Restauración Del Ecosistema de Humedales PDF

Atul Kumar Upadhyay · Ranjan Singh
D. P. Singh Editors
Restoration of Wetland
Ecosystem: A Trajectory
Towards a Sustainable
Environment
Restoration of Wetland Ecosystem: A Trajectory
Towards a Sustainable Environment
Atul Kumar Upadhyay • Ranjan Singh
D. P. Singh
Editors
Restoration of Wetland
Ecosystem: A Trajectory
Towards a Sustainable
Environment
Editors
Atul Kumar Upadhyay Ranjan Singh
Department of Environmental Science Department of Environmental Science
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
(A Central University) (A Central University)
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
D. P. Singh
Department of Environmental Science
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University
(A Central University)
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
ISBN 978-981-13-7664-1 ISBN 978-981-13-7665-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7665-8
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Foreword
Wetlands are house of rich biodiversity of plants and animals, and provide the
important ecosystem functions such as food stock, high carbon storage, availability
of nutrients, flood mitigation, water purification, aquifer recharge and climate resil-
ience. Wetlands need to be preserved, restored or constructed for managing the bio-
diversity, wildlife, pollution and non-point source of wastewaters. However, existing
wetlands undergo ageing, degradation, rapid infilling, shrinking area and other mul-
tiple anthropogenic pressures, which might have been caused by overexploitation,
mismanagement and injudicious use of naturally occurring wetland resources.
Natural resources are dwindling at faster rate, leading to alterations in the water
level, pollution load and other ecosystem functions. The management practices for
wetland conservation and restoration may involve minimization of induced pace of
wetland degradation caused by global warming, greenhouse gas emission and
anthropogenic interference. A paradigm shift in eco-restoration towards a more sus-
tainable wetland ecosystem is required, which enables the wetlands to provide food,
shelter, energy, species richness and sustainable growth.
The present book encompasses the area of expertise of the editors. The chapters
incorporated in this book cover a wide spectrum of wetland conservation, restora-
tion, sustainable development policies and regulation, carbon sequestration, biore-
mediation and crucial role of different group of microbes (Algae, Fungi and Bacteria)
in maintaining sustainable wetland functions such as biodiversity, waste remedia-
tion, nutrient cycling, biofuel generation, phytoremediation and carbon sequestra-
tion. The wetlands are considered good natural resources for environment
sustainability and for obtaining several cost-effective, value-added products required
for human welfare. The book also includes the applied role of constructed wetlands
designed to serve the specific purpose with the help of latest state of the art of engi-
neering and technology. The constructed wetlands have also started using various
bio-nanotechnologies for recovery and removal of recalcitrant materials and diffi-
cult pollutants from the wastewater. Overall, all the chapters are designed in a man-
ner which places major emphasis on the components, which provide a new insight
and elaborated information to the readers towards conservation of wetland resource.
I am confident that this book will benefit the readers with adequate information
v
vi Foreword
related to wetland ecosystem and its sustainable management. After going through
the contents of this book entitled Restoration of Wetland Ecosystem: A Trajectory
Towards a Sustainable Environment, edited by Dr. Atul Kumar Upadhyay, Mr.
Ranjan Singh and Dr. D. P. Singh, I am sure that the environmental scientists,
researchers, students and state-controlled agencies involved in the restoration and
management of wetland ecosystems would be highly benefitted. The editors have
performed commendable task in bringing out an exhaustive and informative volume
of information concerning the wetland function, restoration and management. I
extend my heartfelt compliments to the authors and editors.
Preface
The rising risk and consequence of environmental changes might lead to massive
loss to natural ecosystems and human population. This is a matter of serious con-
cern for global thinkers, environmentalists, scientists and policy makers. The dan-
gerous level of anthropogenic interference with extreme climate condition has
accentuated the loss of natural resources—a key ingredient of sustainable develop-
ment. There is an urgent need for restoration of the existing natural resources in
their present form and formulate strategies to ensure sustainable development of
both environment and society.
The present book entitled Restoration of Wetland Ecosystem: A Trajectory
Towards a Sustainable Environment incorporates a broad spectrum of information
and strategies required to achieve sustainable development. This book provides a
fresh outlook on application of green technologies related to management of waste-
water, pollutants, biodiversity, wetland restoration and ecosystem functions. The
present book encompasses holistic review on recent advances in the field of bioen-
ergy, green technology of bioremediation, biomass generation and nutrient cycling.
Wetlands are one of the most important ecosystems on the earth and are known to
be the largest store house of reserve carbon. They offer various ecosystem services
to human societies such as shock absorber of flash flood, water and carbon reserve,
water purifier, preservation of biodiversity and recreational resource for the people.
Wetlands may be categorized as both natural wetlands and constructed wetlands,
specifically designed for a particular purpose. The effectiveness of wetland services
is largely dependent on the hydrology of wetland, diversity of macrophytes and
microorganisms, other geoclimatic and environmental parameters such as pH, tem-
perature, dissolved oxygen and level of nutrients and carbon.
The major thematic areas in this book articulate the dynamic relation of three
global apprehensions: environmental pollution, resource exploitation and sustain-
ability. This book emphasizes on the utilization of resources, mitigation measures
for reduction of pollution load in the wastewater (municipal, industrial, agriculture,
mine drainage, tannery, etc.), harvesting of plant and algal biomass, and their appli-
cation as biofuel, biofertilizers and other value-added products. This book provides
elaborate information on the current trend and futuristic management of wetlands.
vii
viii Preface
This book tends to bring all the scattered information about the wetlands as natural
resource and throws new light on the future role of wetlands in sustainable develop-
ment of both environment and society, keeping in view the latest researches in the
field of wetland science, waste management, carbon sequestration and
bioremediation.
We thank all the contributors of this book for their valuable input in the form of
chapters, covering different components of wetland science.
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Atul Kumar Upadhyay

Ranjan Singh
D. P. Singh
Contents
1 Restoration, Construction, and Conservation of Degrading

Wetlands: A Step Toward Sustainable Management Practices �� 1
Ibha Suhani, Monika, Barkha Vaish, Pooja Singh,
and Rajeev Pratap Singh
2 Phytoremediation and Sustainable Developmental
Policies and Practices�� 17
Atul Kumar Upadhyay, Ranjan Singh, and D. P. Singh
3 Wetland as a Sustainable Reservoir of Ecosystem Services:
Prospects of Threat and Conservation �� 31
Govind Gupta, Jabbar Khan, Atul Kumar Upadhyay,
and Naveen Kumar Singh
4 Carbon Sequestration and Storage by Wetlands:
Implications in the Climate Change Scenario �� 45
Afreen J. Lolu, Amrik S. Ahluwalia, Malkiat C. Sidhu,
Zafar A. Reshi, and S. K. Mandotra
5 Wetlands: A Major Natural Source Responsible
for Methane Emission�� 59
Shashank Tiwari, Chhatarpal Singh, and Jay Shankar Singh
6 Wetlands Conservation and Restoration for Ecosystem
Services and Halt Biodiversity Loss: An Indian Perspective �� 75
Rima Kumari, S. K. Shukla, K. Parmar, Nirmali Bordoloi,
Amit Kumar, and P. Saikia
ix
x Contents
7 Microbes Biology: Microbes in Wetland

and Bioprospection of Microbes �� 87
Avinash Singh, Prashant Kumar Singh, Wenjing Wang,
and Alok Kumar Shrivastava
8 Contribution of Microbes in the Renovation of Wetlands�� 101
Prem Chandra, Enespa, and Mukesh Kumar
9 Phytoremediation: Role of Mycorrhiza
in Plant Responses to Stress�� 125
Bimal K. Chetri
10 Integrated Approach for Bioremediation
and Biofuel Production Using Algae�� 145
S. K. Mandotra, Afreen J. Lolu, Sunil Kumar, P. W. Ramteke,
and Amrik S. Ahluwalia
11 Dual Role of Microalgae: Phycoremediation Coupled
with Biomass Generation for Biofuel Production �� 161
Amit Kumar Singh, Harvesh Kumar Rana, Ravi Kumar Yadav,
and Abhay K. Pandey
12 Microalgae and Microorganisms: Important Regulators
of Carbon Dynamics in Wetland Ecosystem�� 179
Nisha Yadav and D. P. Singh
13 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals: A New Approach
to Sustainable Agriculture�� 195
Gereraj Sen Gupta, Garima Yadav, and Supriya Tiwari
14 Wastewater Treatment Through Nanotechnology:
Role and Prospects �� 227
Vivek K. Chaturvedi, Ankita Kushwaha, Shweta Maurya,
Nazish Tabassum, Himani Chaurasia, and M. P. Singh
Editors and Contributors
About the Editors
Atul Kumar Upadhyay is a scholar in the field of environmental science. He com-

pleted his Ph.D. in the field of phytoremediation and constructed wetland technol-
ogy from CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, jointly with
Kumaun University, Nainital, India in 2017. He received his post-graduation degree
from Dr. RML Avadh University, Faizabad, India, in Botany. He did his research in
construction and designing of wetland and plant-based management of different
water and soil pollution in different states of India and was involved in different
activities related to river water rejuvenation, wastewater treatment, wetland design-
ing and soil management. During his research, Dr. Upadhyay has published a num-
ber of research papers, articles, and chapters in the peer-reviewed journal of national
and international repute.
Currently, Dr. Upadhyay is working as a postdoctoral fellow on different aspects
of sustainable phytoremediation and bioenergy production (Science and Engineering
Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India) in the Department
of Environmental Science, BBAU (a central university), Lucknow, India.
Ranjan Singh is a senior Ph.D. student in the Department of Environmental
Science at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (a central university),
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. He received his B.Sc. degree in 2012 in Botany,
Zoology and Chemistry from VBS. Purvanchal University (VBSPU), Jaunpur, Uttar
Pradesh (UP), India, and MSc degree in 2014 in Environmental Science from
VBSPU, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh (UP), India. His research area includes plant physi-
ology, stress physiology and phycological-based biofuel production. The main
focus of his research work is the role of biomarker against the abiotic stress in
microalgae and its biofuel production potential. He has published original research
and review articles in peer-reviewed high-impact journals along with many national
and international book chapters and magazine articles on the wetland management,
biofuel crises along with sustainable management of pollutants present in soil and
water.
xi
xii Editors and Contributors
Prof. D. P. Singh the Ex-Head and Dean, School for Environmental Sciences,
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India, is an eminent scholar in
the field of Environmental Science. He received his Ph.D. from the Department of
Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. He has worked extensively in
the area of wastewater treatment, microbiology, stress physiology, bioremediation
and alternative energy options. He has received several honours and awards to his
credit, including more than 135 research publications in high-impact factor journals
of national and international repute. He has supervised more than 24 Ph.D. students
and several M.Sc. and M.Tech students in their research work. He has delivered
invited lectures in different seminars and symposia and served as a principal inves-
tigator for several governments funded projects. Dr. Singh has published five books
in the field of environmental microbiology and biotechnology, stress physiology
and sustainable management of soil and water.
Contributors
Amrik S. Ahluwalia Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

Nirmali Bordoloi Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of
Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Prem Chandra Department of Environmental Microbiology, School for
Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central) University,
Lucknow, UP, India
Vivek K. Chaturvedi Centre of Biotechnology, Institute of Interdisciplinary
Studies (IIDS), University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India
Himani Chaurasia Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad, Allahabad,
India
Bimal K. Chetri Department of Environmental and Life Sciences, Sherubtse
College, Royal University of Bhutan, Kanglung, Bhutan
Enespa Department of Plant Pathology, Mahesh Prasad Degree College, University
of Lucknow, Lucknow, UP, India
Govind Gupta Environmental Science Discipline, Department of Chemistry,
School of Basic Sciences, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, India
Jabbar Khan Environmental Science Discipline, Department of Chemistry,
School of Basic Sciences, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, India
Amit Kumar Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand,
Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Editors and Contributors xiii
Mukesh Kumar University Sophisticated Instrumentation Centre, Babasaheb

Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central) University, Lucknow, UP, India
Sunil Kumar Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
Rima Kumari Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of
Ankita Kushwaha Centre of Biotechnology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies
(IIDS), University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India
Afreen J. Lolu Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
S. K. Mandotra Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
Shweta Maurya Centre of Biotechnology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies
Monika Department of Environment and Sustainable Development, Institute of
Environment and Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu University
(BHU), Varanasi, India
Abhay K. Pandey Department of Biochemistry, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad, India
K. Parmar Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of
P. W. Ramteke Department of Biological Sciences, Sam Higginbottom University
of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Harvesh Kumar Rana Department of Biochemistry, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad, India
Zafar A. Reshi Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K,
India
P. Saikia Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand,
Gereraj Sen Gupta Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, India
Alok Kumar Shrivastava Department of Botany, Mahatma Gandhi Central
University, Motihari, Bihar, India
S. K. Shukla Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of
Malkiat C. Sidhu Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
Amit Kumar Singh Department of Biochemistry, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad, India
xiv Editors and Contributors
Avinash Singh Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical

University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
Chhatarpal Singh Department of Environmental Microbiology, School for
Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow,
India
D. P. Singh Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Jay Shankar Singh Department of Environmental Microbiology, School for
India
M. P. Singh Centre of Biotechnology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies (IIDS),
University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India
Naveen Kumar Singh Environmental Science Discipline, Department of
Chemistry, School of Basic Sciences, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, India
Pooja Singh Department of Science, Institute of Computer Science and Technology,
SHEPA, Varanasi, India
Prashant Kumar Singh State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Henan Key
Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Science, Henan University,
Kaifeng, Henan, China
Department of Vegetable and Fruit Science, Institute of Plant Science, Agriculture
Research Organization (ARO), The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
Rajeev Pratap Singh Department of Environment and Sustainable Development,
Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu
University (BHU), Varanasi, India
Ranjan Singh Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao
Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ibha Suhani Department of Environment and Sustainable Development, Institute
of Environment and Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu University
Nazish Tabassum Centre of Biotechnology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies
Shashank Tiwari Department of Environmental Microbiology, School for
India
Supriya Tiwari Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu
Editors and Contributors xv
Atul Kumar Upadhyay Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb

Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow, India
Barkha Vaish Department of Environment and Sustainable Development, Institute
of Environment and Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu University
Wenjing Wang State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Henan Key Laboratory
of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan,
China
Garima Yadav Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu
Nisha Yadav Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao
Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ravi Kumar Yadav Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Allahabad,
India
Chapter 1
Restoration, Construction,
and Conservation of Degrading Wetlands:
A Step Toward Sustainable Management
Practices
Ibha Suhani, Monika, Barkha Vaish, Pooja Singh, and Rajeev Pratap Singh
Abstract In the current scenario, the world is facing various water-related issues,
for instance, water shortage, degradation of water resources, pollution of aquatic
systems, and proliferation of waterborne diseases. Moreover, the condition is get-
ting worse in the developing economies because of the integrated effect of anthro-
pogenic activities, escalating demand of resources, and the population explosion. In
various developed countries, traditional centralized sewage treatment systems were
used for combating water pollution. With the advancement of technologies, waste-
water treatment (WWT) systems like activated sludge process, membrane separa-
tion, membrane bioreactors, etc. are being employed for treatment of water pollution.
However, these expensive systems are not feasible enough for the widespread appli-
cation along with they are not capable to treat water according to WWT standards.
Thus, it is imperative to shift toward the natural way of water purification. In order
to meet this demand, protection, restoration, and sustainable use of natural wetlands
are essential because of being big reservoir of water on the earth. The present chap-
ter comprehensively describes the importance of natural and artificial wetland (con-
structed wetland) for human beings toward achieving sustainable environment in a
simple, manageable, and cost-effective way.
Keywords Wetland · Wastewater · Constructed wetland · Sustainability ·

Restoration
I. Suhani · Monika · B. Vaish · R. P. Singh (*)

Department of Environment and Sustainable Development, Institute of Environment and
Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi, India
P. Singh
Department of Science, Institute of Computer Science and Technology, SHEPA,
Varanasi, India
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

A. K. Upadhyay et al. (eds.), Restoration of Wetland Ecosystem: A Trajectory
Towards a Sustainable Environment,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7665-8_1
2 I. Suhani et al.
1 Introduction
Wetlands are described as “the lands of transition zone between aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems where the land is covered by shallow water” (Mitsch and Gosselink
1986). The worldwide intergovernmental treaty on wetlands signed at Ramsar, Iran,
in 1971 includes marsh, fen, bog, peatland or flowing water, static water, and fresh,
salty, or brackish water whether artificial or natural areas of marine water (the depth
should be maximum 6 m at low tide) into the wetland (Bowman 2002). However, in
the Ramsar Convention, paddy fields, river channels, and anthropogenic water bodies
are not comprised in wetland. As wetlands have zoological, ecological, botanical,
hydrological, and limnological importance, they are categorized as “wetlands of inter-
national importance” underneath the Ramsar Convention (Frazier 1999). The Ramsar
Convention published an international report in 2013 in the Economics of Ecosystem
and Biodiversity for Water and Wetlands, which emphasizes on the need of shifting
our attitude toward wetland. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEFCC) in the notification on 26th September, 2017, has described wet-
lands as vital bodies of the ecosystems which support abundant biodiversity and help
in hydrological cycle. Wetlands provide a broad spectrum of services and resources to
the community, such as flood mitigation, water storage and purification, aesthetic
enrichment of landscapes, microclimate regulation, and cultural and social activities,
for recreational prospects and supporting cultural heritage (Clarkson et al. 2013).
Currently, wetlands are shrinking due to urbanization, population growth, climate
change, and land use alteration (Davis and Froend 1999; Ferrati and Canziani 2005;
Sebastiá-Frasquet et al. 2014). This might stimulate the qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of wetland ecosystems’ functions and services (Erwin 2009).
Generally, wetlands are mainly influenced by the social (anthropogenic) pressures
such as wastewater discharge, runoff from agriculture, and groundwater depletion by
abstraction of groundwater for the utilization of urban water supply and other agri-
cultural practices (Konikow and Kendy 2005). The majority of research has agreed
that there is urgency for coordination in an attempt to restore, protect, and manage
the wetland ecosystems (Hansson et al. 2005). To find the way for maintaining the
sustenance of wetland and the nature, numerous authorities from governmental and
nongovernmental levels should coordinate by forming policies and frameworks. In
both, the developed and developing nations, various frameworks, policies, and regu-
lations should be implemented to check the degradation of wetland.
1.1 Wetland Type (Ramsar Convention)
Under the umbrella of the Ramsar Convention, wetland types have been defined to
aid sharp recognition of the wetland habitats that correspond to every Ramsar site
(Table 1.1). Different codes have used to define wetland types. Ramsar sites are
dependent upon the Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type as approved by
1 Restoration, Construction, and Conservation of Degrading Wetlands: A Step Toward… 3
Table 1.1 Wetland type and their description
Peatland
• Found all over the world are thick water-logged soil layer made up of dead and decaying plant material.
• Include moors, mires, peat swamp forests, bogs, and permafrost tundra.
Rivers and Deltas
• Rivers originate as rain on high ground that flows downhill into creeks and streams.
• Deltas are found on the lower reaches of rivers, where the flow of water slows down and spreads out into expanses of wetlands and shallow water.
Mangrove forests
• Crossroad where oceans, freshwater, and land meet.
• Most complex ecosystems on the planet, growing under environmental conditions that would kill ordinary plants very quickly.
• Found in tropical and subtropical regions in tidal areas, which are frequently inundated with salt water.
Wetlands in dry regions
• Characterised by seasonal rainfall.

• Wetlands that retain water long after the rest of the landscape has dried out.
• Include rivers, swamps, and lakes and springs that dry up for portions of the year
High altitude wetlands
• Store water from rain and glacial melt, feed groundwater stores, trap sediments and recycle nutrients, enhancing both the quantity and quality of water.
Arctic wetlands
• Wetlands are the main ecosystem in the Arctic. These peatlands, rivers, lakes, and shallow bays cover nearly 60% of the total surface area.
• Store enormous amounts of greenhouse gases and are critical for global biodiversity.
• They are also the main source of livelihoods for local indigenous peoples.
Coastal Wetlands
• Found in the areas between land and open sea that are not influenced by rivers such as shorelines, beaches, mangroves and coral reefs.
Shallow lakes and ponds
• Areas of permanent or semi-permanent water with little flow.

