Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11

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Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

On the design and structural analysis of jet engine fan blade structures
Leye M. Amoo
Aeromechanics—Fan Blades, Cold Section Engineering (CSE), United Technologies Corporation (UTC)—Pratt and Whitney, 400 Main Street, M/S 124-08,
East Hartford, Connecticut, 06108, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Available online 26 November 2012 Progress in the design and structural analysis of commercial jet engine fan blades is reviewed and
Keywords: presented. This article is motivated by the key role fan blades play in the performance of advanced gas
Fan blade turbine jet engines. The fundamentals of the associated physics are emphasized. Recent developments
Jet engine and advancements have led to an increase and improvement in fan blade structural durability, stability
Structures-design and reliability. This article is intended as a high level review of the fan blade environment and current
Aerodynamics state of structural design to aid further research in developing new and innovative fan blade
Flutter technologies.
FEA & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Design aspects of fan blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Material choices for fan blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2. Composite and metal matrix composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. Hybrid-metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4. Challenges and the future of materials for fan blades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Fan blade structural analysis—the structural design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1. Finite element analysis—stress, strain and loads in fan blade structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2. Dynamic stability—flutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Impact dynamics analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. Fan blade testing and validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7. Likely future development for improved structural health and possible constraints to benefits from R&D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Appendix A. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1. Introduction

Abbreviations: FBO, Fan blade out; FSI, Fluid structure interaction; LE, Leading The history of the commercial turbine engine dates back to
edge; TE, Trailing edge; BEM, Blade element momentum theory; FOD, Foreign ancient times, when Heron invented the Aeolipile—a device that
object damage; NSMS, Non-intrusive strain measurement system; MDO, Multi-
disciplinary design optimization; NASA, National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
employed steam power directed from two nozzles to make a
istration; SPH, Smooth particle hydrodynamics; BTT, Blade tip timing; ALE, sphere rotate rapidly on a fixed axis. At that time, the potential
Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian; GTF, Geared turbo-fan; LCF, Low cycle fatigue; HCF, significance of the invention in practical terms was not yet
High cycle fatigue; MMC, Metal matrix composite; GE, General Electric; PW, Pratt recognized. Later, in 1200 AD, reaction-type propulsion was born
and Whitney; FEA, Finite element analysis; UF, Unstalled flutter; SUF, Supersonic
in China with the advent of gunpowder—powered rockets. These
unstalled flutter; SSF, Supersonic stalled flutter; TSF, Transonic stalled flutter; SF,
Stalled flutter; FEM, Finite element modeling; RR, Rolls-Royce projectiles could not travel far. The history of the aerogas turbine
E-mail address: [email protected] as a viable device for the conversion of energy began in 1930 with

0376-0421/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2012.08.002
2 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11

a patent award for Frank Whittle’s work on jet engines and his accounts for global changes in the momentum. In particular, the
static test of jet engines in 1937 [1]. In 1939, Hans von Ohain theory characterizes how lift is developed on individual blade
performed a demonstration of jet engine-powered flight. The elements as each blade element creates an incremental amount of
Brown Boveni company then developed a 4 mega-Watt (MW) lift (the total lift of all blade elements is the thrust). One of the
electrical power system driven by a gas turbine in Neuchatel, BEM theory’s important output parameters is the so-called ideal
Switzerland [2]. The success of commercial gas turbine engines in power. Ideal power can be defined as the minimum power
replacing reciprocating engines as a source of power is well required to produce thrust. Ideal power is always less than actual
documented [3,4]. Although development has been slow at times, power, since the BEM theory does not take into account the drag
applications are currently growing at a rapid pace as a result of of the actual blades. The BEM theory provides a starting point
significant R&D investments by several governments and the with regards to the performance of a blade, allowing a designer to
private sector in an effort to improve gas turbine performance, select the proper airfoil section, twist, chord, and pitch angle for
reliability, and economic benefits. optimal thrust distribution. However the theory does not give
Aerodynamics and structural mechanics have had a significant sufficient information for a more detailed design. A detailed
impact on the development of airplanes and flight vehicles. design is obtained through analysis of the forces acting on a blade.
Among the many components of a modern jet engine, (or The jet engine propulsion process begins with fan blades
turbomachine), its blades (fan blades, turbine blades, etc.) are spinning at over 2000 rotations per minute at take-off speed.
especially important. The history of the development of the fan Typically, an engine is composed of between 16 and 34 fan blades,
blade reveals that many advancements in the materials and depending on their aspect ratio, among other factors, drawing in
manufacturing technology have occured over the years in order air at a rate of about 2500 pounds per second. To put this in
to produce structurally durable fan blades while reducing weight. perspective, this is enough to vacuum the air from a four bedroom
Improvements in the performance of airfoils have contributed house in less than half a second. The rate of air intake varies and is
significantly to developments in gas turbine engines in terms of dictated by factors such as airfoil geometry, angle of attack, air
higher thrust-to-weight ratios and lower specific fuel consump- density and the speed at which the airfoil moves through the air.
tion. Such improvements have led to increased aerodynamic The fan blades are usually considered to be part of the compressor
efficiency, increased reliability, and reduced weight in rotating section, or ‘‘cold section’’, of the engine. Fan blades are mostly
members and supporting structures. Advancements in material made of titanium and consist of a blade body, a rounded leading
processing, forging, and manufacturing have also contributed to edge (LE) a sharp trailing edge (TE), an integral platform and a
lighter, more efficient, and more structurally dependable fan dovetail or single tooth attachment as shown in Fig. A1. There are
blades. Fan blades experience vibrations during rotation, leading other design approaches for non-titanium blades that allow for
to stresses and strains that can cause significant and expensive improved balance and less maintenance. Figs. 1 and 2 show views
damage to the engine if the blades are not properly designed. The of a modern engine and the GTF architecture, respectively.
vibrations are primarily the result of unsteady flow. Turbulent The diameters and chord lengths of fan blades have increased
and strong periodic flow perturbations can cause high levels of in recent years, leading to an increase in the size and thrust of jet
blade vibration leading to unavoidable resonant conditions. Such engines. Jet engine fan blades come in either a solid or a hollow
vibrations have a significant effect on fatigue life, structural blade design. In a solid design, there is no cavity within the blade.
integrity, and performance of the engine. Both centrifugal and A hollow fan blade has a hollow cavity within it. Fan blades are
aerodynamic forces and their attendant vibrations, also have hollowed to reduce weight. In some cases, up to a 50% weight
significant effects on the blade. This is especially true at the tip, reduction is achieved [11]. This weight reduction results in an
where the effects of transonic speeds can cause buffeting or
flutter. All of these forces are important, and all are taken into
consideration in jet engine fan blade structural design. Fan blades
This review article presents fundamental technical issues that
relate to fan blades with respect to high structural integrity,
stability, and durability. Emphasis is placed on the critical aspects
of fan blade structures. The article is intended to serve as a
platform to foster research in materials engineering, structural
design, and structural mechanics. It should be noted that a review
process can be rather arbitrary and typically reflects author’s
biases. No claim is made as to the completeness of this review.
Due to the significant number of journal publications in this Fig. 1. View of a modern engine showing the fan [9].
area, it is likely that relevant material has been inadvertently
overlooked.

