called open-loop
control systems, and that open-loop systems are just that, open ended non-feedback systems.

But the goal of any electrical or electronic control system is to measure, monitor, and control a process and
one way in which we can accurately control the process is by monitoring its output and “feeding” some of it
back to compare the actual output with the desired output so as to reduce the error and if disturbed, bring the
output of the system back to the original or desired response.

The quantity of the output being measured is called the “feedback signal”, and the type of control system
which uses feedback signals to both control and adjust itself is called a Close-loop System.

A Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback control system is a control system which uses the
concept of an open loop system as its forward path but has one or more feedback loops (hence its name) or
paths between its output and its input. The reference to “feedback”, simply means that some portion of the
output is returned “back” to the input to form part of the systems excitation.

Closed-loop systems are designed to automatically achieve and maintain the desired output condition by
comparing it with the actual condition. It does this by generating an error signal which is the difference
between the output and the reference input. In other words, a “closed-loop system” is a fully automatic
control system in which its control action being dependent on the output in some way.

So for example, consider our electric clothes dryer from the previous Open-loop tutorial. Suppose we used a
sensor or transducer (input device) to continually monitor the temperature or dryness of the clothes and feed
a signal relating to the dryness back to the controller as shown below.

Closed-loop Control

This sensor would monitor the actual dryness of the clothes and compare it with (or subtract it from) the
input reference. The error signal (error = required dryness – actual dryness) is amplified by the controller,
and the controller output makes the necessary correction to the heating system to reduce any error. For
example if the clothes are too wet the controller may increase the temperature or drying time. Likewise, if
the clothes are nearly dry it may reduce the temperature or stop the process so as not to overheat or burn the
clothes, etc.

Then the closed-loop configuration is characterised by the feedback signal, derived from the sensor in our
clothes drying system. The magnitude and polarity of the resulting error signal, would be directly related to
the difference between the required dryness and actual dryness of the clothes.

Also, because a closed-loop system has some knowledge of the output condition, (via the sensor) it is better
equipped to handle any system disturbances or changes in the conditions which may reduce its ability to
complete the desired task.
For example, as before, the dryer door opens and heat is lost. This time the deviation in temperature is
detected by the feedback sensor and the controller self-corrects the error to maintain a constant temperature
within the limits of the preset value. Or possibly stops the process and activates an alarm to inform the
operator.

As we can see, in a closed-loop control system the error signal, which is the difference between the input
signal and the feedback signal (which may be the output signal itself or a function of the output signal), is
fed to the controller so as to reduce the systems error and bring the output of the system back to a desired
value. In our case the dryness of the clothes. Clearly, when the error is zero the clothes are dry.

The term Closed-loop control always implies the use of a feedback control action in order to reduce any
errors within the system, and its “feedback” which distinguishes the main differences between an open-loop
and a closed-loop system.The accuracy of the output thus depends on the feedback path, which in general
can be made very accurate and within electronic control systems and circuits, feedback control is more
commonly used than open-loop or feed forward control.

Closed-loop systems have many advantages over open-loop systems. The primary advantage of a closed-
loop feedback control system is its ability to reduce a system’s sensitivity to external disturbances, for
example opening of the dryer door, giving the system a more robust control as any changes in the feedback
signal will result in compensation by the controller.

Then we can define the main characteristics of Closed-loop Control as being:

 To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems input.

 To improve stability of an unstable system.
 To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
 To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the process.
 To produce a reliable and repeatable performance.

Whilst a good closed-loop system can have many advantages over an open-loop control system, its main
disadvantage is that in order to provide the required amount of control, a closed-loop system must be more
complex by having one or more feedback paths. Also, if the gain of the controller is too sensitive to changes
in its input commands or signals it can become unstable and start to oscillate as the controller tries to over-
correct itself, and eventually something would break. So we need to “tell” the system how we want it to
behave within some pre-defined limits.