• Include vernal ponds, spring pools, salt lakes and volcanic crater lakes.
• Small, shallow, intermittently flooded depressions in grasslands or forests, and are often only wet in winter and early spring.
Bogs
• Almost all water in bogs comes from rainfall

• These are waterlogged peatlands in old lake basins or depressions in the landscape
• Unsuitable for agriculture, forestry or development they offer an undisturbed habitat for a wide range of species.
Marshes and Swamps
• Also known as palustrine wetlands, marshes, swamps and fens account for almost half of all wetlands throughout the world.
• Marshes are one of the broadest categories of wetlands and in general harbour the greatest biological diversity.
Estuaries
• Area where rivers meet the sea and water changes from fresh to salt. include deltas, tidal mudflats and salt marshes.
Recommendation 4.7 and amended by Resolutions VI.5 and VII.11 of the

Conference of the Contracting Parties (Table 1.2) (Plans et al. 2009).
2 Wetlands of India
The wetland of India has been categorized into following types (Prasad et al. 2002).
2.1 Himalayan Wetlands
This type of wetlands includes the parts of Central Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas,
Ladakh, and Zanskar (Pangong Tso, Chantau, Tso Moriri, Noorichan, Hanley, and
Chushul marshes) and few portions of Kashmir Valley (Dal, Anchar, Haigam,
Kranchu, Malgam, Wular, and Haukersar lakes).
4 I. Suhani et al.
Table 1.2 Classification of wetlands

Marine/Coastal Wetlands
A B C D E
• Permanent shallow marine waters in • Marine sub-tidal aquatic beds; • Coral Reefs • Rocky marine shores; includes rocky • Sand, shingle or pebble shores;
most cases less than six metres deep includes kelp beds, sea-grass beds, offshore islands, sea cliffs. includes sand bars, spits and sandy
at low tide; includes sea bays and and tropical marine meadows. islets; includes dune systems and
straits. humid dune slacks.
F G H I J K Zk(a)
• Estuarine waters; • Intertidal mud, sand or • Intertidal marshes; • Intertidal forested • Coastal brackish/saline • Coastal freshwater • Karst and other
permanent water of salt flats includes salt marshes, salt wetlands; includes lagoons; brackish to lagoons; includes subterranean hydrological
estuaries and estuarine meadows, saltings, raised mangrove swamps, nipah saline lagoons with at freshwater delta lagoons. systems, marine/coastal
systems of deltas. salt marshes; includes swamps and tidal least one relatively
tidal brackish and freshwater swamp forests. narrow connection to the
freshwater marshes. sea.
Inland Wetlands
L M N O P
• Permanent inland deltas • Permanent • Seasonal/ intermittent / • Permanent freshwater lakes • Seasonal/intermittent
rivers/streams/creeks; irregular (over 8 ha); includes large freshwater lakes (over 8 ha);
includes waterfalls. rivers/streams/creeks. oxbow lakes. includes floodplain lakes.
Q R Sp Ss Tp
• Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline • Seasonal/intermittent • Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline • Seasonal/intermittent • Permanent freshwater marshes/pools;

lakes. saline/brackish/alkaline lakes and flats. marshes/pools. saline/brackish/alkaline marshes/pools. ponds (below 8 ha), marshes and
swamps on inorganic soils; with
emergent vegetation water-logged for
at least most of the growing season.
Ts U Va Vt W
• Seasonal/intermittent • Non-forested peatlands; • Alpine wetlands; includes • Tundra wetlands; includes • Shrub-dominated wetlands;
freshwater marshes/pools on includes shrub or open bogs, alpine meadows, temporary tundra pools, temporary shrub swamps, shrub-
inorganic soils; includes swamps, fens. waters from snowmelt. waters from snowmelt. dominated freshwater
sloughs, potholes, seasonally marshes, shrub carr, alder
flooded meadows, sedge thicket on inorganic soils.
marshes.
Xf Xp Y Zg Zk(b)
• Freshwater, tree-dominated wetlands; • Forested peatlands; peat swamp • Freshwater springs; oases. • Geothermal wetlands • Karst and other subterranean
includes freshwater swamp forests, forests. hydrological systems, inland
seasonally flooded forests, wooded
swamps on inorganic soils.
Human-made wetlands
1 2 3 4 5
• Aquaculture (e.g., fish/shrimp) • Ponds; includes farm ponds, • Irrigated land; includes irrigation • Seasonally flooded agricultural • Salt exploitation sites; salt pans,
ponds stock ponds, small tanks; channels and rice fields. land (including intensively saline, etc.
(generally below 8 ha). managed or grazed wet meadow
or pasture).
6 7 8 9 Zk(c)
• Water storage areas; • Excavations; gravel/brick/clay • Wastewater treatment areas; • Canals and drainage channels, • Karst and other subterranean
reservoirs/barrages/dams/impoun pits; borrow pits, mining pools. sewage farms, settling ponds, ditches. hydrological systems, human-
dments (generally over 8 ha). oxidation basins, etc. made
Adapted from Plans et al. (2009)

“Floodplain” here is used to denote one or more wetland types that might comprise instances from
the R, Ss, Ts, W, Xf, and Xp or from other wetland categories. Few examples of floodplain wet-
lands are shrublands, woodlands, forests, and seasonally inundated grassland (including natural
wet meadows). Floodplain wetlands are not listed as a specific wetland type herein
2.2 Indo-Gangetic Wetlands
Through the whole stretch from the river Indus at one end of west to Brahmaputra
at the other end of east, there lies the largest wetland system in India called the Indo-
Gangetic floodplain. The wetlands of the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Himalayan
Terai are included in this type of wetlands.
2.3 Coastal Wetlands
The lagoons, mangroves, and massive intertidal expanses are included in the coastal
type of wetlands. These are stretched along the 7500 km coastline in West Bengal,
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Kerala, Gujarat, and
Maharashtra. This category of wetland includes Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Kutch, and Sundarbans of West Bengal.
2.4 Deccan
Several tanks for storing water and numerous trivial and huge reservoirs along with
few natural wetlands in nearly each town in the associated region are included in
this category of wetland ecosystem (Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Different types of wetlands of India (a) Indo-Gangetic wetland, (b) coastal wetland, (c)
Himalayan wetland
6 I. Suhani et al.
3 Importance of Wetlands
Wetlands have significant socioeconomic importance like wildlife resource, tour-

ism, energy resource, and water supply. The services and products supported by
wetlands are noteworthy. There is a very broad spectrum of services and resources
provided by wetlands to humans (Engelhardt and Ritchie 2001). They provide shel-
ter, food, shellfish, livestock fodder, fish and fuel wood, medicinal plants, building
materials, honey, beeswax, etc. Straightforwardly or circumstantially wetlands sup-
port people by their different functions and values. The biological, environmental,
and fiscal values of wetlands are of great importance, which are directly affected by
humans. Several valuable operations/services carried out by wetlands are as
follows.
3.1 Water Quality
Wetlands have a very dynamic role in storing water and improving the quality of
water (Clarkson et al. 2013). They purify water, revive groundwater, and also con-
trol the frequency of runoff in urban areas. Many plants growing in wetlands act as
filters by doing the cleansing role for the downstream environment (Engelhardt and
Ritchie 2002). So, wetlands are regarded as the kidneys of the ecosystem (Mitsch
and Gosselink 1986).
3.2 Flood Control
Wetlands help in attenuating flood and decreasing the effect of flood. They maintain
the groundwater levels all through the low rainfall periods (Roulet 1990). Riverbanks
and shorelines are well stabilized by wetlands of that area. They play a vigorous role
in checking coastal erosion by buffering the shorelines against erosion, besides also
helping in alleviating the effect of natural disasters by absorbing the tidal forces
(Wondie 2010).
3.3 Wildlife Habitat
As every wetland is unique in their climatic and topographic conditions, they have
specific environmental conditions which provide vulnerable and endangered com-
munities (Brinson and Malvárez 2002). They are the areas of great importance from
the perspective of wildlife habitat as they have no less wildlife species than a forest
habitat.
3.4 Recreation, Education, and Resources
As wetlands are the landscapes which add beauty in nature, they provide bird watch-
ing, recreational activities of fishing, boating, etc. They play a foremost part in tour-
ism for the recreation of society, for habitat, and for supporting cultural heritage
(Clarkson et al. 2013). From the perspective of education, wetlands are interesting
environmental resource of carbon sequestration, disaster management, nutrient
removal, biodiversity maintenance, and toxic retention (Zedler and Kercher 2005).
4 Growing Threat to Wetland Ecosystem
As wetlands are often depicted as kidneys of the landscape, this directly means it
helps in biodiversity maintenance (Mitsch and Gosselink 1986). The change in the
physicochemical properties of wetland mainly relies on the climate condition, nutri-
ent availability, and topographic and hydrological conditions. The biotic response
depends on the physicochemical modifications in the wetland (Gosselink and Turner
1978). From the past few decades, humans have ignored the importance of wetland
ecosystems. The rapid population, land use patterns, and demands of resources have
led in the degradation of wetlands. Pollution of wetlands by agricultural runoffs and
domestic and industrial wastes have headed towards the major destruction to the
wetland ecosystems.
Due to urbanization, demand of resources, and land use changes, wetlands are
facing major troubles (Boyer and Polasky 2004). The developmental pressure is
increasing day by day leading to the degradation of the wetland ecosystems. The
urban water supply demand has led to over withdrawal of underground water which
causes salinization and reduction in the water table of the region (Prasad et al.
2002). There are considerable ecological, biological, and economical losses due to
unplanned developments. Different anthropogenic activities like agriculture, road
construction, industries, residential developments, resource extraction, and disposal
of wastes are a main cause of long-term losses and ecological disturbances in the
wetland ecosystems (Prasad et al. 2002). The agricultural activities like irrigation by
construction of dams, canals, and reservoirs have altered the hydrological condi-
tions of the associated wetlands (Russi et al. 2013). The different hydrological activ-
ities like diversion of streams and rivers, transport of water to arid regions, changes
in the drainage patterns, and construction of canals have led to the significant deg-
radation of wetlands in the associated regions.
Wetlands are also largely affected by deforestation, as it leads in the removal of
the topmost layer of the earth leading to soil erosion and siltation problems (Smith
et al. 2016; Zhao et al. 2006). Besides, the unrestricted dumping of toxic wastes
from industries and sewage has led in the deterioration of physiochemical properties
of wetlands, giving rise to eutrophication and destruction of aquatic ecosystem of
the related wetland (Russi et al. 2013). Climate change like the change in precipita-
8 I. Suhani et al.
tion patterns, global warming, increased CO2, increase in the occurrence of storm
floods and droughts, and sea level rise could also badly affect the wetland ecosys-
tems (Chen et al. 2003). The plant species like water hyacinth and Salvinia has
threatened the Indian wetlands, as these species absorb the underground water and
also clog the waterways (Prasad et al. 2002).
5 Strategies of Restoration and Conservation
Wetlands are considered as one of the most fertile but endangered ecosystems of the
world (Cherry 2012; Maltby 1991). Extensive uses, as well as exponential popula-
tion growth, have made this ecosystem more deteriorating and vulnerable to envi-
ronmental changes (Zedler 2003). Anthropogenic pressure (i.e., land use change,
inappropriate use of water resources, burgeoning development projects) is the well-
known reason of the decline in wetland resources (Ducks Unlimited Canada 2010).
In contemporary time, wetlands are modifying continuously for the human needs,
and the current wetland’s declining rate in India can move toward severe environ-
mental consequences. Around 74% of the rural populations (Anon 1994) are reliant
on resources coming from the wetland. Land use conversion from wetland to agri-
cultural, industrial, and various urban development results in substantial losses in
the form of hydrological perturbations, pollution, and their effects (Turner et al.
1994). In the context of Indian biodiversity, numerous flora and fauna are reliant on
wetlands or their products (Prasad et al. 2002).
To control these problems, restoration practices are not the only options but the
ultimate necessity. Along with various biological restoration practices, the practices
of natural hydrological conditions of wetlands are able to reconstruct the physico-
chemical properties like the degree of the substrate, pH, nutrient availability, anoxia,
sediment properties, and soil salinity (Prasad et al. 2002). These modifications lead
to a change in physicochemical environment, which also promotes to change in
biotic feedback in the wetland (Gosselink and Turner 1978). Hydrological condi-
tions in wetlands modify even slightly which can lead toward huge change in
response to biota richness, species composition, and ecosystem productivity.
There are some restoration methodologies for wetland as described by various
authors (Pfadenhauer and Klötzli 1996; Klimkowska et al. 2007):
i. Fen depth: Fen depth has been necessary since we assumed that most of the
organic material will soon be lost anyway at peat depths of less than 1 m.
ii. Rewetting potential: The rewetting potential is chosen as a criterion because one
has to be sure that sufficient water is available in the area to allow permanent
flooding and the purpose of a wetland as a sink can be restored. Assessment of
rewetting potential is specifically important and must include the entire catch-
ment area of the wetland to be restored.
iii. Presence of suitable target species: The third major criterion, the occurrence of
target species, is more relevant when areas cannot be rewetted sufficiently. In
that case, the existence of characteristic fen or fen meadow species is important
for carrying out a more flexible plan, in which several development goals must
be pursued simultaneously. It may take some time before the site conditions of
the restoration area meet the requirements of the target species.
5.1 Use of GIS and Remote Sensing in Wetland Management
Remote sensing data accomplished with geographic information system (GIS) is a

significant tool for wetland restoration and management. The application encloses
water resource assessment, flood management, hydrologic modeling, reservoir
capacity surveys, water quality mapping and monitoring, and assessment and moni-
toring of the environmental effects of water resources project (Adam et al. 2010;
Jonna 1999).
i. Water Resource Management
Abundant of thematic maps on the hydro-geomorphological features, slope, ele-
vation, surface water bodies, and land use are performed by remote sensing and
GIS. It has been initiated for the action plan for water source development (Adam
et al. 2010; Ozesmi and Bauer 2002). The result may also reveal that the under-
ground potential basin is moderate to good (Rao 1997). Utilization of satellite
remote sensing data and aerial photointerpretation impressively support in planning
groundwater reconnaissance and help in discovering the sources by recognition of
geomorphological units.
ii. Flood Zonation Mapping
Satellite data source is utilized for the demarcation of flood-risk zone and flood-
inundated regions. Temporal data promote to get correct ground facts about the
status of restoration and conservation projects of wetland. IRS 1 C/D WIFS data
having 180 km spatial resolution and high temporal consecutiveness has helped in
demarcating the zonation of flooding areas of large river bodies. This helps in
designing for basin- and state-wise flood inventories.
iii. Water Quality Analysis and Modeling
Water quality analysis has been proceeded through using the relationship between
chlorophyll-a, reflectance, and suspended solid concentration. Remote sensing data
is utilized for the analysis of water quality factors and modeling. In the near-infrared
wavelength range, the quantity of suspended solids content is directly proportional
to the reflectance. Due to the temporal and spatial resolution of satellite data infor-
mation of the point of discharge and source of pollution, the inflow of sewage can
be regularly examined. By means of IRS LISS-II data, the suspended load in estua-
rine waters was inspected (Adam et al. 2010; Sasmal and Raju 1996).
There was some program initiated by WWFs for the conservation and restoration
of wetland which helps to improve water access, efficiency, and allocation for peo-
10 I. Suhani et al.
ple and the environment. This program promotes water stewardship, climate change
adaptation, and water safety and mainly emphasizes habitat protection. Working
with the Ramsar Convention, international river basin, national governments, non-
governmental organization, and institutions play a dynamic role for wetlands
includes (WWF):
• Assisting execution of international agreements and treaties on biodiversity and
wetlands
• Encouraging payments for environmental services (PES) for funding freshwater
ecosystem facilities
• Evaluating and growing the representativeness of freshwater habitats in pro-
tected area systems
• Forming freshwater conservation setups
• Restoring serious freshwater habitats
5.2 Specific Techniques for Conservation
Wetland restoration technique involves modification in hydric soil condition, hydro-

phytic plant communities, and hydrologic conditions. Wetland functions that hap-
pened on fragmented wetland site before to moderation to the extent operable.
Wetland conservation strategies involve restoring endemic, native plant and animal
communities (Faulkner et al. 2011). Minimization of soil erosion is the primary
reason of the most commonly applied practice, residue management, conservation
crop management, no-tillage/strip tillage, conservation cover, afforestation, reduc-
tion of land use change, reduction of overgrazing, and increase in vegetative cover
and irrigation (Faulkner et al. 2011).
Degradation and depletion of sea grass in a coastal wetland, which is often
caused by erosion which leads to eutrophication or dredge-and-fill activities, is
commonly restored by transplantation (Burkholder et al. 2007; Fonseca et al. 1994).
The suitable place and donor population for replacement should receive more focus
on the significant expense (Bastyan and Cambridge 2008). Along with that, seeding
techniques and mechanical planting have also been used as a possible solution to
restore sea grass loss (Paling et al. 2009; Van Katwijk et al. 2009).
To resolve the complication of degraded wetlands caused by Spartina alterni-
flora invasions in the Yangtze River Delta, some are the examples especially in
Chongming Dongtan wetland; methods that involve breaking of rhizomes, cutting,
digging and tillage, and waterlogging as well as biological substitution with
Phragmites australis proved effective (Liu et al. 2013; Yuan et al. 2008).
6 Preparation Needed Before Starting a Restoration Project
Before beginning a restoration project, pre-preparation step should be needed enlist-

ing of this first one: locate the degraded wetland and identify the key indicators to
decide the potential of replacement, restoration, and regulation. Along with ecologi-
cal restoration, elemental method should be acknowledged to estimate the feasibil-
ity of conserving the damaged ecological, hydrological, and chemical processes.
The social feasibility and ecological rationality should be used to predict and iden-
tify the crucial regions and pattern of ecological conservation and restoration (Zhao
et al. 2016).
Ecological restoration endeavors are frequent part of an international framework
that purposes to achieve local and global restoration targets (such as the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets and EU biodiversity targets), for which inhabitants afford the
expense (Adams et al. 2010; Kari and Korhonen-Kurki 2013). In literature related
to conservation, the idea has been referred to as the “parks versus people” debate,
where safeguarding global biodiversity through so-called fortress restoration. This
fortress restoration is on one end of the spectrum, and a focus on refining local
people is at the other end (Miller et al. 2011; Southworth et al. 2006). To safeguard
nature restoration and conservation areas from resource exhaustion of resource are
necessary. Because of such limitations, people have been moved or denied access to
the resources, frightening their rights and livings (Brockington and Wilkie 2015).
To stimulate support for wetland restoration and foster sustainable use of wet-
land restore areas, an intended approach is obligatory. Increasing realization of the
problem and enhancing awareness can be a needful strategy to promote public sen-
sitization for wetland conservation. Reflecting upon the concept of Festinger (1957),
Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) suggest the proposal that the public may show a
conflict against nonconforming information, meaning that “information that boosts
our current values and conceptual frameworks is readily acknowledged, whereas
information that controverts or excavate our thoughts and beliefs are avoided or not
able to recognize at all.” This means that the pros and cons of wetland restoration
should be “framed” in ways that reverberate with the people (Groffman et al. 2010).
The public may be empathetic toward the restoration and conservation of wet-
land and its ecosystem. In reality, when it comes to daily practice and actual envi-
ronmental behavior, activities that conflict with biodiversity conservation still gain
priority (Samantha et al. 2016). This emphasizes the importance of wetland restora-
tion projects to identify trade-offs and collaboration, making them better capable of
dealing with both competing and complementary targets (Mitsch and Gooselink
2000). As expressed by McShane et al. (2011), by actively involving with scientists,
regional users and environmentalists can raise sensitization for wetland restoration
projects, which is expected to enhance the accomplishment of wetland restoration
and conservation (Cooke et al. 2013).
12 I. Suhani et al.
7 C
onstructed Wetland (CW): An Attempt to Optimize
Wildlife Conservation and Restoration
Generally, for treating wastewater, constructed and engineered wetlands are