2. Design aspects of fan blades Fan blades

Fan blades are essentially airfoils and they have matured over
the years based on the principles of the blade element momen-
tum theory (BEM) [5,6]. BEM theory is essentially a one-
dimensional (1-D) simplified theory that is routinely used by
fan blade designers because it provides a reasonably accurate
prediction of performance. The BEM theory has been proven to
give good accuracy with respect to time and cost [7], and has
sufficed for blade geometry optimization [8]. The theory is
comprised of two different approaches: one approach considers
the aerodynamic forces acting on a local airfoil, and the other Fig. 2. View of a Pratt and Whitney (PW)–GTF engine [10].
 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11 3

overall engine weight reduction, and reduced fuel consumption, the most vulnerable part of the engine [14]. The working principle
thus providing operational cost savings to the airlines that of fan blades can also be characterized using Newton’s second law
operate them. A hollow titanium blade might have a metal foam of physics. In order to generate more thrust force, one can either
material within its core [12]. This provides better flexural rigidity increase the mass of air flowing into the engine by increasing the
and more stiffness in the event of a bird impact strike. Further- fan diameter or by accelerating more air into the engine. The air
more, in a detailed NASA technical memorandum [13], the that passes through the engine is typically considered the primary
authors point out that a 30% hollowing in a hollow fan blade airstream whereas the air that passes through the fan blades is
results in about a 13–16% decrease in torsional rigidity compared considered the secondary airstream. Fan blades also function to
to a solid blade design. Hollow fan blades are more favorable reduce total engine damage from the ingestion of various foreign
for larger engines since the trade-off of extra thickness is not objects such as birds by radially deflecting outward such objects
as detrimental. Additionally, accommodating the increasing rather than passing them through to the core parts of the engine.
number of manufacturing tolerances into the design becomes Bird and foreign object impact is discussed later. Although fan
manageable. blades are not essential for a jet engine to be functional, they
Fan blades can also be designed to have shrouds as shown in supply additional air to the engine, thereby producing more
Fig. A1. Mid-chord shrouds are good structurally in terms of thrust. The turbofan is the most widely-used jet engine with a
structural stiffness but are aerodynamically inefficient. Wide chord fan at the inlet of the engine, and is configured as either a high
fan blades such as that shown in Fig. A2 (Appendix A), have bypass or low bypass engine design. A turbojet, on the other hand,
eliminated the need for shrouds, while improving hail, ice, and bird is a much older type of engine design with no bypass air, wherein
ingestion tolerance, and keeping debris out of the engine core as all the airflow enters at the inlet and is compressed as it travels
much as possible. The best choice of fan blade design-type depends through rows of rotating blades in the engine. A shift to high
on design metrics established for the overall jet engine. A solid and bypass turbofan engines from turbojet engines has been driven
thicker fan blade is heavier. Thin blades are ideal from an aero- not only by the need for more thrust but for lower specific fuel
dynamic perspective, whereas thicker blades are important structu- consumption.
rally with respect to impact and vibratory stress tolerance. Another aspect of fan blade design is the dovetail/single tooth
The working principle of a fan blade is based on the difference attachment. The dovetail can have a straight or curved (skewed)
in air velocity between the concave and convex sides of the blade. geometry design. In structural analysis, the design or geometry
The airfoil shape or geometry experiences a gas velocity at the tends to play a role in dissipating high stress areas in the fan blade
convex side of the blade that is locally higher than at the concave body. The dovetail attachment of fan blades as shown in Fig. A1
side of the blade, thus causing a pressure difference. The fan (Appendix A), are used to secure the blades to the hub or disk
blades spin to accelerate a mass of air into the engine to generate (Fig. 3.) They represent critical locations for stress fields, fatigue
thrust that propels the aircraft forward. Approximately 80% of the damage initiation, and crack propagation zones [15]. A key
thrust produced by a modern jet engine is delivered by the fan. contributor to fatigue in dovetail attachments is a pinching
The fan is thus one of the most critical parts of the engine, and is mechanism [16] that occurs during unloading when friction is

Fig. 3. Typical fan blade disk/hub attachment [17].