Closed-loop Summing Points

For a closed-loop feedback system to regulate any control signal, it must first determine the error between
the actual output and the desired output. This is achieved using a summing point, also referred to as a
comparison element, between the feedback loop and the systems input. These summing points compare a
systems set point to the actual value and produce a positive or negative error signal which the controller
responds too. where: Error = Set point – Actual

The symbol used to represent a summing point in closed-loop systems block-diagram is that of a circle with
two crossed lines as shown. The summing point can either add signals together in which a Plus ( + ) symbol
is used showing the device to be a “summer” (used for positive feedback), or it can subtract signals from
each other in which case a Minus ( − ) symbol is used showing that the device is a “comparator” (used for
negative feedback) as shown.
Summing Point Types

Note that summing points can have more than one signal as inputs either adding or subtracting but only one
output which is the algebraic sum of the inputs. Also the arrows indicate the direction of the signals.
Summing points can be cascaded together to allow for more input variables to be summed at a given point.

Closed-loop System Transfer Function

The Transfer Function of any electrical or electronic control system is the mathematical relationship
between the systems input and its output, and hence describes the behaviour of the system. Note also that the
ratio of the output of a particular device to its input represents its gain. Then we can correctly say that the
output is always the transfer function of the system times the input. Consider the closed-loop system below.

Typical Closed-loop System Representation

Where: block G represents the open-loop gains of the controller or system and is the forward path, and block
H represents the gain of the sensor, transducer or measurement system in the feedback path.

To find the transfer function of the closed-loop system above, we must first calculate the output signal θo in
terms of the input signal θi. To do so, we can easily write the equations of the given block-diagram as
follows.

The output from the system is equal to:    Output = G x Error

Note that the error signal, θe is also the input to the feed-forward block:  G

The output from the summing point is equal to:    Error = Input - H x Output

If  H = 1 (unity feedback) then:

The output from the summing point will be:    Error (θe) = Input - Output

Eliminating the error term, then:

The output is equal to:    Output = G x (Input - H x Output)

Therefore:    G x Input = Output + G x H x Output

Rearranging the above gives us the closed-loop transfer function of:

The above equation for the transfer function of a closed-loop system shows a Plus ( + ) sign in the
denominator representing negative feedback. With a positive feedback system, the denominator will have a
Minus ( − ) sign and the equation becomes:  1 - GH.

We can see that when  H = 1 (unity feedback) and G is very large, the transfer function approaches unity as:

Also, as the systems steady state gain G decreases, the expression of:  G/(1 + G) decreases much more
slowly. In other words, the system is fairly insensitive to variations in the systems gain represented by G,
and which is one of the main advantages of a closed-loop system.

Multi-loop Closed-loop System

Whilst our example above is of a single input, single output closed-loop system, the basic transfer function
still applies to more complex multi-loop systems. Most practical feedback circuits have some form of
multiple loop control, and for a multi-loop configuration the transfer function between a controlled and a
manipulated variable depends on whether the other feedback control loops are open or closed.

Consider the multi-loop system below.

Any cascaded blocks such as G1 and G2 can be reduced, as well as the transfer function of the inner loop as
shown.
 

After further reduction of the blocks we end up with a final block diagram which resembles that of the
previous single-loop closed-loop system.

And the transfer function of this multi-loop system becomes:

Then we can see that even complex multi-block or multi-loop block diagrams can be reduced to give one
single block diagram with one common system transfer function.

Closed-loop Motor Control

So how can we use Closed-loop Systems in Electronics. Well consider our DC motor controller from the
previous open-loop tutorial. If we connected a speed measuring transducer, such as a tachometer to the shaft
of the DC motor, we could detect its speed and send a signal proportional to the motor speed back to the
amplifier. A tachometer, also known as a tacho-generator is simply a permanent-magnet DC generator
which gives a DC output voltage proportional to the speed of the motor.

Then the position of the potentiometers slider represents the input, θi which is amplified by the amplifier
(controller) to drive the DC motor at a set speed N representing the output, θo of the system, and the
tachometer T would be the closed-loop back to the controller. The difference between the input voltage
setting and the feedback voltage level gives the error signal as shown.