designed in such a way to look like natural wetland to remove various contaminants
or improve the water quality along with conservation of resources (Vymazal 2013;
Saeed and Sun 2012). These systems chiefly encompass substrates, vegetation,
water, soil, and microorganisms (Badhe et al. 2014). They employ complex pro-
cesses involving physicochemical and biological mechanisms (Upadhyay et al.
2016). It has been noticed since long that the CW treat a variety of wastewater with
the help of plants and microbes. On the basis of macrophytes present in the wetland,
it can be categorized as under (Brix 1993):
1. Free-floating macrophyte-based systems: In this type of CW, free-floating plants
remove the pollutants which are present in dissolved form (Upadhyay et al.
2016).
2. Emergent macrophyte-based systems: This system plays a critical role as the
rhizomes of the plant produce suitable required environment for nutrient removal
process (Hofmann 1991). The rhizome helps in bacterial growth by providing
surface for filtration of solids. The aerenchymatous rhizomes supply oxygen and
create oxidized microenvironment in anoxic soil that subsequently increases
decomposition of organic matter and nitrification.
3. Submerged macrophyte-based systems: These systems are less suited for the
treatment of raw sewage and therefore utilized as tertiary treatment step for
improving the effluent quality or treating eutrophic natural water. The species
that have been employed for the above purposes are Ulva lactuca, Ceratophyllum
spp., Elodea canadensis, Cladophora spp., Myriophyllum spp., E. nuttalli,
Enteromorpha spp., Egeria densa, Potamogeton spp., etc.
The designing of CW is based on the flow of water, i.e., vertical flow (VF), hori-
zontal flow (HF), surface flow, and subsurface flow (Ali et al. 2013). The water
hydrology and the substrates used in CW (clay, sand, rock, peat, zeolite, gravel, etc.)
provide a wider range of habitat for the growth of different types of microorganism
like bacteria, fungi, and algae (Cui et al. 2010; Wu et al. 2014). The microorganism
growing in the designed CW ultimately degrades the pollutants present in wastewa-
ter, thereby releasing large amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other organic and
inorganic contaminants. These contaminants were further utilized by plants for their
growth and development (Rai et al. 2013). The growth of plants acts as a house of
different wildlife animals. The conservation and restoration of wetland through CW
can be dealt with the following points:
• CW facilitates the growth of different groups of microorganisms in a single hab-
itable niche.
• CW purifies a variety of wastewater coming from different resources which
directly affects the nature of natural wetland.
• The growth of plants may act as nesting sites for birds and other insects.
• CW may recharge groundwater and inhibits soil erosion.
• CW may assist in flood control and vegetation loss and provide shelter to differ-
ent wildlife animals.
8 Conclusions
In the past few decades, scientists and managers have identified the multiple values
and functions of wetlands. Wetlands have generally been called as “kidneys of the
landscape” because of their capability to transmute and store organic content. For
this reason, various types of constructed wetland are employed to deal with wide
range of wastewater all over the world. Many efforts are put into investigation in the
advancement and refinement of CW technology. Further researches are needed to
optimize design criteria for all sorts of CWs. Also, scientific studies are much
needed for the improvement of long-term performance capabilities and operational
problems related with the systems.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the Dean and Head, Department of Environment
and Sustainable Development, and Director, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development,
Banaras Hindu University, for providing necessary facilities. RPS is thankful to the Department of
Science and Technology for providing financial support (DST-SERB P07-678). BV is also thank-
ful to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research for awarding Senior Research Fellowship.
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Chapter 2
Phytoremediation and Sustainable
Developmental Policies and Practices
Atul Kumar Upadhyay, Ranjan Singh, and D. P. Singh
Abstract Phytoremediation is a green strategy of environmental decontamination

and offers a cost-effective approach for the remediation of variety of pollutants.
This is an emerging technology toward sustaining the future of the world and man-
kind. The phytoremediation technology has been successfully applied in developed
and developing nations to achieve the sustainable development goal. The present
chapter encompasses the basic strategies, rules, regulation policies, and protective
measures for the successful implementation of plant-based waste treatment technol-
ogy in a cost-effective and sustainable manner.
Keywords Phytoremediation · Sustainable development goal · Environmental

pollution · Environmental policies
1 Introduction
Environmental degradation and population burst are two main components which
impede the world’s sustainability (Carley and Christie 2017). The current world is
facing challenges like waste mitigation, water pollution, and access to safe,
affordable drinking water. These challenges are produced due to inadequacy of
treatment system, awareness, and unlawful policies of the government (Upadhyay
et al. 2016). Besides, ignorance is the key factor responsible for pollution, drought,
and starvation.
The idea of environmental cleanup through plant-based phytoremediation tech-
nology is certainly very old and has been proved as an alternative cost-effective
approach in the treatment of different contaminants including organic, inorganic,
pathogen, radionuclide, and hydrocarbon (Alkorta and Garbisu 2001; Paz-Alberto
and Sigua 2013; Rezania et al. 2015; Salt et al. 1995; Tangahu et al. 2011). The term
phytoremediation was coined in the year 1991. Phytoremediation relies on the
A. K. Upadhyay (*) · R. Singh · D. P. Singh

Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central
University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

18 A. K. Upadhyay et al.
combined interactions of physical, chemical, and biological processes occurred

naturally in the ecosystem. Phytoremediation works on the principle of microbial-
induced pollutants, degradation, sedimentation, flocculation, transformation, and
uptake by the plant’s root (Haarstad et al. 2012). After a certain period of time,
plants used in remediation were removed and dumped to other places. This process
of remediation is popularly known as phytoextraction (Salt et al. 1995; Ali et al.
2013). In addition other phytoremediation processes like rhizofilteration,
phytostabilization, and phytovolatilization are also operated simultaneously for the
effective removal of waste (Rai et al. 2015; Upadhyay et al. 2019). To treat the
waste, the global sustainable development plan “Agenda 21” has been approved in
Rio Summit for reduction of basic environmental issues including clean air and
water, waste treatment, and health care through different strategies set forth by the
government and local bodies of developed and developing nations to curb down and
maintain the environmental health (Bartelmus 2002).
2 Phytoremediation and Sustainable Development
Phytoremediation and sustainable development are two integral parts of the sustain-
able world. Phytoremediation is a sustainable cost-effective remediation technology
based on the plants and microbial ability to detoxify contaminants, thereby enhanc-
ing numerous ecosystem services (Thijs et al. 2016). Sustainable development is the
policy of safeguarding the future of the world through interrelationship between
human development and environment to maintain the livelihood and well-being
(Griggs et al. 2013; Sunderlin et al. 2005). The policy of sustainable development is
framed to achieve the target of poverty reduction, food security, sustainable agricul-
ture, healthy life, sustainable management of water, sanitation and wastewater treat-
ment, energy recovery, combatting climate change, ecosystem restoration, and
economic upliftment (Griggs et al. 2014).
The Rio+20 Summit in Brazil in 2012 devoted governments to create a set of
sustainable development goals (SDGs) with two priorities, i.e., protection of the
Earth and reduction of poverty for human well-being (Griggs et al. 2013). The Earth
is continuously deteriorating due to population increase and unmanaged exploita-
tion of natural resource to satisfy the basic need which has created a danger of lapse
for mankind. This upheaval in meeting the demand of food, energy, health, etc.
could only be alleviated by transition toward renewable and infinite source. Plant-
based management of water, food, and energy is the only best alternative to achieve
sustainable development goal (Godfray et al. 2010; Sims et al. 2010).
Phytoremediation would not be a metaphor, if crediting “pillar of a house” and “two
sides of a coin” in the direction of sustainable development goal. Water, the lifeline
of human beings, continuously becomes polluted which can only be purified/treated
by phytoremediation technology in a cost-effective and sustainable manner (Sharma
et al. 2014). Besides water, soil pollution, air pollution, radionuclides, and
e-pollution could also be reclaimed by plants (Cunningham et al. 1997; Tabak et al.
2005). The interrelationship between phytoremediation and sustainable develop-
ment has been presented in Fig. 2.1.
2 Phytoremediation and Sustainable Developmental Policies and Practices 19
Phytoremediation
in wetland system
Increases diversity of
Wetland components
Algae
Electricity
Bioenergy
Biocompost
Biogas
Sustainable treatment
Treated
Plants of wastes
wastes
Biotechnological
Production of Medicine Microbes Crafting, fodder basket preparation etc
Clean
Green Health Poverty water and
energy Supplements reduction health
Sustainable
Development
Fig. 2.1 A pictorial representation showing the interrelationship between phytoremediation and
sustainable development
2.1 Sustainable Development Goal: Practices/Policies
In sustainable development, the major practices to be emphasized are waste man-

agement, species richness/biodiversity improvement, nutrient cycling, energy
recovery, and poverty reduction (Lélé 1991). The sustainable developmental prac-
tices to achieve sustainable development goal (SDG) include (Griggs et al. 2013):
• Establishment of target of SDG
• Development of social movements
• Establishment of science and technology with the aim of crafting eco-sustainable
environment
• Creation of sustainable economic development
• Development of health and education
• Poverty reduction and improvement of human conditions
• Establishment of food security in sustainable manner
• Establishment of potable water security
• Improvement of affordable access to clean energy
• Development of healthy and productive ecosystem
3 Basic Practices of Sustainable Development
3.1 Waste Management and Policies
Waste management is the process of reducing contaminants present in wastewater

to an acceptable level safe for disposal (Giusti 2009). The increasing population
continuously produces more waste load in the environment due to insufficient treat-
ment facility and high cost (Guerrero et al. 2013; Dincer 2000; Rai et al. 2013).
Wastes are emerges from different sources, viz., household, urban effluents, indus-
trial effluents, agricultural runoff, etc., and is directly discharged into the river with-
out any proper treatment, affecting the ecosystem of river, lake, and reservoirs.
Release of toxic gases and odour from the river, being the major source of drinking
water and reservoir (sink) of wastewater, cause deadly diseases in human beings
(Gracey and King 2009). So, tackling the pollution of river, lake, and reservoir, a
comprehensive and lawful action must be taken for sustainable development.
Basically two strategies were employed for waste management, viz., single-site
treatment and individual treatment. Single-site treatment is a large-scale treatment
in which wastewater was collected from different sites and treated, while in indi-
vidual treatment, wastewater is treated in the individual, small-scale, and commu-
nity level (Water UN 2015).
The following strategies/policies are recommended for successful management
of wastes adopted from GWP (2008):
1. Establishment, implementation, and enforcement of laws, standards (effluents,
influents, STPs, quality management plan), and norms.
2. Involvement and coordination of local authorities, national as well as interna-
tional authorities, for the accountability of treated waste, their disposal, and
reuse.
3. Monitoring of progress, publication, and collection of data.
4. Mass awareness program to change public behavior and actions.
5. Creating tariffs, fees, and tax system for water use and willingly increasing pol-
lution and water tax, etc.
6. Development of waste management system by industry and the organizations
(local or private) which are major generator of wastes.
7. Involving experts of universities, institutions, or other sources for regular moni-
toring, reviewing, and reforming of the actions.
8. Upgradation or installation of wastewater treatment facilities to enhance health
and environment.
9. The treatment plant should be away from residential area and be constructed
according to the inflow of water and waste load.
10. Designing of new treatment plants for individual and small-scale waste treat-
ment and their treatment potential must be standardized prior to application in
the field.
11. Multidisciplinary research attitude should be developed and promoted on

wastewater management.
For the effective treatment of wastewater, different cost-effective, green, and sus-
tainable alternatives like STPs, CETEP, and constructed wetland are operational in
different parts of the world.
3.2 Biodiversity, Species Richness, and Policies
Biodiversity is the life insurance of humans, and its losses could be one of the great-
est catastrophes and challenges for society and sustainable development. Biodiversity
covers all the sectors of SD like food, shelter, medicine, waste management, climate
change, health, and economy, encouraged in the form of agriculture, farming, fish-
eries, and tourism (Pretty and Smith 2004; Kiss 2004; McNeely 1994). Climate
change, habitat destruction, and pollution are the biggest threats of biodiversity.
Without biodiversity sustainability is a remote talk for any nation of the world.
Phytoremediation and sustainable development are interrelated to each other (Thijs
et al. 2016). Phytoremediation protects the biodiversity by providing habitat for the
growth and development of different flora and fauna in the nature or a system
designed (constructed wetland, open pond system, multistage wetland system, etc.)
for the treatment of waste (Dobson et al. 1997; Rai et al. 2013). The designed sys-
tem may act as a protected area in which assemblages of plants and microbes
degrade waste and assimilate the nutrients for their survival (Upadhyay et al. 2017).
The constructed wetland, man-made designed system based on phytoremediation,
offers many ecosystem services to humans such as sustainable food, water purifica-
tion, recreation, and nutrient cycling (Engelhardt and Ritchie 2001). Wetland acts as
a sink for increasing the level of CO2, thereby reducing carbon load and global
warming (Brix et al. 2001; Whiting and Chanton 2001).
Biodiversity is an indispensible component of phytoremediation. The restoration
and sustainable use of biological diversity make it easy to cope with the anthropo-
genic and natural challenges like population growth, pollution, drought, flood, etc.
(Maxwell et al. 2016; Omann et al. 2009). The concept of phytoremediation basi-
cally relies on the species richness. A greater number of species represent high
remediation efficiency of the pollutants present in the environment. The agenda of
conservation of biodiversity is included in chapter 15 of Agenda 21 (United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development) adopted in Rio Summit in 1992.
Plants ranges from cryptogams to phanerogams has the potential to be used in phy-
toremediation as a bioindicator, tolerant/resistant agent, hyperaccumulator, and
resource recovery phytoagent (Diekmann 2003). Of these, bryophytes and pterido-
phytes are found only on restricted locations and more prone to be extinct in the
near future. They have the capability to grow in high metal-rich condition (Chen
et al. 2002), wastewater (Vermaat and Hanif 1998), and polluted air (Szczepaniak
and Biziuk 2003) and work as sustainable entities demarking the nature of the area
or type of particular pollution and enrichment of a specific type of contaminants. By
identifying these plants, they can be preserved, protected, and recultured, and thus
using these plants in phytoremediation will automatically enhance biodiversity.
In addition, one of the richest ecosystems of inhabiting microbiota in the root

system of plants also plays a very crucial role in the success of phytoremediation in
a sustainable manner (Bulgarelli et al. 2012). The microbes present in soil-plant
interface reduces metal toxicity and assist in transformation of organic and inor-
ganic compounds, mineral cycling, translocation of ion, improve soil fertility and
thus, contribute to plant growth and phytoremediation (Deng and Cao 2017).
The continuous loss of biodiversity through natural and anthropogenic activities
is a matter of great concern to sustain the world (Miller 2005). Biodiversity loss has
negative effect on food, water supply, shelter, and livelihood. The World Bank,
UNESCO, UN Biodiversity Conservation Board, and other agencies are actively
engaged in conservation of biodiversity through safeguarding policies, protection of
natural area and forests, conservation of coastal area, etc. Here are some policies
associated with biodiversity conservation and are adopted from OECD-FAO
(2011), OECD (2013):
• Prohibition on access of protected area and conserved area and deforestation
• Regular environmental impact assessment (EIA)
• Controlling and minimizing the use of pesticides, fertilizers, and herbicides in
agri sector to safe microbial niche and land productivity
• Promoting afforestation along with community awareness and education
• Management of natural wetland, fisheries, lake, and other reservoirs
• Biobanking
• Establishment of tradable permits like water right, carbon emission, and devel-
opment right
• Subsidies for reforestation and public investment
• Development of eco-labeling and certification scheme such as timber certifica-
tion, organic farming certification, green manure certification, etc.
3.3 Sustainable Energy Recovery
An adequate supply of energy has been a prerequisite for economic and social
development in societies (Tainter 1990) which are continuously increasing due to
population growth. The overexploitation of resources to fulfill the demand causes a
significant loss of the fossil reserves which create a panic situation in front of the
scientist, global thinkers, policymaker, and experts owing to save the reserves
(Ayres and Ayres 2009; Matthewman 2016). In addition, urbanization and industri-
alization worsen the environment, affecting millions of the peoples for safe water,
food, shelter, and energy.
To lessen the impact, a number of policies/strategies and plans have been imple-
mented by the governmental and nongovernmental authorities; however, no measur-
able cure is still optimized. Seeking the disaster, an integrated transition toward a
more sustainable, cost-effective, and green alternative of fossil reserves which fulfill
the energy demand in sustainable manner is of utmost priority. Energy production
Table 2.1 Comparative account of biodiesel production efficiency by different feedstocks

Feedstocks Examples Biodiesel productivity References
First generation Zea mays L. 152 kg/ha/year Mata et al. (2010)
Glycine max L. 562 kg/ha/year Mata et al. (2010)
Helianthus
annuus
Second Jatropha curcas 656 kg/ha/year Mata et al. (2010)
generation Tobacco seed Usta (2005)
Jojoba oil Canoira et al. (2006)
Third generation Microalgae 20,000–80,000 L/hac/ Demirbas and Demirbas
year (2011)
through agriculture crop (maize, sunflower, Glycine max, Jatropha, rapeseed, etc.)
and algae could be a viable resource for sustainable energy recovery without impair-
ing biodiversity (Pandey et al. 2016; Sharma et al. 2012; Tilman et al. 2011).
Besides, these plants phytoremediate a significant amount of heavy metal and other
toxic elements by sequestering into its body, thus involving in the phytoremediation
(Pandey et al. 2016). The agricultural crops used in the production of biodiesel are
considered as first-generation feedstock of biofuel as they use for the first time to
generate fuel (Brennan and Owende 2010). However, due to its utilization in the
global feed source, it disturbs the global food market which leads to food and fuel
crisis. Cultivation of maize for biogas generation could yield 33,000–46,000 kWH/
hectare/year renewable energy which reduces up to 21,000 kg/ha/year CO2 if used
as fossil fuel substitute (Meers et al. 2010). To minimize the dependency on edible
food, nonedible feedstocks were used in the production of biodiesel as a second-
generation feedstock which also failed due to long harvesting time, large land area,
and low biomass (Canakci 2007; Canoira et al. 2006; Ghadge and Raheman 2006;
Ma and Hanna 1999; Usta 2005). The algae are considered as third-generation feed-
stock of biofuel because of its fast growth rate, high biomass and lipid yield, easy to
culture, and ability to grow in a variety of habitat (Ahmad et al. 2011). Algae utiliza-
tion in treatment and biofuel generation has been reported by various authors (Singh
et al. 2018; Upadhyay et al. 2016), playing dual role of sustainable phytoremedia-
tion and energy recovery. A comparison of all three-generation feedstock to their
biodiesel productivity has been mentioned below (Table 2.1).
3.4 Climate Change and Phytoremediation
The current world is facing the major hazards of elevated level of CO2 due to fast
industrial insurgency and technology development (Leakey et al. 2009; Seto et al.
2012). High CO2 concentration in the atmosphere causes floods, drought, changes
in precipitation pattern, greenhouse effect, and global warming which deteriorates
the lives and may lead to extinction of human civilization (IPCC 2014). The reality
and seriousness of climate change have emerged since 1980. The environmental
community and scientist accredited global high CO2 as being the major pollutant for
climate change and global warming, the interchangeable misnomer. However, the
National Research Council in 2001 explained the technical differences of climate
change and global warming. Thinking the seriousness of elevated CO2 level, the
Kyoto Protocol was developed in 1997 with the aim of reducing the emission of
CO2, the major contributor of global warming (McCright and Dunlap 2000). The
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other scientific bodies
such as the American Meteorological Society (2003) and American Geophysical
Union (2003) stated that the Earth’s climate change is affected by anthropogenic
activities.
The impact of climate change is one of the problems which has negative effects
on productivity of grains and other crops (Lobell and Field 2007; Thomason et al.
2010). The impact of climate change can be overcome by increasing sequestration
of elevated level of CO2, afforestation, and agroforestry (Brown et al. 1996).
Agroforestry climate change mitigation offers food safety, food security, and pollu-
tion minimization. Besides, wood carving facilitates long-term locking up of carbon
in carved wood and tree plantation to sequester carbon (Pandey 2002; Zazai et al.
2018). Tree planting along with agricultural crops improves soil fertility and con-
trols soil erosion and water logging, thereby limiting eutrophication (Zazai et al.
2018). Reducing greenhouse gas emission is an utmost priority for the sustainability
in the urban world. This can be achieved by management of population increase,
energy consumption, and waste production; development of local and sustainable
agenda for the pollution control, involvement of local authorities, communities, and
policymakers; and finally education and awareness related to environmental degra-
dation (Wilbanks and Kates 1999). The adaptive measures/policies that need to be
implemented are as follows:
• Switching to heat-tolerant crop.
• Construction of seawall to avoid flood due to sea level rise.
• Building bridges in the coastal area.
• Designing of flexible policy as high uncertainty of climate change could happen
slowly or quickly and unexpectedly.
• Strengthening construction standard (building houses and dams of large size) to
reduce uncertainty.
• Tree plantation and agroforestry.
• Development of buffer zone, migration corridor, and protected zone for unman-
aged resources like wetland, forest, coast, etc., as they are more susceptible to
uncertainty.
• Development of hydropower system.
• Designing of constructed wetland, pond, reservoirs, and STP for waste manage-
ment which can mitigate climate change.
• Development of corridors for the migration of the species during instant unfavor-
able circumstances. The corridor developed should be either from a long time or
during disaster. However, already established corridor could provide instant hab-
itable location for the migratory species for sustainability and survivality.
3.5 Phytoremediation and Society
Phytoremediation offers many societal benefits to human and nature. The environ-
mental benefits include biodiversity enrichment, soil protection and preservation,
carbon sequestration, water management, energy and aesthetics, stability, and sus-
tainability (Adams et al. 2013; Dickinson et al. 2009; Robinson et al. 2003). The
phytoremediation strategies of gold phytoextraction can be used in gold mining as a
simple and financial pleasing move (Anderson et al. 2005; Wilson et al. 2012). In
addition, mercury is also phytoextracted. In the mercury mining, area contaminated
with mercury was grown with high biomass-producing plant species (Rodriguez
et al. 2007). After a certain period of time, solubilization of Hg was done by certain
amendments which facilitate accumulation of Hg in the plant parts. Finally, the
plants were harvested and processed to recover metals. In a field experiment,
Anderson (2013) reported that under optimal condition, a single crop of plant recov-
ered ~15–20% of gold from the soil. A number of ancillary benefits are mentioned
below:
• Pulp of phytoremediator plant Phragmites communis is better and cheaper than
derived from straw and bush and suitable for the manufacture of artificial fibers.
• The reeds’ plant material can be used in the manufacture of paper which defi-
nitely cuts down the loss of a huge amount of timber and forest.
• The aquatic plant Vossia cuspidata provides short-fibered pulp of poor strength.
• Fresh leaf stalks of Eichhornia crassipes, Cyperus papyrus, and C. antiquorum
are also used for manufacture of paper.
• Eichhornia crassipes could be used for manufacturing of cellulosic materials
such as artificial silk.
• Azolla sp. could be useful for mosquito control when encouraged to form a dense
mat over ponds. This gave the plant the name “mosquito fern.”
• Nymphaea alba and Nuphar sp. have been used for mordanting properties and
employed in dyeing and tanning in European countries.
• The leaves of Typha sp., Cyperus sp., and Schoenoplectus sp. are used for weav-
ing and basketry.
• The hairs of Typha sp. flowers are used to stuff pillows.
• Cyperus papyrus is used for making ropes, canvas, and sails.
• Lemna sp. dried sample provided an excellent substitute of conventional feed
like soybean and fish meal.
4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
The natural ecosystem on the Earth has been deteriorating due to anthropogenic-
induced worsening which might lead to uncontrolled collapse during the course of
time. The alteration in biological diversity and hydrological pattern together causes
climate change, energy crisis, and environmental health. Therefore, conservation of
water resource and biological diversity is of utmost priority for the sustainable
world. An integrative approach and research are appreciated to encourage the
researcher and policymakers to find ways to mitigate the Earth’s pollution load
effectively. In addition, conservation of biodiversity and a wise use of bioresource
are also mandates for which policies should be developed by policymakers and
scientists. In order to be sustainable, developments have to unite in three chief ele-
ments: fairness, protection of the environment, and increase in economic efficiency.
Besides, some future research such as assessment of biofuel production quality,
remediation potential, efficiency of production, and genotoxicity in relation to petro
plants might be helpful for the sustainable world.
Acknowledgments Author Atul Kumar Upadhyay is thankful to Vice Chancellor B.B. Ambedkar