4 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11

present. Slipping leads to contact shear stresses that behave in materials. Titanium’s excellent tensile and yield strength combined
classical Hertzian contact with peak values obeying the Hertzian with its low density results in the highest strength-to-weight ratio
contact stress equations [16]. Another important phenomenon of any of today’s structural metals. Particularly, alloyed titanium is
that causes wear on the dovetail occurs when the aircraft is as strong as some steels, yet its density is only 56% that of steel. This
parked and the engine is not operational. Windmilling of the fan is titanium’s prime advantage for use in jet engine fan blades.
blades rotates the blades within the slots of the rotor causing Furthermore, low density, combined with natural corrosion resis-
them to rattle and, produce a clanking sound in the process. tance, gives titanium advantages over other materials in hostile
Rattling essentially occurs only at low rotational speeds. Rattling operating environments. Titanium is a reactive metal, meaning it
is an even greater problem for high aspect ratio fan blades. spontaneously forms a natural oxide film (mainly TiO2) in the
At high rotational speeds, the centrifugal forces on the blade are presence of oxygen. When there is air or water in a process stream
sufficient to keep the blade tips moving circumferentially with or environment, the oxide film forms and protects the metal from
respect to each other such that they don’t come into contact. corrosive attack. If the film is scratched or damaged, it re-oxidizes
On the other hand, at low rotational speeds, forces such as gravity and thus ‘‘repairs’’ itself.
overpower the centrifugal forces causing the blades to move However, after thousands of operating hours titanium can
circumferentially with respect to each other. It is safe to say that accumulate damage. Damage observed in service includes high
in such designs, rattling can cause the blade tips to touch or come strain LCF, FOD, wear and fretting. FOD is the predominant mode
into contact creating a potential to damage the fan blades and the of damage for a fan blade, and rare FOD beyond repairable limits
blade tips in particular, both of which are unwanted outcomes. can lead to its removal from service with considerable low cycle
Summarily, rattling can lead to significant wear, and result in fatigue life remaining.
fracture along the blade’s dovetail. Various design features
are added by the different engine manufacturers to minimize
3.2. Composite and metal matrix composite materials
this wear.
The fan blade is then attached to a hub or disk that is driven by
Composite materials are fast becoming a unique material
a turbine via a central shaft. The shaft runs through the centerline
choice due to their high strength-to-density ratios, which can
of the engine and connects all the major engine components
reduce the weight of fan blade structures. Composites fan blades
together. In the geared turbo-fan (GTF) architecture, this scheme
can achieve overall engine weight savings of up to 1000 lbs. When
is different in the sense that it consists of a geared ducted fan
combined with a composite containment system, the weight
powered by a smaller diameter turbojet engine mounted behind
savings become very significant on an aircraft. The GE—GEnx
it. Fig. 3 shows a cross-section of a fan blade in a hub disk.
engine is a prime example of the use of composite materials for
fan blades. The composite blade body is reinforced with a metal
3. Material choices for fan blades (e.g., titanium) LE and metal cladding, resulting in outstanding
lightness, improved strength and the ability to resist damage.
The materials used in the construction of fan blades are similar This benefit is further multiplied for fan blades for which a lower
to those used in other rotating machinery. Hence the fan blade is mass translates into lower centrifugal loads and stresses. The
composed of materials that are relatively common structural stiffness-to-density ratio of composite material is also more than
materials with extensive engineering applications and databases three times that of steel, aluminum, or titanium. Improving
available in the engineering field. Such materials are character- the aerodynamic efficiency of composite blades to be as efficient
ized by their damage tolerance, ductility, high cycle fatigue (HCF) as titanium blades represents an ongoing and future area of
strength, and yield strength. It is possible for stresses to be high in research. For components that are deflection limited or vibration
fan blade structures, which can be negated by stronger materials. limited, a new realm of design is now available. Metal matrix
A pound saved in a fan blade inherently means that lighter composite (MMC) materials are still too expensive for wider
supporting structures become feasible including disks, bearings, applications in fan blade structures, even though they provide
and bearing supports, which in turn can affect airplane structures good structural properties although some researchers [18]
such as pylons, wings, and the fuselage. Appropriate and accurate have evaluated the use of titanium MMC materials in fan
material data knowledge is important to the structures engineer. blades. Their results showed an overweight blade with low
This paper emphasizes materials that have been more dominant frequencies.
or represent potential future material choices in fan blades. The
three large turbofan engine original equipment manufacturers 3.3. Hybrid-metallic materials
(OEM-s)—GE, PW and RR have typically used titanium-based
materials in fan blade design and manufacturing. Recently, GE Hybrid-metallic structures, which exploit unique properties of
has employed composite materials and PW exploits the use of different materials to improve the structural integrity of fan
hybrid-metallic construction. blades in specific areas (e.g, the LE), are becoming popular for
the fabrication of fan blades and other aircraft structures. They
3.1. Titanium represent a new frontier in fan blade materials. Hybrid-metallic
materials, as described in Aviation Week [19] are currently being
Titanium is a versatile metal for fan blade fabrication, due to developed by PW to provide both weight and structural benefits.
its intrinsic metallurgical properties, ready availability, low life They combine the structural LE stiffness of a titanium fan blade
cycle cost, and ease of fabrication. The initially higher cost of with the lightness of a composite or hollow titanium design.
titanium can be regained several-fold by savings resulting from Unlike composite materials, hybrid-metallic materials are easier
longer component life and corresponding reduction in equipment to transfer among designs, meaning they are well-suited to the
maintenance and aircraft downtime. fabrication of fan blades of any size or dimension. Hybrid-metallic
Titanium fan blades have historically shown good performance construction makes fan blades more tolerant to bird impact
due to the metal’s unique combination of mechanical, corrosion and strikes and reduces costs. Research efforts to promote the greater
physical properties. In some cases, titanium enhances performance applicability of hybrid-metallic materials to fan blade structures
so dramatically that it is worth the higher cost compared to other are recommended. Nonetheless, significant efforts have been
 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11 5