Closed-loop Motor Control

Any external disturbances to the closed-loop motor control system such as the motors load increasing would
create a difference in the actual motor speed and the potentiometer input set point.

This difference would produce an error signal which the controller would automatically respond too
adjusting the motors speed. Then the controller works to minimize the error signal, with zero error indicating
actual speed which equals set point.

Electronically, we could implement such a simple closed-loop tachometer-feedback motor control circuit
using an operational amplifier (op-amp) for the controller as shown.

Closed-loop Motor Controller Circuit

This simple closed-loop motor controller can be represented as a block diagram as shown.

Block Diagram for the Feedback Controller

 
A closed-loop motor controller is a common means of maintaining a desired motor speed under varying load
conditions by changing the average voltage applied to the input from the controller. The tachometer could be
replaced by an optical encoder or Hall-effect type positional or rotary sensor.

Closed-loop Systems Summary

We have seen that an electronic control system with one or more feedback paths is called a Closed-loop
System. Closed-loop control systems are also called “feedback control systems” are very common in
process control and electronic control systems. Feedback systems have part of their output signal “fed back”
to the input for comparison with the desired set point condition. The type of feedback signal can result either
in positive feedback or negative feedback.

In a closed-loop system, a controller is used to compare the output of a system with the required condition
and convert the error into a control action designed to reduce the error and bring the output of the system
back to the desired response. Then closed-loop control systems use feedback to determine the actual input to
the system and can have more than one feedback loop.

Closed-loop control systems have many advantages over open-loop systems. One advantage is the fact that
the use of feedback makes the system response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal
variations in system parameters such as temperature. It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and
inexpensive components to obtain the accurate control of a given process or plant.

However, system stability can be a major problem especially in badly designed closed-loop systems as they
may try to over-correct any errors which could cause the system to loss control and oscillate.

In the next tutorial about Electronics Systems, we will look at the different ways in which we can
incorporate a summing point into the input of a system and the different ways in which we can feed signals
back to it.

Feedback Systems
In a Feedback System, all or part of the output signal either positive or negative is fed back to the input

Feedback Systems process signals and as such are signal processors. The processing part of a feedback
system may be electrical or electronic, ranging from a very simple to a highly complex circuits.

Simple analogue feedback control circuits can be constructed using individual or discrete components, such
as transistors, resistors and capacitors, etc, or by using microprocessor-based and integrated circuits (IC’s) to
form more complex digital feedback systems.

As we have seen, open-loop systems are just that, open ended, and no attempt is made to compensate for
changes in circuit conditions or changes in load conditions due to variations in circuit parameters, such as
gain and stability, temperature, supply voltage variations and/or external disturbances. But the effects of
these “open-loop” variations can be eliminated or at least considerably reduced by the introduction of
Feedback.
A feedback system is one in which the output signal is sampled and then fed back to the input to form an
error signal that drives the system. In the previous tutorial about Closed-loop Systems, we saw that in
general, feedback is comprised of a sub-circuit that allows a fraction of the output signal from a system to
modify the effective input signal in such a way as to produce a response that can differ substantially from
the response produced in the absence of such feedback.

Feedback Systems are very useful and widely used in amplifier circuits, oscillators, process control systems
as well as other types of electronic systems. But for feedback to be an effective tool it must be controlled as
an uncontrolled system will either oscillate or fail to function. The basic model of a feedback system is
given as:

Feedback System Block Diagram Model

This basic feedback loop of sensing, controlling and actuation is the main concept behind a feedback control
system and there are several good reasons why feedback is applied and used in electronic circuits:

 Circuit characteristics such as the systems gain and response can be precisely controlled.
 Circuit characteristics can be made independent of operating conditions such as supply voltages or
temperature variations.
 Signal distortion due to the non-linear nature of the components used can be greatly reduced.
 The Frequency Response, Gain and Bandwidth of a circuit or system can be easily controlled to
within tight limits.

Whilst there are many different types of control systems, there are just two main types of feedback control
namely: Negative Feedback and Positive Feedback.