Central University, Lucknow, and DST-Science and Engineering Research Board for their financial
assistance (NPDF/2016/002432) and support.
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Chapter 3
Wetland as a Sustainable Reservoir
of Ecosystem Services: Prospects of Threat
and Conservation
Govind Gupta, Jabbar Khan, Atul Kumar Upadhyay,

and Naveen Kumar Singh
Abstract A wetland is a type of ecosystem saturated with water throughout the

year possessing various ecosystem services in the environment. Wetland is com-
posed of abiotic and biotic components and acts naturally as a reservoir of food,
shelter, and habitat for biological communities. Increasing human population leads
to more industrialization and urbanization which continuously alter the landscape
and interfering nutrient cycling. Further, changes in precipitation pattern and global
climate leading to hydrological and environmental imbalances cause frequent flood
and drought. As a result of rapid development and human interference, wetland
ecosystem is degrading day by day which needs to be conserved for environmental
sustainability. Microbial communities play an important role in nutrient cycling and
conservation of wetland.
Keywords Wetland · Biological communities · Ecosystem services · Nutrient

cycling
1 Introduction
Wetlands are water-saturated ecosystems and provide different ecosystem services

to humans (Groot et al. 2012). According to the Ramsar Convention, wetland
includes natural as well as man-made system like peatlands, rivers, lake aquifers,
estuaries, marshes, wet grasslands, deltas, mangroves, ponds, coastal lands, coral
reefs, rice paddies, etc. (Aber et al. 2012). Wetlands act as a sustainable reservoir of
G. Gupta · J. Khan · N. K. Singh (*)

Environmental Science Discipline, Department of Chemistry, School of Basic Sciences,
Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur, India
A. K. Upadhyay

32 G. Gupta et al.
food, feed, shelter, and habitat because of their complex hydrology, nutrient cycling,
and presence in both urban and unmanaged areas (Costanza et al. 1997; Mitsch
et al. 1995).
Wetland degradation is continuous. The direct cause of wetland loss includes
salinization, nutrient enrichment, pollution of pesticides and heavy metals, and the
invasion of exotic flora and flora (Davis and Froend 1999). Besides, the environ-
mental alterations and anthropogenic-induced worsening cause disaster of flood,
drought, earthquake, global warming, and high temperature and lead to degradation
of wetlands ecosystem severely (Kercher and Zedler 2004; Mentzer et al. 2006).
Freeman et al. (2001) studied that hydric soils under permafrost are the sources of
active gases at high-latitude system, which alters wetland chemistry. The function-
ing of the wetland is directly related with microbial diversity present in the wetland
and decides the community composition in different wetlands (Mentzer et al. 2006;
Sundh et al. 1997). The community composition in different wetlands was studied
by various authors by using PLFA analysis as well as across gradients of nutrient
stress in peatlands (Borga et al. 1994; Boon et al. 1996; Sundh et al. 1997). Wetlands
provide many important ecosystem functions to society; this explains why in recent
years, much attention has been directed toward the formulation and operation of
sustainable management strategies for wetland conservation (Davis and Froend
1999). Zedler and Kercher (2005) have reported that wetland covers about 40% of
the earth’s renewable ecosystem services. The monetized value services provided
by the wetlands are very high. A study conducted by Constanza et al. (1997) explains
and calculated the value of different shallow water habitat wetlands such as man-
grove, swamps, marshes, floodplain, estuaries, etc. A summary of the cost of differ-
ent services is mentioned below in Table 3.1:
Table 3.1 The cost of shallow water wetland services

Ecosystem services Categories USD/ha/year USD/ha/year (in billions)
Hydrological services Water regulation 15–30
Water supply 3800–7600
Gas regulation 38–265
Water purification Nutrient cycling 3677–21,100
Waste remediation 58–6696
Biodiversity Biological control 5–78
Habitat 8–439
Food production 47–521
Raw material 2–162
Recreation 82–3008
Cultural 1–1761
Disturbance regulation 567–7240
Global total Coastal wetland 8286
Inland wetland 4879
Total for global wetland 13,165
Modified and adopted from Constanza et al. (1997)
3 Wetland as a Sustainable Reservoir of Ecosystem Services: Prospects of Threat… 33
Various central and state policies have been implemented for the restoration of
wetland against natural and man-made constraints yet fail to preserve the ecological
processes (Whigham 1999) due to lack of knowledge of wetland hydrology and
ecology, miscoordination between governments, and public awareness (Davis and
Froend 1999). The present chapter covers the wide area of wetland ecology, conser-
vation, and role of microbes and plants in wetland management.
2 Wetland: Ecology and Types of Wetland
The current world is facing a mega challenge of climate change and ecological
imbalance. This might lead to deteriorate the lives of the flora and fauna of the vari-
ous ecosystems. The ecology of wetlands deals with the relationship of plants and
microbial community to their environment which directly or indirectly depends on
the geographic distribution, climatic condition, hydrology, human interference, soil
condition, altitude and latitude, etc. which alters its functioning and behavior. Three
main environmental factors are essential to study the wetland ecology, i.e., struc-
ture, community composition and function (Keddy 2010). These three factors are
increased nutrients (eutrophication), increased water (flooding, drainage), and
increased disturbances (construction, burning, etc.).
Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems occurring almost everywhere on the
earth. Wetlands may be natural and man-made. Natural wetland includes marshes,
swamps, estuaries, lakes, ponds, fens, deltas, coral reefs, lagoons, bogs, and flood-
plains, whereas ponds, constructed wetland, reservoir, sewage farm, canal, etc. are
artificial (Aselmann and Crutzen 1989). Some important wetlands are described
here (adopted from Federal Geographic Data Committee 2013):
Marshes include wetlands in which soil is continuously saturated with water and
characterized by the presence of soft-stem vegetation. Marshes reduced the dam-
ages by recharging groundwater, slowing down the flow of flood, and storing excess
water. The slow movement of water in marshes enhances the chance of settlement
of nutrient to the base formation of high biodiversity rice microorganism and utili-
zation of nutrients for the growth and development of the plants present in marshes.
Microorganism present in marshes degrades the organic and inorganic constituent
of water and wastewater and reaches to the marshes.
Swamps are defined as flooded woodland or shrublands. Swamps occur in low
lying are supersaturated soil wetland. Swamps are characterized by wet soil during
growing season. Swamps are categorized into forest, shrub, and mangrove swamps.
Forest swamps receive water from lake and rivers and occur at the coast side of
water reservoirs. The trees that grow in swamps are dry and deciduous in nature and
often include maple, oak, bald cypress, water tupelo, etc. Mangrove swamps are
characterized by salt-tolerant plants and coastal wetland extended from tropic to
subtropical zone of the vegetation.
Bogs are characterized by peat-deposited freshwater wetland and evergreen trees
prevalent in southeastern part of the United States. The water source in the bogs is
34 G. Gupta et al.
rainwater and usually occurs in glaciated areas of the Northern United States. Bogs
are formed by the natural decaying of leaf, litter, and other organic substances dur-
ing the course of time through active microbial processes. The soil of bogs is acidic
in nature due to secretion of weak acid during the process of leaf decomposition by
the microbes.
Estuaries are developed where river water is mixed with seawater, creating a
biodiversity rich zone for the growth of microorganism and plants. Estuaries
included deltas, tidal mudflats, salt marshes, etc. Estuaries, having variable physi-
cal, chemical, and biological conditions, make them a house of different wildlife
which make them a habitat of high conservation value (Davidsson et al. 1997).
Estuaries are fragile ecosystems affected by inappropriate catchment development,
degree of tides, increased algal bloom, nutrient input, and climate change. Estuaries
can be protected by native vegetation, reducing sedimentation process, improving
catchment area, and reducing pollution, restricted fishing, and other anthropogenic
activities.
Fen wetland system is a natural wetland and characterized by abundance of
grasses, sedges, and low shrubs. These are alkaline wetlands. In fen, water mostly
surface water and groundwater are used for soil saturation. Fens, like all wetlands,
have experienced a dramatic decline in acreage since the 1970s as they are drained
for cropland, mining, and human expansion – threatening the survival of many of
the plants and animals that depend on these unique environments. The nutrient-rich
conditions in a fen provide a diversity of plant life, which then supports a number of
animal species that thrive in such highly productive habitats.
Coral reefs are among the most productive ecosystems, which cover 0.1–0.5% of
the ocean floor (Moberg and Folke 1999; Spalding and Grenfell 1997). McAllister
(1991) reported that approx. one third of marine fishes are found on the coral reefs
and provide goods and services to the people inhabiting near the sea. However, coral
reefs are declined due to urbanization and population growth which needs immedi-
ate effects for its protection and management.
Constructed wetlands are an engineered system, designed with ecological prin-
ciples that encompass physical biological and chemical processes for waste reme-
diation in soil and water (Rai et al. 2013; Upadhyay et al. 2017). The CW successfully
mitigates the variety of wastewaters including pharmaceutical waste, leachates,
mine drainage, industrial effluents, and sewage (Vymazal 2011).
Sewage farm is waste disposal and treatment farm where various types of waste-
water are stored, distributed, and treated for their further utilization in irrigation and
other purposes (Saber et al. 2016).
3 Wetland Degradation
Wetlands are one of the most vulnerable ecosystems around the globe, increasingly
facing several anthropogenic pressures and refer to physical loss in spatial extent or
loss of wetland functions. Thus, the rapidly expanding human population, land use
change, burgeoning development projects, and improper use of watersheds have all
caused a substantial decline of wetland resources of the nations (Zedler and Kercher
2005). The current wetland loss rates in India can lead to serious consequences.
Anon (1991) reported the 74% of the human population is rural, and many of these
people mainly depend on natural resource for their livelihood. Most problems
affecting India’s wetlands are related to population growth. Although India contrib-
utes to 16% of the world’s population (Foote et al. 1996), yet it contains fewer natu-
ral wetlands with respect to wetland percentage of the world. Therefore, restoration
of these converted wetlands is quite difficult once these sites are occupied for other
purposes.
The degradation of wetland directly or indirectly is the result of alteration in soil
chemistry, soil nutrient status, and microbial assemblage (Hartman et al. 2008).
Microbial assemblages of known and unknown entities play a major role in wetland
functioning. Fundamentally wetlands are influenced by two factors, i.e., anthropo-
genic and environmental (Fig. 3.1). Nutrient enrichment condition supports micro-
bial biodiversity in the wetlands which affects the wetland behavior. Anthropogenic
factor includes land use change, eutrophication, and incorporation of toxic organic
and inorganic contaminants, while environmental factors such as flood, heavy rain,
natural shift, etc. also influence wetland system (Hartman et al. 2008; Zhang et al.
2007). Acute and chronic losses are two broad groups of wetland losses in India
Fig. 3.1 A generalized view of causes of wetland loss

36 G. Gupta et al.
(Prasad et al. 2002). Acute loss of the filling up of wet areas with soil constitutes the
chronic losses in the gradual reduction of forest cover following sedimentation and
erosion of the wetlands since decades.
3.1 Acute Wetland Losses

3.1.1 Agricultural Conversion
In the Indian scenario, due to rice cultivation, there has been a significant loss of
wetlands (Prasad et al. 2002). Rice farming is a wetland-dependent activity devel-
oped in the area saturated with water in most of the time such as river deltas, estuar-
ies, etc. In a report of Anon (1993), out of 58.2 million hectares of wetlands, 40.9
million hectares are under rice cultivation in India. This huge agriculture conversion
significantly affects the functioning of the wetland ecosystem.
3.1.2 Direct Deforestation in Wetlands
Mangroves are flood- and salt-tolerant vegetation which grows along the coastal
area and significantly provides fish, livestock fodder, fuel wood, building materials,
food products, wax and chemicals, etc. (Ahmad 1980). With the increased popula-
tion load and advent of alternative farming methods and fisheries production for
sustaining lives, people exploits many mangrove areas which leads to degradation
of wetland ecosystem (Naylor et al. 2000). In addition, most of the coastal man-
groves are degenerating due to the increasing economic demand on shrimps, exces-
sive withdrawal of freshwater, and increased pollution load on water like lime,
organic wastes, pesticides, chemicals, and disease-causing organisms (Funge-Smith
and Briggs 1998).
3.1.3 Hydrologic Alteration
Wetlands are considered as the heart of nature and water hydrology as lungs to vari-
ous ecosystem services (Cowardin et al. 1979). Modification in the hydrology pat-
tern can influence the character and functions of wetlands. The changes in hydrology
include either the removal of water by evaporation, precipitation, transpiration,
flood, and mechanical loss as in constructed wetland or raising the land surface
elevation (Talukdar and Pal 2017).
3.1.4 Inundation by Reservoirs
There are more than 1550 large reservoirs covering 1.45 million ha; 1.0 lacs small
and medium reservoirs covering 1.1 million ha in India (Gopal 1994). Dam and
reservoirs are the main drivers for flow change which might be resulted into water
scarcity in floodplain wetland (Talukdar and Pal 2017). Floodplain wetland depends
on the timing and magnitude of the water flow and because of construction of reser-
voirs accounts for >70% loss of floodplain wetland (Constanza et al. 1997).
3.2 Chronic Wetland Losses
3.2.1 Change in Upper Watersheds
Watershed conditions influence the wetlands (NRC 1999). The land where precipi-
tation falls, collects, and runs off into the soil will influence the characteristics and
hydrology of the downstream wetlands. Agriculture, deforestation, and overgrazing
reduce the water holding capacity of the soil which influences the soil erosion.
Large areas of India’s watershed area are being physically stripped of their vegeta-
tion for human use.
3.2.2 Degradation of Water Quality
Water quality degradation is directly linked to human population and its misman-
aged practices and activities. Chopra (1985) reported that ~50,000 small and large
lakes are being polluted to the point of considered as “dead.” The major factors are
untreated sewage, industrial pollution, and agricultural runoff, which may contain
fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc. (Chaudhry and Malik 2017).
3.2.3 Groundwater Depletion
Groundwater deteriorates continuously at very fast rate. Water-flooded wetlands

were the ultimate source of groundwater recharge which now become extinct due to
various well-known causes and direct ignorance of the government bodies. Draining
of wetlands has depleted the groundwater recharge. In an estimate, Prasad et al.
(2002) reported that in rural India, about 6000 villages are without a source for
drinking water due to the rapid depletion of groundwater.
38 G. Gupta et al.
Fig. 3.2 Graphical representation of factors and their interconnection causing wetland