made to ensure the durability and long service life of these prediction of the influence of design changes on stresses and
materials. strains acting on the fan blade under operating conditions. Mode
shapes and frequencies of vibration can be predicted to further
3.4. Challenges and the future of materials for fan blades evaluate the structural integrity of the blade, and the results
obtained are compared to empirical studies or correlated with
Cost, weight, and aerodynamic efficiency still constitute the test results.
main challenges to fan blade material selection. The high strength Fan blades must be designed for good aerodynamic perfor-
and stiffness of composite materials combined with the ability to mance coupled with structural durability. This is achieved best
tailor the material to specific aerodynamic loads have led to their through aerodynamic and structural design iterations [22]. To
increased use in fan blades. Carbon and glass fiber composite derive candidate optima in the most efficient manner, blade
materials could represent the future of fan blade materials due to optimizations are performed using procedures of approximate
their weight and structural rigidity benefits. The costs of these analysis [22]. The qualifying factors for a given approximation
composite materials are decreasing due to their increasingly as well as a refined analysis are their agreement with a prescribed
wide-spread application in wind turbine blade structures. Realiz- tolerance. In the event of discrepancies, the analysis is recali-
ing the full potential of hybrid-metallic materials, will require brated by using a structural optimization process. Another impor-
improving their properties, and developing novel ways to further tant fan blade parameter is the stress stiffening or geometric
employ the unique features of a combination of other materials stiffening effect. The authors in [23] describe how the FEM can be
for demanding structural applications in a cost-effective way. used to study geometric centrifugal stiffening. They indicate that
Nano-phase aluminum alloys which offer improved stress and the finite element absolute nodal coordinate formulation can be
fatigue capabilities also represent a strong future prospect for fan effectively employed in the investigation of centrifugal stiffening
blades. Continued research efforts to develop alternative and effects that occur in systems under rotation. The authors in [24]
cost-effective materials that can be employed without sacrificing reviewed and compared different formulations that character-
performance are needed. ize stress stiffening in blade structures wherein FEA plays a
significant role.
Understanding the origins of stress and strain distributions is
4. Fan blade structural analysis—the structural design process crucial to increasing the durability of components under dynamic
loading. The forces that act upon blades in operation exert stress
Structural mechanics and analysis techniques have progressed and strain on their elements. The stress and strains affecting the
immensely over the last 40 years. This progress is attributable to the fan blades can be evaluated both numerically and experimentally
revolution in computing power. Structural modeling and analysis using various impact and non-impact tests [25].
are very important in determining the temporal variations of loads, Stress analysis results in a typical fan blade study can reveal
and identifying the locations at which fractures are most likely to issues such as an over-compression of the centrifugal bending
occur. Techniques such as computational fluid dynamics now allow moment or a bad contact condition. This type of analysis is often
for improvements in both aerodynamic efficiency and structural carried out and evaluated using FEA because the robustness of the
integrity. Detailed and overall knowledge of the behavior of a methodology is well established and the results can be correlated
structure through analysis allows for design conceptualization and with both experimental data and engine rig test data to establish
optimization for performance. The structural design process involves confidence in the results.
the careful selection of materials and the accurate positioning of It is well established that damage due to vibration is asso-
these materials into a structurally sound configuration. The process ciated with fluctuating strain. Thus, the strain on a rotating fan
usually starts with a theoretical model and assumptions that guide blade can effectively be modeled from empirical methods and
the early stages of development. The authors in [20] suggest that computational fluid dynamics to predict response amplitude [26].
when designing blades, there must be a negotiation between the To ensure adequate dynamic and fatigue strength, it is important
natural frequencies, thickness, number of blades (efficiency), geo- to measure and quantify the dynamic strain distributions in a fan
metrical tolerance, strength, impact, and toughness. Aerodynamic blade. The tangential and radial components of the stress values
and structural design studies must be carried out simultaneously for can be evaluated using the stress and strain equations that are
each of the aforementioned design metrics to better understand part of FEA software packages such as ANSYS.
their effects on a fan blade structure until the structural response is Fan blades are under continuous steady and vibratory loads
deemed acceptable. The only way to ensure that the cost and lead while in operation. Steady loads such as the centrifugal pull
time are kept at acceptable levels, is to apply structural optimization load and torque are first assessed, analyzed and determined.
techniques, thus ensuring that all sets of design parameters are The centrifugal pull load is dependent on the span-wise mass
adequately accounted for and fully evaluated. Table A1 (Appendix A) distribution of the blade. The torque load is dependent on the
shows some salient features of the layout of the structural design span-wise mass distribution, chord-wise mass distribution, and
and validation process. The ultimate objective is to transition toward pre-twist of the blade [27]. Aerodynamic loads are another torque
multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO), wherein multidisci- load contributor to fan blade operation.
plinary teams and systems coordinate simultaneously to achieve a Vibration or vibratory loads are driven by numerous influences.
globally optimum fan blade. Vibratory failures account for more than 60% of total aero-engine
failures, with blade failures accounting for 70% of vibration-related
4.1. Finite element analysis—stress, strain and loads in fan blade failures [28]. Vibratory loads and critical speed placements govern
structures the structural design. These loads include forced excitation (aero-
dynamic), and installation dynamics. Inlet flow distortion, inlet
Structural analysis based on finite element analysis (FEA) vortex, altitude effects and thrust reverser operation can also lead
remains the dominant methodology used to approximate the to significant vibrations in fan blades and are evaluated during
structural dynamic characteristics of vibrating mechanical sys- engine tests. Structural dynamic modeling via FEA is used to
tems [21]. FEA allows for an understanding of the distribution of determine the magnitudes of both the steady and vibratory forces
loads from aerodynamic gas loads, centrifugal effects, and hetero- on the fan blades. This approach is based on the concept of
geneous temperature variations that occur during flights, and approximating the modal amplitudes (eigenvectors) and frequencies
6 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11