Positive Feedback Systems

In a “positive feedback control system”, the set point and output values are added together by the controller
as the feedback is “in-phase” with the input. The effect of positive (or regenerative) feedback is to
“increase” the systems gain, i.e, the overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain
without feedback. For example, if someone praises you or gives you positive feedback about something, you
feel happy about yourself and are full of energy, you feel more positive.

However, in electronic and control systems to much praise and positive feedback can increase the systems
gain far too much which would give rise to oscillatory circuit responses as it increases the magnitude of the
effective input signal.
An example of a positive feedback systems could be an electronic amplifier based on an operational
amplifier, or op-amp as shown.

Positive Feedback System

Positive feedback control of the op-amp is achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage signal at
Vout back to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal via the feedback resistor, RF.

If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal and the output becomes more
positive. Some of this output voltage is returned back to the input by the feedback network.

Thus the input voltage becomes more positive, causing an even larger output voltage and so on. Eventually
the output becomes saturated at its positive supply rail.

Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse happens and the op-amp saturates at its negative
supply rail. Then we can see that positive feedback does not allow the circuit to function as an amplifier as
the output voltage quickly saturates to one supply rail or the other, because with positive feedback loops
“more leads to more” and “less leads to less”.

Then if the loop gain is positive for any system the transfer function will be: Av = G / (1 – GH). Note that if
GH = 1 the system gain Av = infinity and the circuit will start to self-oscillate, after which no input signal is
needed to maintain oscillations, which is useful if you want to make an oscillator.

Although often considered undesirable, this behaviour is used in electronics to obtain a very fast switching
response to a condition or signal. One example of the use of positive feedback is hysteresis in which a logic
device or system maintains a given state until some input crosses a preset threshold. This type of behaviour
is called “bi-stability” and is often associated with logic gates and digital switching devices such as
multivibrators.

We have seen that positive or regenerative feedback increases the gain and the possibility of instability in a
system which may lead to self-oscillation and as such, positive feedback is widely used in oscillatory
circuits such as Oscillators and Timing circuits.

Negative Feedback Systems

In a “negative feedback control system”, the set point and output values are subtracted from each other as
the feedback is “out-of-phase” with the original input. The effect of negative (or degenerative) feedback is to
“reduce” the gain. For example, if someone criticises you or gives you negative feedback about something,
you feel unhappy about yourself and therefore lack energy, you feel less positive.
Because negative feedback produces stable circuit responses, improves stability and increases the operating
bandwidth of a given system, the majority of all control and feedback systems is degenerative reducing the
effects of the gain.

An example of a negative feedback system is an electronic amplifier based on an operational amplifier as

shown.

Negative Feedback System

Negative feedback control of the amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage signal
at Vout back to the inverting ( – ) input terminal via the feedback resistor, Rf.

If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal, but because its connected to
the inverting input of the amplifier, and the output becomes more negative. Some of this output voltage is
returned back to the input by the feedback network of Rf.

Thus the input voltage is reduced by the negative feedback signal, causing an even smaller output voltage
and so on. Eventually the output will settle down and become stabilised at a value determined by the gain
ratio of Rf ÷ Rin.

Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse happens and the op-amps output becomes positive
(inverted) which adds to the negative input signal. Then we can see that negative feedback allows the circuit
to function as an amplifier, so long as the output is within the saturation limits.

So we can see that the output voltage is stabilised and controlled by the feedback, because with negative
feedback loops “more leads to less” and “less leads to more”.

Then if the loop gain is positive for any system the transfer function will be: Av = G / (1 + GH).

The use of negative feedback in amplifier and process control systems is widespread because as a rule
negative feedback systems are more stable than positive feedback systems, and a negative feedback system
is said to be stable if it does not oscillate by itself at any frequency except for a given circuit condition.

Another advantage is that negative feedback also makes control systems more immune to random variations
in component values and inputs. Of course nothing is for free, so it must be used with caution as negative
feedback significantly modifies the operating characteristics of a given system.

Classification of Feedback Systems

Thus far we have seen the way in which the output signal is “fed back” to the input terminal, and for
feedback systems this can be of either, Positive Feedback or Negative Feedback. But the manner in which
the output signal is measured and introduced into the input circuit can be very different leading to four basic
classifications of feedback.