devastation
3.2.4 Introduced Species and Extinction of Native Biota
More than 2400 species of birds found in the wetlands of India are under threat due
to its degradation and loss (Mitchell and Gopal 1990). The introduction of invasive
species like Eichornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta causes wetlands to degrada-
tion and waterway clogging. Samant (1999) reported that more than 700 potential
wetlands are threatened.
A graphical representation showing the major factors which are responsible for
wetland degradation has been mentioned below (Fig. 3.2).
4 Conservation of Wetlands
The Ramsar Convention signed in Iran in 1991 is the most important initiative for
wetland conservation. Wetland conservation in India is indirectly influenced by a
range of policies and legislative measures. Some of the key legislations are given
below (NAEI wetlands of India 2006):
• The Indian Fisheries Act – 1857
• The Indian Forest Act – 1927
• Wildlife (Protection) Act – 1972
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – 1974
• Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Marine
Zones Act – 1976
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – 1977
• Maritime Zone of India. (Regulation and fishing by foreign vessels) Act – 1980
• Forest (Conservation Act) – 1980
• Environmental (Protection) Act – 1986
• Coastal Zone Regulation Notification – 1991
• Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act – 1991
• National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and I
Development – 1992
• National Policy And Macro level Action Strategy on Biodiversity – 1999
Interest in conservation of wetlands can be traced back in the recent history to the
late nineteenth century. Around 1897, protection of the coastal belt system was initi-
ated. The Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance of 1937 can be considered as a
major step in wetland conservation. Under this legislation, Department of Wildlife
Conservation declared importance to wetlands in bird protection and conservation.
Wetland is the habitat of different flora and fauna. It was year 1971 when the inter-
governmental treaty was adopted aiming to minimize the loss of wetland degrada-
tion and its wise use through local, national, and international cooperation toward
attaining sustainable development goal (Quental et al. 2011). As reported by Ramsar
Convention on wetlands on September, 2018, states that wetland diversity is disap-
pearing three times faster than forest ecosystem with havoc consequences for the
future unless urgent feat is taken to guarantee their survival. Major strategies for
wetland conservation include exploration of major threatening factors, improving
the conservation policies of wetlands, strengthening the wetland legislation, and
increasing government and public participation, research attribute, and education
for wetland conservation (Keddy 2010; Max Finlayson 2012; Moore et al. 1989).
The conservation of wetland is challenging because of availability of inaccurate and
old data related to wetland distribution, localization, type, and degradation status
(Junk et al. 2013; Zedler and Kercher 2005). For the global wetland conservation,
an ideal inventory such as US Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory,
the Australian Wetlands Database and the Directory of Important Wetlands in
Australia, Manual of European Union Habitats – EU-27, and the Canadian Wetland
Inventory system containing all the fundamental information related to wetland
conservation should be present (Junk et al. 2013). Thus, knowing wetland distribu-
tion is the first step for defining a specific conservation plan (Nel et al. 2009;
Vörösmarty et al. 2010).
40 G. Gupta et al.
5 C
ontribution of Microbial Community in the Wetlands
Conservation
Wetland is the house of diverse microbial community which regulates wetland func-
tioning. Microbial communities of wetland play an important role in pollution
removal, assimilation, mineralization, and metal uptake (Singh et al. 2018). A num-
ber of microbial-driven conversions occur inside wetland which ultimately controls
the vegetation of the wetland (Lamers et al. 2012). Nitrifying and denitrifying bac-
teria constitute an important group in wetland microbial community and play an
important role in nitrogen removal (Enwall et al. 2005; Zumft 1992). Yamamoto
et al. (2008) reported anammox (anaerobic ammonium oxidation) bacteria consti-
tute another bacterial group, the Planctomycetes, which contributes in the removal
of nitrogen by oxidizing ammonia to nitrogen gas using nitrite as an electron accep-
tor under anoxic conditions. Determining the structure of wetland microbial com-
munities is important for understanding the biological processes that occur in
soil-water-plant wetland system. Besides, nitrogen-related bacteria, the distribution
of methanotrophic bacteria, iron-oxidizing/iron-reducing bacteria, sulfur bacteria,
etc. play a detrimental role in methane cycling, iron redox, and sulfur dynamics in
the wetland (Dedysh et al. 1998; Dedysh 2002). The bacteria responsible for iron
redox have potential to support the large microbial population in wetland. The
methanogenic bacteria (Methanococcus, Methanobacter, Methanosarcina, etc.)
present in the wetland decompose organic compound present in the wetland, thereby
producing the methane (Segarra et al. 2015). Besides, bacteria, fungi and inverte-
brates also play a significant role in solubilization and degradation of phosphorus in
wetland. The fungal association inside the wetland restricts the entry of toxic metal
and decomposes litter present in the wetland (Gingerich et al. 2015).
6 C
ontribution of Plant Community in the Wetlands
Conservation
The plants present in wetland significantly determine the fitness of the wetland.
Plants maintain the floral diversity, shelter of birds, and other organisms and remove
water pollution, assisting nutrient cycling and toxic metal uptake (Rai et al. 2013;
Upadhyay et al. 2017). Plants present in wetland enhance the species richness, bio-
diversity, and services of wetland to society such as contributing to atmospheric
CO2 fixation, recreational opportunity, and water purification. The harvested bio-
mass of plants grown in wetland may be utilized as energy resource like biofuel,
biogas, or biocompost generation in sustainable means (Rai et al. 2015). Loss of
plant communities in the wetland leads to reduction in primary production, loss of
faunal diversity and habitat, decreased sediments, increased nutrient content, etc.
Thus, maintaining the plant biodiversity is crucial for restoration of wetland.
7 Conclusions
Wetland ecosystem is under continuous deterioration due to human interference and

changes in global climate. The eminent role of wetlands for human welfare and
microbial contribution in the functioning of wetland necessitates the intensive
assessment of behavior and ecology of wetland microbes in the coming future
research. Significant alteration in wetland hydrology, diversity, and services due to
climate change also brings a mega challenge toward conservation of wetland for the
sustainable world. As microbes being one of the most important components, its
ecological boundaries, resistant behavior, tolerant nature, and functioning study
must be imperative for sustainable functioning and conservation of wetland.
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Chapter 4
Carbon Sequestration and Storage
by Wetlands: Implications in the Climate
Change Scenario
Afreen J. Lolu, Amrik S. Ahluwalia, Malkiat C. Sidhu, Zafar A. Reshi,

and S. K. Mandotra
Abstract The impacts of climate change are discernible and can only be reduced
through proper adaptation and mitigation techniques. Wetlands represent an excel-
lent example of natural ecosystems providing a wide range of ecosystem services
valuing billions of dollars. The service of carbon sequestration by wetlands is
directly linked to greenhouse gas regulation and climate change. They are known to
have higher rates of carbon sequestration than any other terrestrial ecosystem on
this planet. This is because of their higher above- and belowground productivity,
anoxic soil conditions, and higher sedimentation rates. The most important factor
affecting carbon sequestration in wetlands is substrate availability which depends
on the type and composition of vegetation. Wetland vegetation is mainly responsi-
ble for determining the detritus quality and the carbon sequestration capacity of
wetlands. Unfortunately, wetlands are under various anthropogenic pressures which
affect their functional capacity of acting as sinks of carbon. Climate change also has
a positive feedback on their functioning. Therefore, their maintenance and conser-
vation are imperative, for they act as an important pool to balance the deleterious
impacts of climate change. If climate change is not taken care of, then wetlands may
act as a source of carbon, stored by them over years, and can augment the problem.
Moreover, the concept of constructed wetlands needs to be encouraged to increase
the number of potential carbon sinks. Their methane emissions can also be con-
trolled by regulating C:N and N:P ratios in their soils.
Keywords Climate change · Carbon sequestration · Ecosystem services ·

Constructed wetlands
A. J. Lolu (*) · A. S. Ahluwalia · M. C. Sidhu · S. K. Mandotra

Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
Z. A. Reshi
Department of Botany, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, J&K, India

46 A. J. Lolu et al.
1 Introduction
Global climate change is considered as one of the most serious environmental chal-
lenges of the twenty-first century as it is posing threat to the survival of species and
the health of natural ecosystems. The main driver of global climate change is esca-
lating concentration of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere particularly carbon
dioxide (CO2). The anthropogenic emission of CO2 in the atmosphere contributes
72% of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect due to its stronger infrared heat absorp-
tion band coinciding with the strongest black-body radiation band of the Earth’s
surface (Ussiri and Lal 2017). Wetlands represent an excellent example of ecosys-
tems with the highest carbon sequestration rates than any other ecosystem on this
planet (Mitsch and Gosselink 2015). Undoubtedly, they are the largest emitters of
another greenhouse gas, i.e., methane, but its global warming capacity fades away
within a time frame of 100 years, and within that time span, most of the wetlands
act as natural sinks of carbon. Wetlands, like other ecosystems, cannot run away
from the deleterious impacts of climate change, affecting particularly their own
functioning capacity of acting as a carbon sink (Erwin 2009). Therefore, their main-
tenance and conservation are urgent as the increasing temperature can result in their
higher rates of decomposition. Hence, these sinks may turn into sources of carbon
dioxide and thus aggravate the problem. It is pertinent to mention here that conser-
vation of the already existing wetlands is more fruitful rather than the restoration of
the degraded wetlands as the later will require a longer time period for regaining
their carbon sink capacity.
2 I ncreasing Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, Its Impacts,

and Mitigation Techniques
Carbon dioxide emissions resulting from energy generation are the main drivers of
past and future CO2 increase in the atmosphere. It is released from anthropogenic
sources such as cement production, fossil fuel combustion, and changes in land use
patterns mainly deforestation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(2013) estimates that cement production and fossil fuel combustion together have
emitted 375 Pg of CO2 in the atmosphere, whereas the change in land use pattern
and deforestation released 180 Pg to the atmosphere. From 2006 to 2015, the aver-
age annual CO2 emissions are estimated to be 10.3 ± 0.5 PgCyear−1 from various
anthropogenic sources (Le Quéré et al. 2016). The atmospheric concentration of
CO2 was 390.5 ppm in 2011, and by 2015, it has increased to 400 ppm (CDIAC
2015; WMO 2016). The longest record of continuous monitoring of CO2 in the
atmosphere at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, started in 1958 by C.D. Keeling and reported
that the level has reached to 407 ppm by May 2018 (NOAA 2018). This rapid
increase of CO2 in the atmosphere and changes in climate have created a concern
4 Carbon Sequestration and Storage by Wetlands: Implications in the Climate Change… 47
about the potential damaging consequences and regulation of that rate of CO2
emission.
2.1 Mitigation Techniques
According to IPCC WGII AR5 (2014), the risks related to climate change can be
reduced and managed only through appropriate adaptation and mitigation tech-
niques. Therefore, compatible strategies are required to neutralize the excess of
CO2. Furthermore, in order to meet the goal of Paris Agreement (2015) of keeping
average global temperature increase below 2 °C, it is essential to have negative
emissions of GHGs. Broadly speaking, there are three options of reducing the atmo-
spheric greenhouse gas emissions which include reducing the global energy use,
developing low or no-carbon fuel, and sequestering carbon emissions through natu-
ral and engineering techniques from their point sources (Lal 2008). Of these three
options, sequestration of CO2 emissions by various aquatic and terrestrial sinks is
more cost-effective and eco-friendly option to neutralize the excess of CO2. Since
the effects of climate change are becoming evident, there has been an increasing
emphasis on comprehending and assessing carbon sequestration that comes par-
tially from the need to find ways to enhance carbon pools in soil and biomass to
attenuate the effects of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere.
Carbon sequestration is one of the prime regulatory ecosystem services provided
by wetlands, and it occurs in wetlands at a substantial rate than in any other ecosys-
tem on the planet (Mitsch et al. 2012; Mitsch and Gosselink 2015). Table 4.1 shows
the carbon sequestration rates (CSR) of different wetland ecosystems in various
continents except Antarctica which is devoid of wetlands. A great variation in the
CSR among the different wetland types can be seen with the highest values recorded
in freshwater marshes (15–2200 g-C m−2 year−1). Carbon sequestration occurs
through two main processes in fresh water wetlands, viz., sediment deposition from
uplands and on-site organic matter production, compared to the peatlands wherein
carbon is sequestered only through on-site plant production (Bridgham et al. 2006).
Wetlands, no doubt, cover only 6–8% of the freshwater surface; they are estimated
to account for one-third of the world’s organic carbon pool (Mitsch and Gosselink
2007). In India, wetlands cover about 4.7% of the total geographical area. These
include about 18,154 natural and 9249 man-made wetlands representing about
5.31 m ha and 2.27 m ha of the total area, respectively (SAC 1998). Of this huge
figure, only 26 wetlands have been designated as Ramsar sites with the world’s total
figure of about 2266 Ramsar sites (Finlayson et al. 2018). Wetland carbon repre-
sents an essential component of the global carbon cycle and plays a vital role in
atmospheric and terrestrial ecosystem interactions. Currently, carbon stored in wet-
lands is close to that stored in the atmosphere (Lenhart 2009). Wetland ecosystems
are characterized by the presence of stagnant water during least part of the year.
This allows the development of specialized hydric roots and hydrophytic vegetation
adapted to the presence of water and to the saturation of the soil (Reddy and De
Table 4.1 Carbon sequestration rates (CSR) of various wetland ecosystems across the globe
R carbon
Continents Country Sites (gCm−2year−1) Source
North Canada Prairie wetland 270 Badiou et al.
America (2011)
USA Freshwater peatlands 107.5 Craft et al. (2008)
Ohio Cattail marsh 210 Bernal and Mitsch
(2012)
Costa Rica Tropical flow-through 306 Mitsch et al. (2012)
wetland
Virginia Dismal swamp 105 Craft et al. (2008)
Florida Upper St. Johns 117–244 Brenner et al.
floodplain (2001)
Oregon Reed-bulrush marsh 116 Graham et al.
(2005)
California Anderson tule marsh 106–155 Kim (2003)
Europe Estonia Freshwater marsh 15–2200 Mander et al.
(2008)
Finland Temperate peatlands 10–46 Turunen et al.
(2002)
Netherlands Peat meadow 280 Hendriks et al.
(2007)
Austria Danube floodplain 180 Zehetner et al.
(2009)
Denmark Reed marsh 504 Brix et al. (2001)
Asia China Dexingan Mountain 203 Bao et al. (2010)
China Changbai Mountain 200 Bao et al. (2010)
S.E. Asia Mangrove swamps 90–230 Suratman (2008)
Georgia Grass-sedge marsh 56 Craft and Casey
(2000)
South Brazil Brasileira 260 Bonotto and
America Vergotti (2015)
Brazil Cristalino 28 Devol et al. (1988)
Brazil Demarcacao 365 Bonotto and
Vergotti (2015)
Brazil Calado 70 Smith et al. 2002
Australia S.E. Australia Undisturbed sites 105–137 Howe et al. (2009)
S.E. Australia Disturbed sites 64–89 Howe et al. (2009)
Africa Botswana Tropical seasonally 42 Mitsch et al. (2012)
flooded wetland
Uganda Cyperus wetland in 480 Saunders et al.
Uganda (2007)
Laune 2008). They are known to provide an optimal natural environment for the
sequestration and long-term storage of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Their
high sequestration efficiency is because of the high water table, high productivity,
and low decomposition rate, leading to the carbon storage in their detritus, sediment,
and soil (Whitting and Chanton 2001). Thus, wetlands act as a great carbon sink of
various interlinked carbon pools.
3 Carbon Sequestration in Wetlands
Carbon sequestration refers to the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and its
transfer and accumulation into the soil pool of wetlands as soil organic matter
(SOM). In other words, sequestration in wetlands involve photosynthetic removal of
CO2 by wetland producers and its conversion into cellulose and other carbon com-
pounds and later on its transformation from detritus into soil organic matter. The
three main processes responsible for carbon sequestration in wetlands include pho-
tosynthesis or primary productivity, sedimentation, and nutrient enrichment through
external factors (Miria and Khan 2014) (Fig. 4.1). Photosynthesis by producers is
the main process which is responsible for the addition of all the organic matter to the
wetland floor. Since, wetlands are highly productive ecosystems; their plants
sequester carbon readily from the atmosphere and store it in their standing biomass.
All of the organic carbons which find its way to the wetlands, either exogenously or
endogenously, are manufactured by the plants (Kayranli et al. 2010). Exogenous
sources include eroded soil material and terrestrial plant debris, whereas endoge-
nous sources comprise of plankton and aquatic macrophytes. Thus, they get the
Fig. 4.1 Carbon input, retention, and output in wetlands. (Modified and adopted from Kayranli
et al. 2010)
additional nutrient enrichment from uplands in the form of eroded material which
remains suspended in the water inflowing into the wetlands (Bridgham et al. 2006).
In addition, sedimentation process involved in the wetland also enhances the carbon
storage in wetlands. Sedimentation is the process of settling down of the suspended
particle present in the water. This process in the wetland is performed by the plants
through slowing down the water velocity, providing a substrate for adhesion of par-
ticles, and preventing resuspension (Miria and Khan 2014). The process of carbon
sequestration in the wetlands is dependent on the balance between carbon inputs
and outputs. Carbon inputs mainly constitute carbon dissolved and suspended in
inflowing waters and runoff (allochthonous) (Roner et al. 2016), as well as carbon
contained in organic matter from senesced vegetation in and around the wetland
(autochthonous) (Alongi 2014). Carbon outputs include suspended and dissolved
organic carbon in outflowing waters, as well as the inorganic forms of carbon
released as CO2 and CH4 in the process of mineralization during organic matter
decomposition. However, scientists working on wetlands have revealed that higher
C inputs leading to higher C accumulation result in the yield of higher gas emis-
sions. The reason being the more C inputs to the soils, the more C to be potentially
sequestered as SOM, which means more abundant substrate is available for decom-
position and hence exported to downstream waters and to the atmosphere.
3.1 Forms of Carbon in Wetlands
Wetland carbon occurs in five main forms: particulate organic carbon, dissolved
organic carbon, plant biomass carbon, microbial biomass carbon, and gaseous end
products such as methane and carbon dioxide. Except plant biomass carbon, all oth-
ers are present in detritus, water, and soil (Kadlec and Knight 1996). However, plant
biomass carbon represents the active standing biomass, and it occurs in various life
forms including emergent, submerged, or floating types. Carbon cycle is comprised
of many forms of soil carbon in case of wetlands such as plant biomass, standing
dead plants, dissolved organic carbon, particulate organic carbon, and refractory
carbon (i.e., resistant carbon, which retains its strength even at high temperatures)
(Wynn and Liehr (2001). Plant biomass is the active biomass, and it also includes
periphyton (detritus and microorganisms attached to submerged surfaces). The par-
ticulate organic carbon comprises of particulate influent and organic substances,
decaying plant material, and microbial cells (Mostofa et al. 2009). The dissolved
organic carbon comprises of dissolved biochemical oxygen demand and other car-
bon components in solution. Microbial biomass carbon occurs in heterotrophic
microfloral catabolic activities, converting organic carbon back to its inorganic form
and mineralizing dissolved organic carbon and particulate organic carbon. Gaseous
forms of carbon are the result of either aerobic or anaerobic decomposition pro-
cesses in the wetland soils.
3.2 Factors Affecting Carbon Sequestration in Wetland
Carbon sequestration in wetlands is dependent on a number of factors which are

described as under:
3.2.1 Substrate Availability
The mechanisms that drive organic matter (OM) decomposition include a variety of
physical, chemical, and biological processes. These interact with each other favor-
ing the decomposition of easily degrading organic materials by soil microbes lead-
ing to the accumulation of recalcitrant components in the soil, which microbes
cannot degrade efficiently. Depending on the type and source of soil organic matter,
the organic carbon undergoes complex cycling, part of which can be chemically
oxidized to either CO2 or CH4 during decomposition, and part can be buried, either
in situ or exported and buried elsewhere, or lost as dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in drainage water. The factors which are
known to slow down OM decomposition and serve its accumulation in the soil
include nutrient scarcity that limits the growth of microbes, high content of organic
compounds with low degradability, and physical protection of organic particles
through the formation of aggregates (Hernes et al. 2007; Kuzyakov 2010; Six et al.
2002). Thus, substrate availability will largely depend on the type and composition
of the vegetation as they are the main source of the detritus being added to the wet-
land floor.
3.2.2 Temperature and Oxygen
Temperature controls the metabolic activities of microbes and can directly shift the
microbial populations, affecting the SOM degradation process and the production
of SOM-degrading enzymes in the wetland soils. Warming is predicted to globally
increase plant biomass but at the same time also decreases the global soil C pools.
Temperature does not drive the decomposition of SOM as much as substrate avail-
ability does, as biological reactions are expected to double with every 10 °C rise in
temperature (Hartel 2005). Northern wetlands are known to store over 50% of the
global organic carbon due to slower rates of organic carbon decomposition because
of cold temperatures and wet surface conditions (Hugelius et al. 2013). Temperate
freshwater wetlands have shown highest rates of carbon sequestration among the
selected wetlands investigated by Mitsch et al. (2012) in their study on different
wetland types.
Wetlands are characterized by anaerobic conditions due to the waterlogged con-
ditions prevailing in them. In anaerobic conditions, the microbial metabolic path-
ways are less efficient than in aerobic conditions. Anaerobic conditions limit the
enzymatic activity involved in SOM degradation, for two important reasons; firstly,
they need O2 availability particularly in the case of phenol oxidases (enzymes capa-
ble of degrading recalcitrant materials such as humin and lignin). Secondly, the
activity of SOM-degrading enzyme activity is inhibited by the compounds that get
accumulated under anaerobic conditions. For example, the activity of hydrolases is
confined by the presence of phenolic compounds that tend to accumulate in the
absence of phenol oxidase in the wetlands.
3.2.3 Global Change Scenarios
A slight change in the wetland equilibrium could result in the overall change in their
functioning. If hydrological regimes of wetlands are altered, it would increase soil
aeration, thereby increasing the enzymatic activity resulting in the decomposition of
recalcitrant SOM. Similarly, SOM mineralization may also increase through highly
loaded dissolved organic matter in flowing waters or through increased below-
ground biomass in the soil. This increase in SOM mineralization into the wetland is
known as “priming effect.” This effect is common in the rhizosphere, as plants
through their root exudates provide electron donors to the soil microbial communi-
ties thereby increasing the microbial activity and ultimately the SOM decomposi-
tion. If such ecosystem change occurs, it would lead to a rapid increase in
belowground organic inputs to the soil or to the deepening of root profile. Similarly,
nutrient-rich water inputs in the wetland may stimulate the wetland plant growth,
but studies have revealed a decrease in the root production of most wetland grasses
and sedges as a result of nitrogen fertilization and thus can decrease the below-
ground C inputs to SOM. Therefore, in both the cases, if there is decreased root
production or increased SOM mineralization because of high nutrient inputs into
the wetland, it can result in collapsing of wetlands (Deegan et al. 2012).
3.2.4 Carbon Export
DOM is mostly ignored while estimating C sequestration since it is transient and