(eigenvalues) of the blade. Vibratory stresses are critical when they altering the structural stiffness. Regardless of the methodology a
show resonance in a structure, as this can be very damaging. designer chooses to employ, cost and manufacturing constraints
For clarity and further evaluation of vibratory effects, a Campbell can be the driving factors, and must be thoroughly evaluated.
diagram is used to determine where resonance caused by driver In future research, frictional damping techniques, which can
crossings exists, and to improve the design. The Campbell diagram is effectively reduce the resonance amplitude of interest, will also
also a measure of how the frequencies are been tuned. The integral need to be explored. Empirical models and designs do not
platform mentioned earlier and shown in Fig. A1 is not a common confidently predict blade vibration levels and as such the assess-
feature of fan blades but can be beneficial for tuning blade ment of vibration performance can only be achieved through
frequency. Integral platforms tend to cause stress risers, requiring comprehensive engine testing.
a need to add thickness but overall their integration into fan blade LCF is also of concern for fan blades and refers to the mode of
design reduces weight because they also effect a weight reduction in material degradation that occurs when strains are introduced into
the hub. an engine element as a consequence of the service environment.
Vibration-induced fatigue can also affect the optimal operation LCF is characterized by a rather high amplitude level with low
of fan blades as a result of acoustic-structural coupling. To frequency plastic strains. LCF of fan blades is evaluated to
determine whether the steady or vibratory loads of fan blades determine flight cycle life of the blade. Summarily, iterations of
are within defined acceptable limits, a Goodman diagram is used fan blades are performed to optimize the fan blade at LCF
to plot the steady versus vibratory stresses in order to determine conditions.
which component of the stress needs to be dissipated. When It is always important to understand why any structural
structural optimization measures do not yield the desired out- analysis of a design is being performed and how they interact.
come another approach is to dampen the stresses through the The structural analysis is not intended to just have an under-
application of damping materials. Developing and incorporating standing of how much stress is allowable. As fan blade designs
low cost damping materials into a blade without creating internal progress from preliminary to detailed design phase, the stress
and localized stress concentrations remains a challenge. The magnitude is not of great concern but rather the failure modes
damping material is placed in areas of high modal strain energy. along with any built in conservative assumptions. Such conserva-
The authors in [29] applied damping materials to composite fan tive assumptions are important in the preliminary phase and tend
blades developed by NASA and PW, and the authors in [30] to be eliminated as the design process evolves in order to achieve
applied a similar technique to compressor blisks with significant an optimal blade design. Modeling, lab testing, and engine testing
improvement in damping levels. However, efforts need to be are essential to obtain data that ensures a blade is certifiable and
made to reduce the cost of the damping material and the cost of more importantly safe to operate for the lifetime of an engine.
the manufacturing process.
Why do fan blades undergo a rigorous process of structural 4.2. Dynamic stability—flutter
analysis for optimal performance? Fan blades are fatigue-critical
structures that must be strong enough to withstand applied loads Flutter is an aero-structural self-excited vibration that leads
without fracturing. Therefore the ultimate strength must be suffi- to an undesired instability and is common with fan blades—
cient to withstand the extreme loads and the fatigue strength must especially flexible and un-shrouded blades. Flutter may also be
be sufficient to withstand the time-varying loads under different influenced by the acoustic properties of the inlet duct, and usually
operating conditions throughout the intended life of the blade. Due occurs in the 1st bending and 1st torsion modes. Accurate
to the high kinetic energy stored in moving fan blades, fatigue cracks determination of flutter boundaries has remained a challenging
can lead to uncontained damage. Any structure that undergoes problem. It is important in flutter modeling to capture both the
repeated loading is bound to fail if not properly designed, especially global and local characteristics occurring in the blades or structure
at a lower load than expected. This implies that at take-off condi- of interest. Another critical requirement of flutter analysis is the
tions when the fan blade load is maximum, fracture may not occur; determination of steady-state flow near the stall boundary. Turbu-
however, fracture could occur at cruise condition, where there is lence modeling and the choice of imposed boundary conditions
reduced load, due to turbulence or vibration. This indicates that the (e.g. fixed pressure versus fixed mass flow) plays a role in the
limiting vibratory stress does not necessarily occur at take-off speed. convergence of the numerical simulation. Flutter stability can be
Two main types of fatigue affect fan blades: low cycle fatigue (LCF) derived from the work (positive or negative) done by the general-
and high cycle fatigue (HCF). ized aerodynamic force on the blade [33]. Negative work indicates
HCF is characterized by a low level of high frequency elastic a transfer of energy from the blade to the flow, and positive work
strains such as the strains that occur in fan blades subjected to indicates a transfer of energy from the flow to the blade. Flutter
repetitive bending. HCF occurs at stress levels below the yield analysis mainly uses both the energy and the time-domain analysis
strength of the material where deformation is elastic. HCF has methods. The energy method accounts for the aerodynamic action,
long been considered one of the main causes of fan blade failure. and time-domain analysis accounts for the fluid-structure interac-
This fatigue failure is related to repetition of the load cycling on tion (FSI) for unsteady flow in order to define the vibrational
the structural member, or to excessive resonant blade stresses. displacements. In commercial fan blades, the modes are highly
The exact relation between stress magnitudes and fatigue life coupled and relatively close to each other, thus raising the
depends on the material properties of the fan blade. HCF is possibility for flutter. The unstable, excited, and forced vibrations
avoided by reduction of vibratory stresses in the design, and by of fan blades must be avoided at all cost in design for high
tuning to avoid natural frequencies with known vibratory drivers. performance, and to avoid catastrophic fracture. Due to transonic
HCF of fan blades is evaluated to understand vibration capability tip speeds and a relatively flexible tip, supersonic flutter could also
of the blade at regular and extreme load conditions. A properly occur in the fundamental modes of fan blades.
designed fan blade can dramatically reduce fatigue problems and In the normal operation of fan blades, incidents of non-
this can be achieved by using the Campbell diagram as a guide, as uniformity of the flow field/distortion, flutter, and interaction of
previously described. Piezoelectric materials for damping vibra- blade rows have been shown to result in structural fracture. It is
tions and reducing the dangers of HCF have attracted attention. possible for designers of fan blades to consider the aeroelastic
The authors in [31,32] employed this technique to detune a property of the affected materials to ensure that high perfor-
resonant natural frequency from the excitation frequency by mance blades are designed. Stall flutter (SF) which involves the
 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11 7