Based on the input quantity being amplified, and on the desired output condition, the input and output
variables can be modelled as either a voltage or a current. As a result, there are four basic classifications of
single-loop feedback system in which the output signal is fed back to the input and these are:

 Series-Shunt Configuration – Voltage in and Voltage out or Voltage Controlled Voltage Source
(VCVS).
 Shunt-Shunt Configuration – Current in and Voltage out or Current Controlled Voltage Source
(CCVS).
 Series-Series Configuration – Voltage in and Current out or Voltage Controlled Current Source
(VCCS).
 Shunt-Series Configuration – Current in and Current out or Current Controlled Current Source
(CCCS).

These names come from the way that the feedback network connects between the input and output stages as
shown.

Series-Shunt Feedback Systems

Series-Shunt Feedback, also known as series voltage feedback, operates as a voltage-voltage controlled
feedback system. The error voltage fed back from the feedback network is in series with the input. The
voltage which is fed back from the output being proportional to the output voltage, Vo as it is parallel, or
shunt connected.

Series-Shunt Feedback System

For the series-shunt connection, the configuration is defined as the output voltage, Vout to the input voltage,
Vin. Most inverting and non-inverting operational amplifier circuits operate with series-shunt feedback
producing what is known as a “voltage amplifier”. As a voltage amplifier the ideal input resistance, Rin is
very large, and the ideal output resistance, Rout is very small.

Then the “series-shunt feedback configuration” works as a true voltage amplifier as the input signal is a
voltage and the output signal is a voltage, so the transfer gain is given as: Av = Vout ÷ Vin. Note that this
quantity is dimensionless as its units are volts/volts.

Shunt-Series Feedback Systems

Shunt-Series Feedback, also known as shunt current feedback, operates as a current-current controlled
feedback system. The feedback signal is proportional to the output current, Io flowing in the load. The
feedback signal is fed back in parallel or shunt with the input as shown.

Shunt-Series Feedback System

For the shunt-series connection, the configuration is defined as the output current, Iout to the input current,
Iin. In the shunt-series feedback configuration the signal fed back is in parallel with the input signal and as
such its the currents, not the voltages that add.

This parallel shunt feedback connection will not normally affect the voltage gain of the system, since for a
voltage output a voltage input is required. Also, the series connection at the output increases output
resistance, Rout while the shunt connection at the input decreases the input resistance, Rin.

Then the “shunt-series feedback configuration” works as a true current amplifier as the input signal is a
current and the output signal is a current, so the transfer gain is given as: Ai = Iout ÷ Iin. Note that this
quantity is dimensionless as its units are amperes/amperes.

Series-Series Feedback Systems

Series-Series Feedback Systems, also known as series current feedback, operates as a voltage-current
controlled feedback system. In the series current configuration the feedback error signal is in series with the
input and is proportional to the load current, Iout. Actually, this type of feedback converts the current signal
into a voltage which is actually fed back and it is this voltage which is subtracted from the input.

Series-Series Feedback System

For the series-series connection, the configuration is defined as the output current, Iout to the input voltage,
Vin. Because the output current, Iout of the series connection is fed back as a voltage, this increases both the
input and output impedances of the system. Therefore, the circuit works best as a transconductance amplifier
with the ideal input resistance, Rin being very large, and the ideal output resistance, Rout is also very large.

Then the “series-series feedback configuration” functions as transconductance type amplifier system as the
input signal is a voltage and the output signal is a current. then for a series-series feedback circuit the
transfer gain is given as: Gm = Iout ÷ Vin.

Shunt-Shunt Feedback Systems

Shunt-Shunt Feedback Systems, also known as shunt voltage feedback, operates as a current-voltage
controlled feedback system. In the shunt-shunt feedback configuration the signal fed back is in parallel with
the input signal. The output voltage is sensed and the current is subtracted from the input current in shunt,
and as such its the currents, not the voltages that subtract.