mobile compared to the SOM sequestered C which represents the long-term C pool.
However, it can be a significant pool as large quantities of DOM can enter deep soil
layers, getting retained in the wetland mineral soil and is, thus, sequestered effi-
ciently. It mostly comes from root exudates or from the surface standing water and
gets released into the soil pore water. The contribution of DOC depends upon its
nature whether recalcitrant or degradable, and it is considered as the source of C for
deep pools where plant roots mostly remain unreachable.
4 Methane Emissions from Wetlands
Undoubtedly, wetlands are huge emitters of methane gas. They are estimated to
emit about 20–25% of global methane emissions which is about 115–170 Tg of
methane per year. Methanogenesis in wetlands is controlled by various factors.
Among the various factors controlling methanogenesis, detritus quality plays a sig-
nificant role (Fonseca et al. 2015). Interspecific variations in macrophytes result in
the variance in detritus quality. The detritus known to have low C content or low
C:N, C:P, and N:P ratios are considered to have high detritus quality as it results in
lower accumulation in sediment. In addition to detritus quality, root exudates
(organic compounds) released from living plants favor methanogenesis in wetlands.
Similarly, the oxygen released through the roots into the sediment is responsible for
methane oxidation in the rhizosphere (King 1994). Other controlling factors
involved in methane emissions from wetlands include soil temperature, water table
position, trophic status, salinity, pH, and availability of electron acceptors (Bianchini
and Cunha-Santino 2016; Moore and Roulet 1995). The consumption of atmo-
spheric methane is, thus, the result of two distinct groups of microbes: (a) the meth-
anotrophs and (b) an autotrophic nitrifier community. Methanotrophs are known to
consume about 30 Tg-CH4 year−1.
Different wetland ecosystems vary in their annual rate of methane emissions.
Tropical wetlands are more important as 50% (132Tg-CH4 year−1) of the total meth-
ane emissions from wetlands and rice paddies comes from tropics (Bloom et al.
2010). It is believed that methane emissions in the tropics are greater from mineral
soils than wetlands with organic soil. Methane production is much higher in the
freshwater wetlands than in salt water wetlands. This is because of the higher con-
centration of sulfates in the saltwater relative to freshwater that competes with car-
bon for oxidizable substrate. Global contributions of northern peatlands to the
methane emissions are 28 g-C m−2 year−1, while the range is 15–20 g-C m−2 year−1
in case of the boreal wetlands. In temperate wetlands, methane emissions range
from 40 to 75 g-C m−2 year−1 although numbers are often variable. The trend of
methane emissions from different wetlands lies in the decreasing order of emissions
as bogs ˂ fens ˂ swamps ˂ marshes ˂ rice paddies (Aselmann and Crutzen 1989).
In order to minimize the methane emissions from freshwater wetlands, there are
various management approaches. One of the approaches is to allow the wetlands to
have their natural fluctuating hydroperiods and, in some cases, a pulsing hydrology.
Another approach is to maintain the C:N ratio of wetlands at lower levels by enrich-
ing them with nitrogen, as lower CH4 emissions were observed in rice fields which
were un-composted than the composted ones. Enhanced sulfate reduction is often
suggested as a management alternative to reduce CH4 emissions.
5 Climate Change Feedbacks
Climate change scenario anticipates an additional stress on wetlands in addition to

other anthropogenic pressures, mainly because of changes in temperature, hydrol-
ogy, and a rise in sea level. Wetlands although act as buffers in hydrological cycle
and as sinks for organic carbon, counteracting the effect of the increased CO2 con-
centrations in the atmosphere. One of the interesting things about wetlands is their
positive feedback related to climate change that could occur in near future if they
are not managed properly. Climate change will affect wetlands in two fundamental
ways: it will affect their functional capacity and will shift the geographical location
of wetlands (Erwin 2009). There is more carbon stored in the world’s soils than in
the atmosphere. If the climate is to warm and the decomposition will accelerate,
then wetlands, particularly peat lands, would become an additional major source of
carbon, through aerobic respiration and possibly fires to the atmosphere. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, AR5 2014) predicts that
increasing temperature will have a greater effect on high latitudes than on tropical
and subtropical regions indicating the higher vulnerability of northern wetlands to
the changes in temperature. Wetland ecosystems are susceptible to changes in quan-
tity and quality of their water supply, and climate change will have a noticeable
effect on wetlands through alterations in their hydrological schemes. These include
changes in precipitation and temperature regimes with great global variability. IPCC
predicts that there will be an increase in global temperature from 1 to 5 °C during
the twenty-first century. In general, it is predicted that the higher latitudes will expe-
rience an increase in rainfall whereas the lower latitudes will experience a decrease
in precipitation (Day et al. 2005; Dore 2005). Wetland habitat responses to climate
change will be different on the basis of regional and mega-watershed level. Wetland
in the tundra region may be lost if any melting of the permafrost will take place.
There will be a northward shift in the belt of permafrost soils, hence releasing large
quantities of CH4 and CO2 to the atmosphere. In case of the most of tropical and
subtropical wetlands, the occurrence of an explicit dry and wet cycle will hinder the
accumulation of organic carbon in them. Moreover, coastal wetlands will be
squeezed between advancing sea and civil constructions as a result of rising sea
levels. This reveals a multitude of impacts on different wetland ecosystems as a
result of climate change because of their regional variability which ultimately can
turn them into grave sources of C (Junk et al. 2013). In short, maintaining hydrol-
ogy, controlling exotic vegetation, reducing pollution, and protecting biological
diversity are important in order to maintain and boost the resiliency of wetland
ecosystems so that they may continue to provide important ecosystem services
under changed climatic conditions (Ferrati et al. 2005).
6 C
omparing Net Balance of Carbon Sequestration
and Methane Production in Wetlands
There is a great confusion on the part of wetland conservationists and climatologists

as to where wetlands fit into climate change. This is because they act as a double-
edged sword where on one hand they store huge amounts of carbon and on the other
hand they are emitters of other important greenhouse gas methane (CH4). Mitsch
et al. (2012) developed a dynamic model to investigate whether they act as sinks or
sources of carbon by comparing their CO2 and CH4 emissions. Model parameters
included half-life of 7 years and global warming potential (GWP) for CH4, and the
results revealed that most of the wetlands become net sinks of radiative forcing
within 100 years of time period. This is because the impact of CH4 emissions in the
atmosphere is temporary as it ultimately decays to CO2 which is then followed by
its permanent burial in the wetland soil. The model suggested that if the wetland is
sequestering some CO2 from the atmosphere and its natural hydrology is intact, it
will, with a little question, be a net sink of radiative forcing and thus good for the
climate. Furthermore, 20–30% or more of soil organic carbon is stored in wetlands,
and it may be liberated if climate becomes dryer and warmer or if they are lost
because of their inadequate management.
7 Knowledge Gaps and Future Directions
India is gifted with an enormous number of wetlands having tremendous carbon

sequestration potential. This figure comprises more of natural than man-made wet-
lands, and the former usually act as carbon sinks, whereas the later become carbon
sinks only when the switchover point is reached (Moomaw et al. 2018). Specifically,
Kashmir Himalayan wetlands need to be highlighted because of the prevalent mod-
erate weather conditions responsible for lower decomposition rates and hence
higher carbon accumulation rates. Macrophytes are the main sources of adding
organic carbon to the wetland floor, and hence the substrate quality entirely depends
on their composition. However, only little work has been done on the carbon seques-
tration potential of wetland macrophytes except a few attempts in recent past by
Maqbool and Khan (2013) and Pal et al. (2017). Realizing the potential of wetlands
and its different carbon pools, their ecology is to be maintained and conserved. The
concept of constructed wetlands also needs to be implemented; it can help in
increasing the number of carbon pools in soils and biomass to mitigate the effect of
GHGs in the atmosphere. The number of Indian wetlands designated as Ramsar
sites is limited as the policy-makers are unaware of the important C storage and
various other roles of wetlands, and hence their net contribution in greenhouse gas
regulation should be highlighted so that the number of sites designated as Ramsar is
increased. Recently, many studies have focused on the huge carbon sink capacity
and emphasized on their maintenance and conservation, but it has to come into
action from lower (local, sub-national) up to the higher (national, international)

levels by incorporating climate resiliency and GHG management strategies into
specific projects as well as providing education on ecological resiliency, carbon
management, and even their vulnerability to the climate change to a larger
audience.
Acknowledgments The corresponding author would like to thank Chairperson, Department of

Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, for providing the necessary facilities during the course of
this study.
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Chapter 5
Wetlands: A Major Natural Source
Responsible for Methane Emission
Shashank Tiwari, Chhatarpal Singh, and Jay Shankar Singh
Abstract Methane (CH4), an important greenhouse gas (GHG), contributes ~33.0%

to the total global GHGs emissions and accounts for 15–20% to the global warming.
As the second most important human-generated GHG after CO2, CH4 is strongly
linked with various climate phenomena. Most of the wetlands from tropics to tem-
perate have been reported to have significantly enhanced emissions of CH4 during
recent years. In wetland, microbial communities are a major determining factor in
controlling the carbon cycle. The terrestrial wetlands are also among the key CH4
emitters and play a major role to climate change. The role of wetland expansion in
CH4 emissions and its consequences on climate change and global warming might
be a major concern for the future world. The methanogens and methanotrophs, two
physiologically different microbial communities, seem to be crucial for future
research investigations while comparing the CH4 production and consumption in
wetland ecosystems. Anthropogenic disturbances related to wetlands are likely to
influence the altering of microbial community composition of methanogens and
methanotrophs and consequently net CH4 flux. The terrestrial wetlands have been
reported to act as a source and sink for atmospheric CH4. Therefore, recent concerns
about CH4 emission from terrestrial wetlands could be addressed properly because
it is one of the major causes in contributing the status of CH4 in the environment.
Keywords Methane · Wetlands · Climate change · Land use · Methanogens ·

Methanotrophs
1 Introduction
Methane (CH4), a potent GHG, contributes about one third to the worldwide
greenhouse gas emissions (Singh and Gupta 2016). It has 25 times more warming
potential than CO2 over a 100-year time scale (Bridgham et al. 2013; Fazli et al.
S. Tiwari (*) · C. Singh · J. S. Singh

Department of Environmental Microbiology, School for Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb
Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India

60 S. Tiwari et al.
2013; Forster et al. 2007), and little changes in its concentration could have a large
consequences in the environment, climate and human being. Bridgham et al. (2013)
reported that human alone contributes ~18% of total CH4 which makes it second
most important greenhouse gas after CO2 (Singh and Strong 2016). The global
warming contribution of CH4 is 15–20% (Tiwari et al. 2015). CH4 molecules that
absorb the infrared radiation emitted from the earth become energized and start to
emit heat in all directions (Fazli et al. 2013; Nema et al. 2012). The present
concentration of CH4 is 2.5 times higher than observed in ice cores dated to the
period of AD 1000–1750 (Amstel 2012). Agriculture and fossil fuel together
account for 230 Tg CH4/year and are dominant natural source of methane emission,
i.e. wetland is 174 (~100–231) Tg/year. Wetland emissions thus react to global
warming and wetting. The anthropogenic CH4 is produced by different sources and
includes energy production, landfills, waste, cattle and milk production, agriculture
and biomass burning, etc. (Amstel 2012; Bridgham et al. 2013; Denman et al. 2007;
Wang et al. 2004).
The CH4 emissions from the wetlands are the largest biogenic source of CH4
budget, contributing to one third of total growing atmospheric emissions from vari-
ous sources (Bhullar et al. 2014; Bridgham et al. 2013). CH4, being the second most
anthropogenic GHG after CO2, is strongly associated with climate feedbacks. The
degree to which wetlands expansion and CH4 emissions will evolve and conse-
quently driven climate feedbacks is thus a question of major concern. Besides,
potential feedbacks between global change perturbations and CH4 emissions from
wetlands, climate change, CO2 level and deposition of sulphate and nitrogen are
also the major apprehensions of methane emission (Bridgham et al. 2006; Zhuang
et al. 2006). In an estimation, the developing nations currently contribute approx.
three-quarters of direct GHG emissions and seems to represent the fast-growing
GHG emission sources in the coming decades (Boateng et al. 2017).
1.1 Wetlands and Methane Emissions
Wetlands occupy 3.8% of the Earth’s land surface, amounting to 20–40% of global
CH4 emissions (Aselmann and Crutzen 1989; Ciais et al. 2013; Solomon et al.
2007). Despite of being a major source, wetlands are among the most prominent
sources of unexplained spatial and temporal variability in global methane emission
estimates (Bousquet et al. 2006). The main CH4 emitting sites in wetlands are the
littoral zones where helophytes form a channel for methane production via sedi-
ment–root–stem–atmosphere continuum (Bergstrom et al. 2007). Bergstrom et al.
(2007) reported that the dense vegetation of emergent macrophytes in natural wet-
lands may account 90% of the methane emission. However, it was supposed that
anthropogenic sources are to be the only driver responsible for the increasing atmo-
spheric CH4 burden from the late seventeenth century (Taylor et al. 2011). Paddy
fields are one of the important sources of CH4 (Fazli et al. 2013; Tyagi et al. 2010)
and responsible for 15–20% of total anthropogenic CH4 emission (Li et al. 2011; Xu
et al. 2007) with an estimated 25–100 Tg CH4/year (Xu et al. 2007).
5 Wetlands: A Major Natural Source Responsible for Methane Emission 61
A very significant variation in CH4 emission across different types of wetland

could be due to the variations in time, space and the factors operating within the
wetland ecosystem (Kirschke et al. 2009; Melton et al. 2013). The main processes
controlling the seasonal and inter-annual variations in wetland CH4 emission
includes carbon availability, rate of decomposition, wetland inundation and tem-
perature (Yvon-Durocher et al. 2014). Other controls are the presence of macro-
phytes (Laanbroek 2010), organic C decomposition rates (Miyajima et al. 1997), and
pH (Singh et al. 2000), etc. Methane emitted from natural wetlands is a significant
component of atmospheric methane budget. Biogeochemistry and atmospheric
inversion models estimate the total wetland emissions to be 100–230 Tg CH4 /year,
under the present climate condition (Denman et al. 2007; Tang et al. 2010). Although
wetlands occupy only 2–6% of Earth’s land surface (Whiting and Chanton 2001),
they significantly contribute a larger proportion of the total carbon stored in terres-
trial reservoir (Schlesinger 1991). Zhang et al. (2017) reported that the climate
change-induced enhancement in boreal wetland and tropical CH4 emissions would
be the dominate anthropogenic CH4 emissions source by 38–56% at the end of the
twenty-first century. The various reports suggested that climate mitigation policies
must be in legislation to balance the wetland CH4 feedbacks to maintain average
global warming below 2 °C (Zhang et al. 2017). The wetland may play a crucial role
in atmospheric methane concentration in coming decades because of the huge
stocks of organic carbon and mineral stored under anaerobic conditions in both
boreal and tropical regions. In an estimate, carbon storage in histosols (wetland soil
type composed of mainly organic materials) ranges from 3% to 68% of the total soil
organic carbon reservoir (Post et al. 1982). The combination of elevated water
tables, high productivity and lower decomposition rate has led to significant carbon
storage in histosols (Gorham 1991) and contributes global methane balance.
2 O
verview of the Methane Emissions and Methane-
Producing Bacteria
The bacterial clusters involved in the emission and reduction are crucial in the
methane flux of soil. The study explores that solutions are required to be developed
to decrease the emission rate or encourage consumption of CH4 by methanotrophic
bacteria to minimize its concentration from flooded soils, particularly to the rice
fields.
The methanogens and methanotrophs are actively involved in the biogeochemical
cycling of CH4 in soil (Fazli et al. 2013). The methanogenic bacteria are accountable
for releasing CH4. They are obligate anaerobes and active in flooded, swampy areas
(Pazinato et al. 2010). However, the methanotrophs are aerobic microorganisms,
ubiquitous in nature and mostly active in oxic soil. Methanogens and methanotrophs
have been reported from several environmental conditions likely sludge digesters
(Hwang et al. 2008), lakes (Antony et al. 2012), peatland (Godin et al. 2012),
freshwater and marine sediments (Newby et al. 2004) and rice soil (Fazli et al. 2013;
Wang et al. 2010).
62 S. Tiwari et al.
2.1 Methanogens
The methanogens are obligate anaerobes (Garcia 1990) that belong to kingdom
Euryarchaeota of Archaea domain (Ferry 2010). Borrel et al. (2011) reported that
methanogenic group consists 31 genera under the phylum Euryarchaeota based on
16S rRNA sequence analysis (Rosenzweig and Ragsdale 2011). Methanogens pro-
duce CH4 through diverse metabolic pathways termed as methanogenesis (Singh
2009). The methanogenesis includes acetoclastic methanogenesis and hydrogeno-
trophic methanogenesis pathway to release CH4, i.e. the conversion of acetate to
CH4 and CO2 and H2 and CO2 to CH4, respectively (Conrad et al. 2006; Dubey
2005). In fact, methanogens are engaged in the biodegradation of organic com-
pounds anaerobically in wetlands and rice fields (Rosenzweig and Ragsdale 2011).
The 16S rRNA analyses showed that methanogenic archaea can be classified under
three important groups, i.e. group I contains of Methanobacterium and
Methanobrevibacter, group II comprises Methanococcus and group III includes
Methanospirillum and Methanosarcina. They multiply in anaerobic environments,
for example, swampy areas, sediments, flooded water, the digestive tract, etc.
(Dubey 2005). Most of the methanogens thrive in mesophilic conditions and actively
function from 20 to 400 °C temperature range (Dubey 2005). The methanogens
have also been reported from extreme environmental conditions such as deep hydro-
thermal vents sustaining at temperatures >100 °C. Methanogenic Archaea generally
takes acetate (contributing up to 80% of total CH4 production) as carbon source. In
addition, H2/CO2 and formats also contribute 10–30% in CH4 release (Dubey 2005).
2.1.1 Methanogens in Paddy Soil
The paddy rhizosphere is a vital habitat for methanogens (Ma and Lu 2011) due to
the decay of paddy roots and the liberation of H2 and CO2, which provides nutri-
tional support to microbes (Watanabe et al. 2010). Das et al. (2011) and Datta et al.
(2013) reported that higher populations of acetoclastic methanogens are found in
Indian rice soil than hydrogenotrophic methanogens. The pathway of methanogen-
esis in rice fields has been investigated globally. But the detailed information about
methanogenic population in paddy soil is limited. First of all, Rajagopal et al. (1988)
isolated and characterized the methanogenic Archaea from Louisiana paddy soils
and elucidated about the presence of strains similar to Methanobacterium and
Methanosarcina. Joulian et al. (1997) showed the existence of methanogenic bacte-
rial population in the paddy soils of the Philippines, France and the United States.
In addition, Reichardt et al. (1997) reported that the root extracts of adult paddy
plants were rich in methanogenic bacteria. Four genera Methanobacterium,
Methanosarcina, Methanobrevibacter and Methanoculleus were isolated from
Italian paddy fields (Fetzer et al. 1993). Asakawa et al. (1995) reported that only
couple of strains (Methanobrevibacter arboriphilus and Methanosarcina mazei)
have been identified in rice fields. Similarly, Adachi (1999) reported

Methanobrevibacter and Methanobacterium spp. from Japanese paddy soil.
2.1.2 Methanogenesis
The CH4 is released in the anoxic layers of rice soil by methanogenic breakdown of
organic substances (Dubey 2005). The anoxic conversion of organic matter takes
mainly four steps: (1) action of hydrolytic organisms on polymers, (2) action of
fermentative bacteria on organic compound for acid formation, (3) action of syn-
trophic bacteria or homoacetogenic on fermentations metabolites for acetate forma-
tion and (4) liberation of CH4 from H2/CO2, acetate, etc. Emancipation of CH4 from
the organic matter also involves various important coenzymes, some of which are
solely found in methanogenic archaea. At least nine methanogen-specific enzymes
are used in the mechanism of CH4 removal from H2 and CO2 (Dubey 2005).
2.1.3 Factors Affecting Methane Production
Methanogens are influenced by variety of natural as well as anthropogenic factors.