Fig. 4. Schematic of compressor performance showing flutter boundaries [26].

excitation of the 1st bending mode caused by coupling between Demonstration of fan blade resistance to bird strikes, impacts from
the 1st bending mode and the oscillatory nature of the separated hail and ice ingestion, FOD and containment of an FBO event, are
flow, is of the greatest concern. The 2nd mode is also of concern crucial structural criteria for airworthiness certification by the FAA
since it is a bending/torsion coupled mode. The true torsion mode and other authorities. Bird strike incidents costs the US civil aviation
is the 3rd mode and this has not been a major issue for industry over $1.2 billion annually [43]. Current regulations require
commercial fan blades. Some other important forms of flutter that about 75% of takeoff thrust must be maintained by the engine in
experienced in fan blades include (1) unstalled flutter (UF), which the event of an impact strike from a 2.5 pound bird for the first
occurs when aerodynamic forces active on the fan blade’s surface twenty minutes after impact [44]. Other criteria exist for larger birds
are unsteady; (2) supersonic unstalled flutter (SUF) and super- [44]. Components including the fan, core compressor blading, guide
sonic stalled flutter (SSF) which are experienced by the blades vanes, and nacelle can be severely affected by a bird strike leading to
when the blade relative mach number is at a speed higher than the total loss of thrust by one or more engines on an aircraft. Foreign
the speed of sound; (3) transonic stalled flutter (TSF) is similar to object impacts can cause plastic deformation and fracture of the fan
subsonic stalled flutter but with the blade tips at a transonic blade that reduces the strength of the structure and total or partial
Mach number; and (4) Choke flutter (CF) is experienced when the loss of thrust. Even minor damage to the fan blade can result in
incidence angle becomes reversed at high flow rates that even- engine unbalance. Complex FEM using the software package LS-DYNA
tually leads to flow separation on the fan blade and this could lead is used to evaluate and analyze the failure modes for an impact strike.
to a very damaging outcome. However, in fan blade testing, choke Smooth particle hydrodynamics (SPH), the arbitrary Lagrangian-
flutter is rarely seen and it is a type of flutter that is rather Eulerian (ALE) technique, and the Lagrangian technique are common
difficult to determine. Fig. 4 shows some flutter boundaries. numerical techniques used to characterize and analyze a bird strike
Regardless of the mode of flutter experienced during the on a fan blade. A similar CFD procedure as mentioned in Section 4.2
testing and validation of fan blades, all the modes inherently can also be employed for full wheel unsteady CFD analysis to assess
occur when the dynamic structural force and their phasing in vortex shedding of damaged airfoils after bird impact tests to better
relation to aerodynamic loads transfer energy into the dynamic understand vibration responses.
system such that it exceeds the energy dissipated by structural The bird is essentially treated as a fluid particle or Lagrangian
damping. Currently, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is the particle in which the fluid flow can be described by the incom-
primary tool for the prediction of flutter. The interaction or pressible Navier–Stokes equations.
interplay of both CFD and structural analysis occurs in the realm The authors in [45] evaluated and compared these three
of structural dynamics/aeroelasticity specifically for Non-Integral methodologies and concluded that while there are similarities,
Vibration (NIV) and Shedding Induced Vibration (SIV) of fan the Lagrangian method is preferable. Results obtained often agree
blades. The structural analysis of blade frequency and mode quite well with experimental results [46]. Fig. 5 shows an ALE
shapes supplement unsteady CFD analysis to predict such para- computer model of a bird strike on fan blades. Integral platforms
meters as aerodynamic damping or fan blade flutter. This further as mentioned earlier are advantageous in terms of bird impact as
allows for the prediction of flutter boundaries that are later they allow the blade to have greater impact capability.
verified during rigorous engine test. Summarily, flutter is assessed Fan blade out (FBO) is another class of impact dynamic analysis,
to ensure that there is enough margin such that this destructive and is a highly nonlinear event. FAA regulations indicate that in the
phenomenon does not occur. event of an FBO event, the engine must stay on its mounts without
any uncontained blade fragments and without catching fire when
operated for at least 15 s [44]. When an FBO event occurs, the
5. Impact dynamics analysis dynamic loads on the engine can be classified as follows [47]:

A separate section on impact dynamics analysis is essential as it is a. Large amplitude impact type of transient loading generated inside
a unique body of work critical for fan blade certification. US Airways the engine due to the released blade hitting the containment case
flight 1549 which crash-landed on the Hudson River on January 15, and from the blade root coming in contact with the trailing blade.
2009, was brought down six minutes after take-off by impact strikes b. Rotating load vector being applied on the fan rotor due to the
from a flock of Canadian geese during the initial climb-out. unbalance caused by the missing blade.
8 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11

allowing both static and dynamic strain gages to verify the steady
stress and frequency predictions. This allows for the adjustment
of the finite element analysis based on real data.
Optical techniques [37] have become a more acceptable
method for measuring strain in laboratories and at stable condi-
tions. Methods such as scanning laser Doppler vibrometry, digital
image correlation and x-ray tomography are the more common
techniques for strain measurements. However, optical techniques
are not used for documenting dynamic stresses for certification of
fan blades. Strain gages are still the method used and it is unclear
whether optical methods can be used on a full engine test stand
to measure strain effectively.
Furthermore, Non-intrusive stress measurement system (NSMS)
or blade tip timing (BTT) is a vibration measurement technology
used to identify vibrations in blades by measuring the passing
times of a blade tip from a reference point, once per revolution.
This approach provides more information about the blade
than other established techniques. The technique was first devel-
oped and proposed in a landmark work by Zablotskiy and
Fig. 5. Computer model of bird impact strike on fan blades (ALE approach) [45].
Korostelev [38]. Several researchers have subsequently employed
the technique with a high degree of success [39–41]. The system
employs blade tip sensors that are used to monitor behavior as
The authors in [47] also used an integrated implicit-explicit- well as diagnose problems. Characteristic parameters such as
implicit methodology to analyze an FBO event using MD Nastran blade displacement, velocity, and acceleration are derived from
software to map the FBO forces. They concluded that although good measured data. The combination of dynamic strain gages and
results were achieved, further developments were needed to cap- NSMS process further provides data on vibratory response at a
ture the full physics of the unbalances induced after an FBO event. variety of simulated real flight conditions for engine certification.
We also note that in the event of a FBO scenario, a fan blade Such vibratory measurements are essential to scaling of stress/
designed with an integral platform tends to create a more challen- deflections of FEA predictions. Additionally, the dynamic strain
ging containment scenario by having a larger release of blade mass. gages and NSMS process are also essential for evaluating fan
Lastly, hail and ice ingestion is an issue for fan blade structural stability (e.g. surge, flutter, etc).
integrity. The engine is required to handle the impact of multiple Noise filtering of the data being collected and methodologies
large foreign bodies (2 in. or more) and operate effectively while for data reduction in a more efficient and seamless way remains
ingesting a large quantity of melted hail. Impact dynamics tests and areas for improvement in NSMS analysis. The sensors used in
studies are used to demonstrate blade integrity, ensure safety, and conjunction with NSMS in test cells also measure blade reso-
provide confidence to the customer or airliners that operate jet nance, detect cracks and detect damage due to impact with
engines daily. The threats of bird strikes and foreign object ingestion foreign objects. In practice, NSMS is also an important tool to
are a top safety issue in modern engine design and manufacturing. detect flutter in fan blades. Continued development of NSMS as an
Developing accurate and reliable numerical tools to assess bird on-the-wing tool for the prognosis and structural health monitor-
impact resistance and establish a standardized bird model for finite ing of blade structures represents a key area for continued
element analysis is important for the future. Interested readers may research. Studies and tests are ongoing to further develop NSMS
further review this topic in greater detail in [48–50]. for on-board structural health monitoring applications [42]. Some
of the steps commonly employed in the validation process of fan
blades are manifested in Table A1.
6. Fan blade testing and validation Summarily, data obtained from various engine types serves as
a database of inputs for future preliminary fan blade designs and
Strain gages are still the most commonly used method of to better predict vibratory stress responses.
measuring strains in a structure. Strain gage reliability is an area
that has attracted extensive experimental inquiry [34]. While
small strains can be measured, drawbacks exist in strain gage 7. Likely future development for improved structural health
applications. These are summarized [35,36] as follows: and possible constraints to benefits from R&D