Shunt-Shunt Feedback System

For the shunt-shunt connection, the configuration is defined as the output voltage, Vout to the input current,
Iin. As the output voltage is fed back as a current to a current-driven input port, the shunt connections at
both the input and output terminals reduce the input and output impedance. therefore the system works best
as a transresistance system with the ideal input resistance, Rin being very small, and the ideal output
resistance, Rout also being very small.

Then the shunt voltage configuration works as transresistance type voltage amplifier as the input signal is a
current and the output signal is a voltage, so the transfer gain is given as: Rm = Vout ÷ Iin.

Feedback Systems Summary

We have seen that a Feedback System is one in which the output signal is sampled and then fed back to the
input to form an error signal that drives the system, and depending on the type of feedback used, the
feedback signal which is mixed with the systems input signal, can be either a voltage or a current.

Feedback will always change the performance of a system and feedback arrangements can be either positive
(regenerative) or negative (degenerative) type feedback systems. If the feedback loop around the system
produces a loop-gain which is negative, the feedback is said to be negative or degenerative with the main
effect of the negative feedback is in reducing the systems gain.

If however the gain around the loop is positive, the system is said to have positive feedback or regenerative
feedback. The effect of positive feedback is to increase the gain which can cause a system to become
unstable and oscillate especially if GH = -1.

We have also seen that block-diagrams can be used to demonstrate the various types of feedback systems. In
the block diagrams above, the input and output variables can be modelled as either a voltage or a current and
as such there are four combinations of inputs and outputs that represent the possible types of feedback,
namely: Series Voltage Feedback, Shunt Voltage Feedback, Series Current Feedback and Shunt Current
Feedback.

The names for these different types of feedback systems are derived from the way that the feedback network
connects between the input and output stages either in parallel (shunt) or series.

In the next tutorial about Feedback Systems, we will look at the effects of Negative Feedback on a system
and see how it can be used to improve a control systems stability.

Negative Feedback Systems

Negative Feedback is the most common form of feedback control configuration used in process, micro-
computer and amplification systems

Feedback is the process by which a fraction of the output signal, either a voltage or a current, is used as an
input. If this feed back fraction is opposite in value or phase (“anti-phase”) to the input signal, then the
feedback is said to be Negative Feedback, or degenerative feedback.

Negative feedback opposes or subtracts from the input signals giving it many advantages in the design and
stabilisation of control systems. For example, if the systems output changes for any reason, then negative
feedback affects the input in such a way as to counteract the change.

Feedback reduces the overall gain of a system with the degree of reduction being related to the systems
open-loop gain. Negative feedback also has effects of reducing distortion, noise, sensitivity to external
changes as well as improving system bandwidth and input and output impedances.

Feedback in an electronic system, whether negative feedback or positive feedback is unilateral in direction.
Meaning that its signals flow one way only from the output to the input of the system. This then makes the
loop gain, G of the system independent of the load and source impedances.

As feedback implies a closed-loop system it must therefore have a summing point. In a negative feedback
system this summing point or junction at its input subtracts the feedback signal from the input signal to form
an error signal, β which drives the system. If the system has a positive gain, the feedback signal must be
subtracted from the input signal in order for the feedback to be negative as shown.

Negative Feedback Circuit

 

The circuit represents a system with positive gain, G and feedback, β. The summing junction at its input
subtracts the feedback signal from the input signal to form the error signal Vin - βG, which drives the
system.

Then using the basic closed-loop circuit above we can derive the general feedback equation as being:

Negative Feedback Equation

We see that the effect of the negative feedback is to reduce the gain by the factor of: 1 + βG. This factor is
called the “feedback factor” or “amount of feedback” and is often specified in decibels (dB) by the
relationship of 20 log (1+ βG).

Effects of Negative Feedback

If the open-loop gain, G is very large, then βG will be much greater than 1, so that the overall gain of the
system is roughly equal to 1/β. If the open-loop gain decreases due to frequency or the effects of system
ageing, providing that βG is still relatively large, the overall system gain does not change very much. So
negative feedback tends to reduce the effects of gain change giving what is generally called “gain stability”.