It has been reported that acetoclastic methanogenesis is accountable above two third
of the CH4 liberation and remaining portion of CH4 is emitted by hydrogenotrophic
methanogens (Das and Adhya 2012). Moreover, at elevated temperatures (40–
50 °C), the phenomenon methanogenesis is shown by hydrogenotrophic methano-
genic archaea. In addition, the expanding CO2 level favours hydrogenotrophic
methanogenesis in the environment (Das and Adhya 2012). For instance, Wang
et al. (2010) reported the following methanogenic archaea in a Chinese rice field:
Methanomicrobiales, Methanosaetaceae, Zoige cluster I (ZC-I), Methanosarcinaceae
and Methanocellales.
Wang et al. (2010) also stated that the types of methanogenic structure found in
rice field are different due to soil type, sampling location, moisture content and
temperature (Das and Adhya 2012). Sugano et al. (2005) demonstrated that before
the mid-season drainage, the methanogenic communities included rice cluster I,
Methanomicrobiales and Methanosarcinales, but after this period, the
Methanomicrobiales were perceived. Methanomicrobiales and rice cluster I are the
archaea accountable for breakdown of paddy straw under flooded environment. The
water management can also influence the methanogens community composition by
changing the moisture content of soil; subsequently it is an important aspect for CH4
emissions (Yao et al. 2006; Zhao et al. 2011). The alternate wetting and drying of
the soil could modify the population, community structure and transcriptional func-
tions of methanogens (Watanabe et al. 2010). Since, methanogens are more active
under flooding environments as compared to dry soil (Watanabe et al. 2009). Thus,
draining the soil reduces CH4 production from rice field (Khosa et al. 2011; Zhang
et al. 2011). In addition, drainage might also augment the nitrous oxide (N2O) lib-
64 S. Tiwari et al.
eration (Johnson-Beebout et al. 2009; Zhao et al. 2011) due to denitrification of
nitrate in anoxic and flooded situation (Fangueiro et al. 2010; Malla et al. 2005).
Therefore, the issue needs more specific research to reduce the production of CH4
along with of N2O release. Ghosh et al. (2003) suggested that the use of nitrification
inhibitors likely dicyandiamide might have a reducing impact on CH4 and N2O
emission. Malla et al. (2005) also reported that dicyandiamide plays a significant
role as a sink for CH4. Similarly, Smith et al. (1997) showed that addition of dicyan-
diamide after urea application could decrease N2O production up to 82%. The
polymer-coated fertilizers are also potent to reduce N2O release (Akiyama et al.
2010). It has been showed that at low C:N ratio in soil improves N2O emission. As
a result, C:N balance could shrink the emission, though the threshold ratio needs to
be explored. The addition of fertilizers can modify the methanogens found in soil.
The N fertilizer stimulates the denitrifying bacteria, which are more competent than
methanogenic archaea for growth nutrients. Consequently, N fertilizers suppress
CH4 production, for example, (NH4)2SO4 reduces CH4 emission than urea applica-
tion (Ghosh et al. 2003).
Elevation in GHGs, especially CO2, is a serious concern. The increased
concentration of CO2 in atmosphere can simultaneously decrease the methanogenic
activity, reducing the CH4 oxidation in paddy fields (Das and Adhya 2012). To
overcome the situation, water management could be a suppressing tool for CH4
production (Epule et al. 2011; Tyagi et al. 2010; Zhao et al. 2011). Temperature of
the soil also plays an important role in CH4 production (Khalil et al. 1998; Yang and
Chang 1998). Yang and Chang (1998) reported the enhanced emission of CH4
emission at temperature 4 to −37 °C. Nozhevnikova et al. (2007) also reported CH4
formation at temperature 15–20 °C in anaerobic soil.
2.2 Methanotrophs
Methanotrophs include aerobic and anaerobic CH4-oxidizing important bacterial

groups. The methanotrophs have been categorized into couple of groups: type I
(Gammaproteobacteria which takes CH4 adapting the RuMP pathway) and type II
(Alphaproteobacteria which oxidize CH4 via the serine pathway) (Rosenzweig and
Ragsdale 2011). However, Hanson and Hanson (1996) added ‘type X’ group of
methanotrophic cluster, likely Methylococcus and Methylocaldum (Bowman 2006).
Moreover, the type X can be considered as a subdivision of type I. Irrespective of
few resemblances, the type X (having low levels of enzymes of the serine pathway)
showed differences with other members of type I methanotrophs. But, information
regarding the group is still lacking (Semrau et al. 2010). Methanotrophs oxidize the
CH4 produced by methanogens in soil and the rhizospheric region of plants (e.g.
rice) (Bodelier et al. 2005; Conrad et al. 2006) and use CH4 as sole carbon and
energy source. Moreover, the CH4 consumers have a major role in regulation of CH4
production from submerged soils, such as rice fields and natural wetlands (Hoffmann
et al. 2002).
2.2.1 Methanotrophy in Paddy Soil
Type I and II of methanotrophs are natural inhabitants of paddy fields and thrive in
different niches based on oxygen and CH4 availability (Mayumi et al. 2010). Type I
CH4 oxidizers grow in environments with high oxygen and low CH4 intensity as
compared to type II methanotrophs which sustain well in poorer oxic soils (Mayumi
et al. 2010). In flooded condition, the interchange of oxygen from outer environ-
ment to the root might develop an oxygen-rich environment in the root and rhizo-
sphere which support the high growth and activity of methanotroph type II than type
I (Wu et al. 2009). In the case of drained soil, the type I methanotrophs are prevalent
in place of type II (Mayumi et al. 2010). Additionally, a positive correlation has
been shown between methanotrophs and the age of paddy plants due to elevation in
plant biomass, decrease in soil moisture content and NH4+-N concentration in tropi-
cal rice fields (Yue et al. 2007).
2.2.2 Factors Affecting Methanotrophs Activity
Methanotrophic activity is affected by various factors such as type of plants species,

variety of the plants, pattern of crop rotation and other environmental constrains
(Min et al. 2002; Xuan et al. 2011). The specific cultivar of rice has influenced the
CH4 consuming activity and methanotrophs level in paddy roots and rhizosphere as
reported by Win et al. (2011). However, another study reported that paddies have no
significant impact on methanotrophs population (Wu et al. 2009). The community
composition of soil methanotrophs can be affected by type and crop rotation pattern
including Verrucomicrobia (Xuan et al. 2011) which might be due to the production
of different root exudates affecting the soil microbial community (Doornbos et al.
2012). Wu et al. (2009) reported that type I methanotrophs are sensitive to environ-
mental factors. However, type II methanotrophs showed more stability (Vishwakarma
and Dubey 2010). The pH of the medium significantly alters the community of
methanotrophs and CH4 production in soil. The optimum condition of CH4 oxida-
tion may be between pH level 6 and 8 in paddy soil (Min et al. 2002), which ulti-
mately assists in the alleviation of methane. Paddy soil having pH <6 needs to be
adjusted for better crop productivity. Results suggested that addition of crop resi-
dues, lime, pyrite and other organic amendments may improve the population of
methanotrophs in rice fields and crop productivity (Li et al. 2011; Singh et al. 2010).
Amendment of N fertilizer (urea) may inhibit the methanotroph population; how-
ever, the addition of N and K together (e.g. potassium chloride) or the combination
of N, P, K and crop residues stimulates the growth of methanotroph abundance
(Zheng et al. 2008).
66 S. Tiwari et al.
3 Mechanistic Pathways of Methane Emission
For a better understanding of the processes which involved in the process of CH4
emission from paddies, a brief introduction of plant and soil chemistry is essential.
Carbon is the basic prerequisite for methanogenic growth generated from three
basic sources: the death of crop root tissue, decay of both fresh organic matter and
humus and carbohydrate exudates (Wassmann et al. 2000). The methanogens can
produce CH4 either from the H2 or CO2 (Wassmann et al. 2000) as follows:
CO2 + 4 H 2 = CH 4 + 2 H 2 O
Or
CH 3COO - + H + = CO2 + CH 4

Summary line
2 ( CH 2 O ) = CO2 + CH 4

Schütz et al. (1989) explained CH4 emission from paddies via three pathways
including diffusion (<1%), ebullition (10%) and plant-mediated transport (90%)
from rice plant itself. The rice plants have an efficient gas exchange system between
the anaerobic soil and the troposphere which can change the exchange pathway
according to soil condition and CH4 concentration (Holzapfel-Pschorn et al. 1986;
Wassmann et al. 2000). In rice growing in the temperate region, the main route of
CH4 (>90%) emission is plant transport (Dubey 2005), while in the tropics, CH4
evolution takes place by the process of ebullition (transportation of gas in the form
of bubbles) particularly in the early months of the season and high organic input
(Dubey 2005). The process of ebullition of CH4 flux is also commonly observed in
natural wetlands (Dubey 2005) and found to be significant in the case of high fertil-
ization (Sass et al. 2000). Dubey (2005) also reported that in the case of unvegetated
plant and plant with undeveloped aerenchyma, ebullition plays a key role in CH4
emission (Dubey 2005). However, CH4 emission restricted to the surface layer and
the rate of emission is regulated by the concentration of CH4, porosity of the soil,
temperature of the soil and plant aerenchyma (Li 2000). Methane diffusion through
the soil is a very slow process as the rate of diffusion of CH4 is extremely low in
liquid phase (~104 times slower than diffusion through the gas phase) and thus
hardly contributes to the total CH4 flux (Aulakh et al. 2000). The CH4 diffusion
phenomenon across the flooded soil and overlying water of the paddy field to the
atmosphere is a function of wind speed, surface water concentration of CH4 and
CH4 supply to the surface water (Dubey 2005).
4 Adaptive Measures Controlling CH4 Emission
From the centuries, European wetlands have been continuously drained for
agricultural and other industrial needs. In estimation, more than 50% of all the
peatlands in Europe were lost due to anthropogenic interference (Nivet and Frazier
2004; Jerman et al. 2009). However, with the increasing importance of the wetland
functions, utilization and approaches towards wetland conservation have now been
changed from Europe to all over the world. The major restoration strategies along
these include cessation of agricultural practices, protection, conservation and re-
establishment of wetland and its hydrology (Rosenthal 2003). The malpractices of
wetland exploitation in agriculture in Europe have reversed to land subsidence and
sequestered atmospheric CO2 as peat accretes (He et al. 2015).
Wetlands are the biggest non-anthropogenic resource of atmospheric CH4 and
key global carbon reservoir. Therefore, characterizing the belowground wetland
microbial communities which participate in carbon dynamics might be a broad area
of research to understand the microbial importance and their responses to changing
land and climate. Wetlands cover 5–8% of the total land area of the Earth (Jerman
et al. 2009) and support various ecosystem services, viz. wildlife habitat, flood con-
trol, water purification, etc. Wetland, as a major terrestrial carbon reservoir, covers
20–30% of the global soil carbon pool (Jerman et al. 2009) and plays an important
role in global carbon cycling. However, wetlands are continuously shrinking due to
agricultural, urbanization, population growth and industrial insurgency (Jerman
et al. 2009), releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere and enhancing global cli-
mate change. In addition to reversing land subsidence, the high primary production
and low rate of decomposition in restored wetlands may result in a net atmospheric
CO2 sequestration, allowing them to act as ‘carbon farms’.
Climate and land use changes directly affect ecosystem processes by influencing
the plant community composition (Sutton-Grier and Megonigal 2011), nutrient avail-
ability, organic carbon concentration and nutrient cycling in wetlands (Mitsch et al.
2013; Petruzzella et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2018). In addition, transport of oxygen in
the root tissue may alter the accessibility of oxygen in the sediment, resulting into
methanogenesis suppression or CH4 oxidation (Sutton- Grier and Megonigal 2011).
Recent concern of global warming has developed interest in the role of terrestrial
ecosystems in minimizing CH4 levels (Chan and Parkin 2000). Terrestrial systems
function as net sources or sinks for atmospheric CH4. Methane flux measured at the
soil/atmosphere interface is the result of CH4 oxidation and methanogenesis
(Knowles 1993). A negative CH4 flux (consumption of CH4 by soil) occurs when the
magnitude of the CH4 uptake is larger than the process of methanogenesis and gen-
erally found in arable land, when conditions are predominately aerobic (Hansen
et al. 1993). A positive CH4 flux indicates net CH4 production and occurs when the
magnitude of the methanogenic process is larger than CH4 uptake and predominates
in anaerobic condition such as paddies and wetlands (flooded or water saturated)
68 S. Tiwari et al.
Biomass burning 47
Rice agriculture 54
Ruminants 84
Landfills and waste 54
Gas, oil, industry 61
Coal mining 36
Wild fires 3
Wild animals 15
Geological 9
Hydrates 5
Oceans 10
Termites 22
Wetlands 174
0 50 100 150 200
Methane emission (Tg yr-1)
Fig. 5.1 Natural and anthropogenic sources of CH4. (Modified from Amstel 2012)
(Lauren and Duxbury 1993). The process of CH4 flux is supported by soil, wetland
systems and mixture of anaerobic and aerobic sites. The natural sources of CH4
include wetlands, oceans, hydrates, geological sources, termites, animals, wildfires,
etc. (Fig. 5.1).
5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
This manuscript emphasizes the aspects of methanogenesis and CH4 oxidation in

different wetlands and the environment. The CH4 has been recognized as one of the
most important GHG in the atmosphere. Because of the strict anaerobic environ-
ment for CH4 generation, natural wetlands are considered as the main sources of
biogenic CH4. Off all the wetland, tropical wetlands are the largest natural contribu-
tor of global CH4 budget. Continuous increase in atmospheric CH4 and other GHG
level are predicted to raise global temperature with several implications. The assess-
ment of climatic changes by CH4 and other GHG can be assessed only by measuring
the quantity of the production, oxidation and emission of CH4 from all the natural
and anthropogenic sources and characterizing their responses on the plants and ani-
mals. The available database on CH4 flux to the atmosphere is insufficient in relation
to the large variety of climatological and edaphological factors that would allow to
extrapolate data at a global scale and to design more precise models on the impact
of the global climatic change leading to a better forecast of future state of affairs.
The increasing demands of rice due to population load could lead to further expan-
sion of the areas used for rice cultivation and, therefore, would add to higher CH4
level. As a result, rice cultivation would put a massive load on future global warm-
ing. Therefore, the research should not be focused only on rice cultivation but also
in the development of technologies for better analysis of CH4 production and its
oxidation. Besides, it is imperative to develop possible mitigation approaches to
diminish and/or suppress emissions of this hydrocarbon in a sustainable manner.
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Chapter 6
Wetlands Conservation and Restoration
for Ecosystem Services and Halt
Biodiversity Loss: An Indian Perspective
Rima Kumari, S. K. Shukla, K. Parmar, Nirmali Bordoloi, Amit Kumar,

and P. Saikia
Abstract Wetlands are one of the most productive ecosystems that support diverse
habitats and biodiversity and are known for its various ecosystem goods and ser-
vices. About half of global wetlands have found to be lost, and the conditions of
remaining wetlands are deteriorating due to natural as well as anthropogenic cause.
The negative economic, social, and environmental significances of diminishing
water quality in wetlands are one of the major issues of concern for degraded wet-
lands in India. Thus, it is imperative to emphasize on the restoration of the degraded
wetlands along with the conservation and management of the existing wetlands
since they are one of the most valuable and fragile components of the watershed.
The present research strongly suggests the management practices for wetland con-
servation should be based on the traditional knowledge and resource uses that will
eventually aid in fostering biodiversity and preserving key ecosystem services in
cost-effective and sustainable way.
Keywords Wetland · Biodiversity · Ecosystem services · Restoration
1 Introduction
Wetlands are one of the maximum productive ecosystems that support diverse and
unique habitats and biodiversity and known for its diverse ecosystem goods and
services. They do not only ameliorate environmental impacts of agriculture and other
ecological disturbances in watersheds but also offer various ecosystem services to
human society (Zedler 2003). The sustainable use of wetlands is critical to improve
R. Kumari · S. K. Shukla · K. Parmar · N. Bordoloi · P. Saikia (*)

Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand,
A. Kumar
Department of Geoinformatics, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

76 R. Kumari et al.
social cohesion and economic stability and also to adapt to changing climatic condi-
tions. According to Cowardin et al. (1979), wetlands are “transitional lands between
terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface
or the land is sheltered by shallow water” and “must have categorized into the fol-
lowing three attributes: (1) The land supports predominantly hydrophytes (2)
Predominantly un-drained hydric soil (3) The substrate is non-soil and is saturated
with water by shallow water at the growing season of each year.” Based on the eco-
logical, hydrological, and geological characteristics, wetlands are categorized into
marine (coastal wetlands), estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove
swamps), lacustrine (lakes), riverine (along rivers and streams), and palustrine
(“marshy” marshes, bogs, and swamps) (Cowardin et al. 1979). The diversity and
abundance of macrophytes richness in a wetland are governed by its water regime.
The depth, frequency, duration, amplitude of change, and the time of the year are
the five important components of water regime which regulate several life processes
throughout the life cycle of various macrophytes as well as aquatic fauna (Gopal
2014). Most of the freshwater wetlands are threatened, and few are already degraded
and vanished due to urbanization, increased in population, and economic activities
(Central Pollution Control Board 2008). The undesirable economic, environmental,
and social consequences decline the water quality in wetlands, and these are one of
the major issues for degraded wetlands in India (Bassi et al. 2014). Thus, it is
authoritative to emphasize the restoration of the degraded wetlands along with the
conservation of the existing wetlands since they are one of the most valuable as well
as friable components of the watershed.
2 Present Status of Wetlands in India
In India, a numerous acts and legal provisions have been applied in order to con-
serve the fragile wetland ecosystem, and as a result of which the Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India has declared 17
sites as notified wetlands, while 26 have already been declared as Wetlands of
International Importance under Ramsar Convention (Tables 6.1 and 6.2). Apart
Table 6.1 Present status (numeric) of wetlands in India

S. Status (total
no. Particulars no.)
1 Total no. of wetlands in the country as per the latest National Wetland 55,862
Atlas
2 No. of natural wetlands under conservation:
a. Wetlands designated as Ramsar sites and under NWCP 119
b. Wetlands under NLCP 61
c. Wetlands under NRCP 39
d. Overall no. of wetlands under conservation 219
Sources: Data compiled from MoEF (2007, 2012) and Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (2012)
6 Wetlands Conservation and Restoration for Ecosystem Services and Halt… 77
Table 6.2 List of wetlands designated as Ramsar sites in India and their criteria
S. no. Wetland’s name State Ramsar criteria
1 Ashtamudi Wetland Kerala 1,2,3,8
2 Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 2,4,6,8,9
3 Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 2,4,5,6
4 Chandertal Wetland Himachal Pradesh 2,3
5 Chilika Lake Orissa 2,4,5,6,8,9
6 Deepor Beel Assam 2,5
7 East Calcutta Wetlands West Bengal 1
8 Harike Lake Punjab 2,5,6
9 Hokera Wetland Jammu and Kashmir 2,5,6
10 Kanjli Punjab 3
11 Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 2,5,6
12 Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh 2,4,5,6
13 Loktak Lake Manipur 2,5,6
14 Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujarat 2,5,6
15 Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu 2,4,5
16 Pong Dam Lake Himachal Pradesh 2,5,6
17 Renuka Wetland Himachal Pradesh 3,4
18 Ropar Punjab 5,6
19 Rudrasagar Lake Tripura 2,3,8
20 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 2,5,6
21 Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 1,2,7,8
22 Surinsar-Mansar Lakes Jammu and Kashmir 2,3,4
23 Tso Moriri Jammu and Kashmir 2,6
24 Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch) Uttar Pradesh 2,5
25 Vembanad-Kol Wetland Kerala 4,5,6
26 Wular Lake Jammu and Kashmir 2,5,6
Source: Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt. of India
from this, the several wetlands covered by the National Wetland Conservation
Programme (NWCP) and National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) have also
increased to 115 and 61, respectively (MoEF 2012). In the valuation of wetlands in
India, a total of 4.63% of the geographic area has been verified under wetlands
(Fig. 6.1) (MoEF 2011). India has 63% natural wetland (66, 23,067 ha), and the
remaining 37% have human-made inland wetlands (39, 41,832 ha). Besides, India
has 4,140,116 ha of coastal wetlands (of which the intertidal mudflats of Kutch
alone contribute about 51%), and 555,557 ha of wetlands are smaller than 2.25 ha
each. The paddy fields were also included as wetlands in this inventory (Gopal
2014). Rapid urbanization and industrialization have excessive impact on wetland,
and the urban wetlands are the most threatened for their existence as it is being used
as regular landfill sites or dumping sites of solid wastes. The discharge of untreated
industrial wastewater and domestic wastewaters in the wetland is the significant fac-
tor causing degradation of wetlands ecosystem (Upadhyay et al. 2019). Cattle
browsing have the major impact on the wetlands because it removes the native plant
78 R. Kumari et al.
Wetland Area in Percentage
2.86 3.64
Inland Wetlands- Natural