a. The measurement of strains is limited to the specific location In the short to mid-term, titanium, hybrid-metallic and com-
of the strain gage. posite materials will continue to remain the materials of choice
b. Placement of the gage is time consuming and in a structure for fan blades. It is expected that new materials will emerge in the
such as a fan blade where many gages must be applied, strain future. Improved materials will enhance the structural durability
gages and their connecting wires can create an additional mass of fan blades since they are only as durable as the materials used
loading effect and added damping. to manufacture them. Also in order to achieve lighter designs at
c. The exact positioning of strain gages on a fan blade ranges ever increasing load levels, material engineers and scientists will
from challenging to nearly impossible since the strain maxima be required to develop materials with improved capabilities and
can deviate from predicted locations for several reasons, one of that are cost-effective. In the long-term, nano-based materials for
which is variation in manufacturing. fan blade structures will be critical for performance and low
maintenance. Also, innovative and truly game-changing fan blade
Where FEA analysis functions to predict both fundamental designs remain a real prospect and advanced work continues on
mode frequencies and steady stresses, they fall short by only ways to achieve this. In fact, innovative efforts that offer sub-
providing the eigenvalues for modal deflection/stresses thus stantial improvements while deflecting technical risks such as
 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11 9

manufacturing remain plausible. Next-generation fan blades will It can almost be very easy to develop future fan blades with
be expected to show superior aerodynamic efficiency, employ exceptional aerodynamic performance. However, will such a
environmentally and lighter-weight materials and show superior blade be structurally durable and can it meet, pass and exceed
structural performance characteristics. Such improvements will the certification requirements of regulatory authorities? The
make a significant difference on an aircraft in terms of fuel constraints to benefits realized through current R&D initiatives
economy and meeting increasingly stringent international envir- will be in the continued demand for low cost structural design
onmental standards. and manufacturing techniques that improve thrust-specific fuel
Fan blade repair, replacement and maintenance, will continue consumption, performance life of fan blades and overall engine
to be high priorities for airline operators in terms of next- performance with no detrimental structural effects. The cost-
generation fan blade designs. This implies that novel ways of benefit trade-offs of any new technology or technique must be
detecting damage, (without non-destructive testing), that are good enough for practical applications.
based on visual detection and special damage coatings will be
required to mature next-generation fan blades and to ensure
operational validity. 8. Conclusion
Structural modeling, optimization techniques and dynamic
analysis in the design process that provides a robust platform Aviation transport is vital to the global economy today. In the
will also be important in the future. A simplified and inexpensive years ahead, air travel between new and existing urban centers will
on-board or on-the-wing monitoring technology for structural continue to increase, as evidenced by today’s strong demand for
health improvement also constitutes a significant area of need for new and more efficient aircraft. Continued efforts to make it more
fan blade research that will ensure better designs and improved sustainable, efficient, and safer will be important for the foreseeable
sustainability of jet engines. The ability to control the flow around future. Opportunities exist to better predict the structural behavior
the blade to expend energy; modify the flow to increase lift and of fan blades. Designers and structures engineers rely on a combi-
reduce drag without detrimental structural effects constitute nation of numerical analysis, rig and engine tests to establish
future initiatives that will require rigorous R&D efforts. confidence in fan blade designs. Optimization of the structural

Fan blade shroud

Fan blade
body/airfoil

Fan blade
LE

Fan blade
Fan blade integral TE
platform

Fan blade dovetail or

single tooth
attachment

Fig. A1. Fan blade with shrouds and integral platform [51].

Polyurethane, applied
coating for reduced
wear

Fan blade TE

Titanium LE for
-ingestion and bird
strike protection
-Serviceability Fan blade body/airfoil
-Replaceability

Fig. A2. A wide chord GE fan blade with no shrouds [52].

10 L.M. Amoo / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 60 (2013) 1–11

Table A1
Salient features of the structural design process.

Preliminary - Define aerodynamic - Create - Structures - Update - Structures assessment and

phase loads FEM analysis FEM review
model model
k
Detailed phase - Goodman and steady - Campbell - Geometry - Fatigu, - Inlet flow/ - Tip - Final structural
stress assessment check and iterative fracture surge sensitivity check
flutter improvement and stress & and growth
analysis lifing deflection calculation
analysis analysis and studies
k
Verification - Define structural test - model - Engine - Analyze - Establish - Verification and
and and instrumentation and or rig engine serviceable validation
validation plans analyze tests and/or and repair certification
phase as- rig tests limits
produced &
blades calibrate
models

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