Negative Feedback Example No1

A system has a gain of 80dB without feedback. If the negative feedback fraction is 1/50th. Calculate the
closed-loop gain of the system in dB with the addition of negative feedback.

Then we can see that the system has a loop gain of 10,000 and a closed-loop gain of 34dB.

Negative Feedback Example No2

If after 5 years the loop gain of the system without negative feedback has fallen to 60dB and the feedback
fraction has remained constant at 1/50th. Calculate the new closed-loop gain value of the system.

Then we can see from the two examples that without feedback, after 5 years of use the systems gain has
fallen from 80dB down to 60dB, (10,000 to 1,000) a drop in open loop gain of about 25%.

However with the addition of negative feedback the systems gain has only fallen from 34dB to 33.5dB, a
reduction of less than 1.5%, which proves that negative feedback gives added stability to a systems gain.

Therefore we can see that by applying negative feedback to a system greatly reduces its overall gain
compared to its gain without feedback.

The systems gain without feedback can be very large but not precise as it may change from one system
device to the next, then it is possible to design a system with sufficient open-loop gain that, after the
negative feedback has been added, the overall gain matches the desired value.
Also, if the feedback network is constructed from passive elements having stable characteristics, the overall
gain becomes very steady and unaffected by variation in the systems inherent open-loop gain.

Negative Feedback in Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are the most commonly used type of linear integrated circuit but they have
a very high gain. The open-loop voltage gain, AVOL, of a standard 741 op-amp is its voltage gain when there
is no negative feedback applied and the open-loop voltage gain of an op-amp is the ratio of its output
voltage, Vout, to its differential input voltage, Vin, ( Vout/Vin ).

The typical value of AVOL for a 741 op-amp is more than 200,000 (106dB). So an input voltage signal of
only 1mV, would result in an output voltage of over 200 volts! forcing the output immediately into
saturation. Obviously this high open-loop voltage gain needs to be controlled in some way, and we can do
just that by using negative feedback.

The use of negative feedback can significantly improve the performance of an operational amplifier and any
op-amp circuit that does not use negative feedback is considered too unstable to be useful. But how can we
use negative feedback to control an op-amp. Well consider the circuit below of a Non-inverting Operational
Amplifier.

Non-inverting Op-amp Circuit

Negative Feedback Example No3

An operational amplifier with an open-loop voltage gain, AVOL of 320,000 without feedback is to be used as
a non-inverting amplifier. Calculate the values of the feedback resistances, R1 and R2 required to stabilise the
circuit with a closed loop gain of 20.

The generalised closed-loop feedback equation we derived above is given as:

By rearranging the feedback formula we get a feedback fraction, β of:

 

Then putting the values of: A = 320,000 and G = 20, into the above equation we get the value of β as:

Because in this case the open-loop gain of the op-amp is very high ( A = 320,000 ), the feedback fraction, β
will be roughly equal to the reciprocal of the closed-loop gain 1/G only as the value of 1/A will be incredibly
small. Then β (the feedback fraction) is equal to 1/20 = 0.05.

As the resistors, R1 and R2 form a simple series-voltage potential divider network across the non-inverting
amplifier, the closed-loop voltage gain of the circuit will be determined by the ratios of these resistances as:

If we assume resistor R2 has a value of 1,000Ω, or 1kΩ, then the value of resistor R1 will be:
 

Then for the non-inverting amplifier circuit about to have a closed-loop gain of 20, the values of the
negative feedback resistors required will be in this case, R1 = 19kΩ and R2 = 1kΩ, giving us a non-inverting
amplifier circuit of:

Non-inverting Op-amp Circuit

There are many advantages to using feedback within a systems design, but the main advantages of using
Negative Feedback in amplifier circuits is to greatly improve their stability, better tolerance to component
variations, stabilisation against DC drift as well as increasing the amplifiers bandwidth.

Examples of negative feedback in common amplifier circuits include the resistor Rƒ in op-amp circuits as we
have seen above, resistor, RS in FET based amplifiers and resistor, RE in bipolar transistor (BJT) amplifiers.