24.27 43.4
Inland Wetlands- Man-made
Coastal Wetlands- Natural
Coastal Wetlands- Man-made
25.83
Wetlands (<2.25ha)
Fig. 6.1 Percentage of category-wise distribution of wetlands in the country. (Source: MoEF,
Government of India 2011)
species. Furthermore, by compacting the fragile wetland soil, cattle alters water
flows and nutrient dynamics across the wetland, reducing the capacity of the wet-
lands to function as ecological filters of agricultural runoff, with the consequent
increase of contaminants in water (Cisneros 2010). Freshwater bodies are often
subject to changes in land use in their catchments leading to the reduction in inflows
and deteriorating quality of the “runoff” traversing through agricultural fields and
urban areas. On the other hand, many of them act as the “sink” for untreated efflu-
ents from industries (Gopal 2014).
3 Strategies for Wetlands Conservation
Ramsar Convention is a major step at the global level for the conservation of the
wetlands, which forms an agenda of intergovernmental collaboration on wetland. It
is an international treaty taken up with a moral duty of “conservation and sensible
use of all wetlands by local, national and international cooperation towards achiev-
ing sustainable development.” Ramsar Convention was adopted in 1971 in the city
of Ramsar, Iran, and came into existence in 1975. After implementation of the
agenda, ~2331 wetlands have been designated as Ramsar sites through analyzing 9
criteria set forth in the Ramsar Convention for designation of the wetland. Besides
Ramsar Convention, various steps are now being implanted at the national or
regional level to save the wetlands. Dyana (2015) reported that the situation for the
conservation of wetland in India is poor due to lack of any administrative jurisdic-
tion, care, and responsibility rather than the management of wetland ecosystems is
controlled by Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. However, the
conservation of wetlands in India is indirectly influenced by a range of policies and
legislations (Parikh and Parikh 1999). Some of the important regulations that con-
tribute to wetland conservation are:
• The Indian Fisheries Act, 1857: This act highlights the conservation of fishes and
banned the use of all the activities which influence the quality of water and cause
the destruction of fishes.
• The Indian Forest Act, 1927: The wetlands were occasionally included under
protected areas.
• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: This act provides protection of aquatic faunal
diversity by including them under various lists of the law.
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: The act was endorsed
with the aim to prevent and control water pollution and maintenance of water
integrity.
• Forest Conservation Act, 1980: The act was mainly passed to conserve the for-
ests. This act also indirectly contributes to conservation of wetland by preventing
the soil erosion and siltation due to the deforestation and land use change.
• Environment Protection Act, 1986: Environment Protection Act is more effective
and strong measure to tackle the problem of pollution of air, water, and soil thus
involved in conservation of wetland.
• Coastal Zone Regulation Notification, 1991: The act has certain provisions that
assist in preservation of the fresh water and marine life. The act also classifies
some coastal zones as ecologically sensitive zone and prohibition of the human
activities around there.
Apart from these legislations, there are other rules like The Wetlands
(Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010, that are involved in the conservation
of wetlands. These rules prohibit certain activities that are directly or indirectly
liable for wetland degradation. The Government of India along with National
Committee on Wetlands, National Committee on Mangrove and Coral Reefs, etc.
continuously puts efforts to frame a guideline for identification of wetland type
through ground level mechanism to conserve the wetlands (Ministry of Environment
and Forest 2011).
4 Wetland: Conservation of Biodiversity and Services
Since many decades, wetlands have been used for ecological, societal welfare (ser-
vices), and biodiversity conservation and play important role in sustainment of the
future generation (CBD 2015; Wetlands Rules 2010). All wetlands regulate water
quality by nutrient cycling. Besides, wetlands are equipped with perennial macro-
phytes, and trees/plants check soil erosion (Upadhyay et al. 2019). The wetland in
India is richly distributed from the Trans-Himalayan to Terai regions of Himalayan
foothills, floodplains of Brahmaputra, Gangetic plains, and swamps of northeastern
India, Gujarat, and Rajasthan (Memon et al. 2018). The wetlands of India alone
support approx. 2400 species and subspecies of birds and assist in protecting the
declining population of species by making them resilient by acting as habitat and
refuge for various biodiversity (Paul and Chanda 2011). They are considered as the
80 R. Kumari et al.
favored feeding and resting stations along migratory flyways for shorebirds, ducks,
and waders, which in turn allure a large number of raptors and thus form the reser-
voir of biodiversity (Cannicci and Contini 2009). Thus, the importance of wetlands
should be highly acknowledged to halt and reverse biodiversity decline.
Wetland services are also involved in food security as they enable the availability
of various food products such as fish, rice, and other crops grown along the edges of
wetlands, etc. (Kakuru et al. 2013). Rice and fish being the highest contributor of
food for more than half of the world’s human population, wetland provides the most
important benefits for humans. All these services necessitate the need to prioritize
the conservation of wetland; however, restoration and protection of ecosystem ser-
vices and biodiversity are difficult as the accepted paradigm of conservation
excludes the productive use of resources (Cisneros 2010). Temporarily wetland
stores floodwater and thus protects downstream areas from the flood. The various
ecosystem services provided by wetlands are given in Table 6.3. The increase in the
recognition of the values and importance of wetlands resulted in the creation and
implementation of laws, regulations, and plans to restore and protect the wetlands
Table 6.3 Principal ecosystem services (ES) supplied by wetlands

Ecosystem service
(ES) type Individual ES Description
Supporting Biogeochemical cycling Maintenance of natural flux of material and
energy between living and nonliving components
Biotic interactions Pollination of wild species, seed dispersal,
preservation and maintenance of trophic chains
Habitat Habitat for transient and resident population
Plant food/raw material The proportion of gross primary production that
can be extracted as food/raw material
Provisioning Animal food/raw The proportion of secondary production that can
material be extracted as food/raw material
Water supply Filtering, retention, and storage of fresh water
for human use
Climate regulation Regulation of the chemical composition of the
atmosphere, global temperature
Hydrological dynamics Regulation of natural hydrological flows, role of
land cover in regulating runoff, infiltration
Regulating Water quality Retention and removal of xenic compounds,
water purification
Regulation of extreme Capacity and integrity of ecosystem response to
events environmental fluctuations such as floods, storms
Regulation of soil Soil maintenance and formation, prevention of
fertility erosion, accumulation of organic matter
Regulation of invasive Regulation of invasive species population, pest
species, pests population
Cultural Recreation Provision of opportunities for recreational
activities
Source: MEA (2005)
around the world (Cherry 2011). All the efforts as mentioned earlier in the strategies
of wetland conservation are designed to protect or conserve wetlands and ecosystem
services they provide.
5 Wetland: Role in Carbon Sequestration
The floral constituents of the wetland found to have a significant contribution toward
sequestering carbon because of their high growth rate (Adhikari et al. 2009).
Furthermore, their soils have also been proved as great carbon storage because of
their anaerobic nature where the carbon gets incorporated into the soil and takes
time to decompose (Singh 2016). Wetlands help in the reduction of atmospheric
carbon dioxide which is either sequestered in the plant biomass and animal biomass
or as organic material in the soil. The reduced decomposition rates result in buildup
and accumulation of large organic carbon in wetland sediments (Department of
Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities 2012), which
causes a reduction in the atmospheric CO2 (Adhikari et al. 2009). Pant et al. (2003)
reported that the wetlands are the highest carbon density reservoir in terrestrial eco-
systems with capacity to sequester additional CO2. In a study of UNFCCC (2014),
mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrass meadows in wetland were found to be over
1000 mg CO2 ha−1. Wetland covers 6–9% of the earth’s surface and contains ~35%
of global terrestrial carbon (Ramsar/ STRP/ CBD 2007). In addition, wetlands are
responsible for the horizontal transport of carbon and may consume carbon-rich
sediments from catchment area (Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water,
Population and Communities 2012). Thus, wetlands have a contribution to climate
change regulation. Degradation of wetlands has also been found to be a reason
behind the release of a significant amount of stored carbon back into the atmosphere
(Adhikari et al. 2009; Singh 2016). However, under anaerobic condition, wetland
discharges various gases such as methane and nitrous oxide which are potent envi-
ronmental pollutants and contribute in global warming (Barlett and Harriss 1993).
With the increased globalization and simultaneous fast loss and degradation of wet-
lands, it is estimated that around 0.45 billion tons of CO2 per year would be released
into the atmosphere (UNFCCC 2014).
6 Restoration of Wetlands and the Future World
To enhance the enhance wetland’s ecosystem services, restoration of degraded wet-

land has become an important priority. About half of the global wetlands have
already been lost, and the condition of the remaining is deteriorating (Clarkson et al.
2014). Wetlands, despite disproportionation in their aerial extent, support the huge
biodiversity and the several benefits to humans; it failed to draw the attention of the
people toward their conservation and management (Gopal 2015). The restored
82 R. Kumari et al.
wetlands have been found to provide higher levels of provisioning, regulating, and
conditioning ecosystem services than the degraded ones (Meli et al. 2014). In order
to ensure the health of watersheds, one of the most valuable and fragile components,
it is essential to restore wetlands to their natural state not only considering as an
indispensable unit but also as a rich resource of human for the sustainable world and
the environment (Halls 1997). The effectiveness of approaches toward achieving
anticipated conservation goals varies and depends on the site conditions, practices
employed, and specific ecoservices. Apart from these, the restoration technique
application is also dependent on the type of disturbances. Through the restoration
practice, much of the biodiversity and the ecosystem services can be recovered
(Zedler 2005). The techniques that can be applied in order to restore the degraded
wetlands generally fall within three broad categories (National Research Council
1992):
• Re-establishment or management of wetland hydrology
• Elimination or control of chemicals and other contaminants affecting wetlands
• Re-establishment and management of native biota
The basic design for restoration of wetland ecosystem has been described in
Fig. 6.2 (WRP 1992).
7 Recommendation and Future Research
The conclusion which emerges through this research implies that the services pro-
vided by the wetlands are key regulators for the current world and sustainability.
The present research suggests the management practices for conservation of the
natural resources based on traditional knowledge and resource uses which will defi-
nitely speedup the biodiversity and the different ecosystem services. Additionally,
research including appropriate measurement and ecosystem modeling is needed to
collect the quantitative data on species diversity found in different wetland and their
contribution in socioeconomic development. The following points are suggested to
justify the services received from the wetlands:
• Establishment of management strategies which might conserve both wetlands
and cultural practices.
• A detailed seasonal inventory of aquatic flora and fauna with special emphasis to
macrophytes, microphytes, phytoplanktons, algae, fish, birds, amphibians, crus-
taceans, and mollusk must be required for its betterment.
• Conservation of habitat for different animals, birds, insects, other wild animals,
etc.
• A comprehensive assessment of the socioeconomic as well as ecological benefits
provided by the wetland should also be measured.
Evaluation of wetlands needs
Identification of functions and values for restoration
Baseline site evaluation: Vegetative survey, Hydrologic

survey, Soils survey, Topographic survey
Location or prioritization of site for restoration
Identification of designing criteria based on soil, hydrology, and vegetation
Yes
Is existing soil,
hydrology Existing
adequate? vegetation
No sufficient Y
Yes
Fill or
excavation No
Determination of substrate
required?
elevation and grading No Plant sp. selection
Water
control N
Selection of fill material source
required Selecting
vegetative method
Selection of fill or excavation technique Yes
Designing water Determining plant

control structure material source
Yes No
Hydrauli
c fil Selecting equipment
for planting
Erosion
Retention control
required Determining
No Determination required
planting
of soil transport Yes schedule
Yes?
and handling
Designing equipment Designing erosion Determining
retention structure control measures site preparation
requirement
Design for initial Selection of N
volume & retention equipment for All components
Substrat
placement are compatible?
e design
suitable
Yes
Evaluation of Yes
consolidation of fill No Complete overall
design
Management &
monitoring plan
development
Fig. 6.2 The basic design for restoration of wetland ecosystem. (Source: WRP 1992)
84 R. Kumari et al.
Acknowledgment Authors acknowledge the suggestions of the reviewers for improving the
quality of the manuscript.
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Chapter 7
Microbes Biology: Microbes in Wetland
and Bioprospection of Microbes
Avinash Singh, Prashant Kumar Singh, Wenjing Wang,

and Alok Kumar Shrivastava
Abstract Over-increasing population, climate change, and the environmental

pollutants are exerting negative pressure on biodiversity as well as our natural
resources. Wetlands are a crucial gear of our natural environment. They support not
only biological diversity but also the microbial communities of such systems that
play an important role in biogeochemical cycles, global greenhouse gas emission,
and nutrient (re)cycling. Therefore, wetlands are ecologically as well as economically
indispensable systems owing to their high yield. The highly productive and diverse
microbial community inhabitant of wetland ecosystems continuously transforms
nutrients from dead vegetation into sources of nitrogen, phosphorous, and other
nutrients that can be used by the plants, and in turn the plant-root exudates serve as
a food source for the microbes. Unfortunately, the composition and diversity of
microorganisms in such type of ecosystems are poorly explored. Hence, the analysis
of microbial biodiversity and their correct prospecting from these ecosystems will
help in isolating and identifying new and potential microorganisms having high
specificity for various applications. This chapter consists of literature on the diver-
sity of predominant microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes from
Authors Avinash Singh and Prashant Kumar Singh have equally contributed to this chapter.
A. Singh
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical University of South Carolina,
Charleston, SC, USA
P. K. Singh
State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Henan Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology,
School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan, China
Department of Vegetable and Fruit Science, Institute of Plant Science, Agriculture Research
Organization (ARO), The Volcani Center, Rishon LeZion, Israel
W. Wang
State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology, Henan Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology,
School of Life Science, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan, China
A. K. Shrivastava (*)
Department of Botany, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari, Bihar, India
e-mail: [email protected]

88 A. Singh et al.
etland ecosystems and on the underlying mechanisms that structure microbial

w
communities in wetland ecosystems.
Keywords Biodiversity · Bioprospecting · Biogeochemical cycles ·

Microorganisms · Nutrient recycling · Wetland ecosystem
1 Introduction
The European Commission (CE) and US Environmental Protection Agency

(USEPA) jointly define wetlands as “Areas which are inundated or saturated with
surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that
under normal situations do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically reformed
for life in saturated soil conditions” (Federal Register 1980, 1982). Wetland ecosys-
tem includes marshes, swamps, bogs, and similar areas, as well as the transition
zone between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Wetlands cover ~5–8% of the
Earth’s land surface and one of the most important ecosystems due to their high
productivity, ability to cycle (recycle) the nutrients, and contribution to global
greenhouse gas emissions (Bodelier and Dedysh 2013a, b). The wetlands also pre-
vent eutrophication of inland as well as coastal waters by acting as a buffer between
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Alam and Jia 2012). The simultaneous activities
of both aerobes and anaerobes blossom in wetlands due to its proximity of oxic-
anoxic conditions often generated due to wetland plant roots (Bodelier and Dedysh
2013a, b). The wetland system is highly productive due to nutrient input and its fast
recycling by microbes (Upadhyay et al. 2019). With the recent surge in anthropo-
genic activities and climate change globally, wetlands are under high pressure (Chen
et al. 2018). Any changes in the land use or altered hydrology due to climate change
will have a devastating effect on the wetlands. The biomass of wetland can be uti-
lized as a nutrient removal material and source of biofuel (Bodelier and Dedysh
2013a, b). Unfortunately, the functionality and diversity of the microbial communi-
ties in the wetlands are highly unexplored.
1.1 Types of Wetlands
1.1.1 Coastal Wetlands
A coastal wetland ecosystem includes estuary and marshy systems that are heavily
used and vulnerable natural system (Barbier et al. 2011; Halpern et al. 2008). The
coastal ecosystem globally decreases due to anthropogenic activities and a reported
reduction of 50% salt marshes, 55% mangroves, and 29% seagrasses (MEA 2005;
Waycott et al. 2009). In coastal wetlands, water levels and salt concentrations are
continuously fluctuating and develop such habitats which are unfit for the growth of
plants (MEA 2005). Therefore, only those plants having potential to tolerate the
7 Microbes Biology: Microbes in Wetland and Bioprospection of Microbes 89
extreme environment may flourish and adapt to these flexible conditions to form
unique communities. Examples are mangroves, grasses, and other halophytes.
1.1.2 Inland Wetlands
Inland wetlands are the most common type found on the flooded plains along the
rivers and streams, lakes, ponds, and land depressions, where the soil environment
is under constant saturation (Carter 1996). Unlike coastal ecosystem, the salinity of
inland wetlands is not a key contributing factor. However, salinity is essential for
various plants and microbial communities, and little fluctuations in the salt concen-
tration are observed.
1.2 Characteristics of Wetland
1.2.1 Physical Environment
Wetlands are identified as a transition zone between terrestrial and aquatic

environment (Casey and Klaine 2001). Water hydrology is a very important
component of wetland ecosystem, which generally determines the water budget.
The water budget directly or indirectly influences the structure of the soil
environment, and diversity of flora as well as fauna residing in the wetland (Carter
1996). Wetland soil has been classified as hydric and possesses characteristics that
are associated with reducing soil conditions.
1.2.2 Hydrology
Water availability plays a crucial role in exploring wetland processes. The inundated
area is either permanently or periodically at mean water depths ~6.6 ft or the
saturated soil at the surface in growing season (Upadhyay et al. 2017). In general,
the wet environments, such as aquatic wetlands and flooded wetlands, experience
higher rates of anaerobic respiration (e.g., denitrification, methanogenesis, iron
reduction, and sulfate reduction) than aerobic (nitrification). Continuous water satu-
ration in wetland causes severe oxygen depletion, which leads to switch the micro-
bial population toward other substrates for energy (Balser et al. 2006). In wetlands,
both wet and dry conditions prevail, and during wet periods, anaerobic pathways
may be used for energy (denitrification, etc.), while in dry periods, oxygen is pres-
ent allowing for aerobic pathways for energy.
90 A. Singh et al.
1.2.3 Soil Structure
The wetland soil texture plays a crucial role in the processes performed by the
microbial community and mainly hydric soil to support strictly anaerobic condi-
tions under increased redox potential.
1.3 Biological Interactions
1.3.1 Plants
Plants are the critical components of wetland (Upadhyay et al. 2016). The
predominant vegetation comprises macrophytes which are typically adapted to
areas of water saturation and provide substrate for the growth of diverse microbes
(Dhir 2013; Vyamazal 2013). Hydrophytic species can grow and effectively
compete, reproduce, and persist in anaerobic as well as aerobic conditions. Examples
are Phragmites sp., Typha sp., bulrushes, sedges, water lilies, pondweed, waterweed,
etc. (Rai et al. 2015). These plants are the main components in the ecosystem func-
tioning and making wetland the most productive ecosystem on Earth. Wetlands
offer an enormous amount of dissolved organic matter via photosynthesis and sub-
sequent death and decomposition (Dhir 2013). Moreover, the macrophytes are not
the only organisms capable of photosynthesis in wetlands; there is a large popula-
tion of cyanobacteria and algae, capable to fix carbon dioxide (Richey et al. 2002).
1.3.2 Animals
A variety of animal species are an inhabitant of wetland environments (Zedler and

Kerchar 2005). The standing water and overabundance of algae, as well as photo-
synthetic bacteria availability, make the habitat an ideal for insect growth including
mosquitoes and gnats. Wetlands also supported the reptiles and amphibians due to
the close proximity of open water to vegetated areas and a wide range of insects
inhabiting the ecosystem (Roe and Georges 2007). Birds and mammals are also
abundant in marshy environments (Benoit and Askins 1999). Overall, the wetland
food web is complex due to the presence of different groups of organism from dif-
ferent environment.
1.3.3 Microorganisms
Microbes play crucial roles in the food web, by functioning as primary producers as
well as decomposers (Upadhyay et al. 2017). Producer microorganism includes
photoautotrophic organism and is essential in ensuring the strong food web. After
the death of higher trophic organisms, microbes degrade them and, thus, assist the
recycling of valuable power and reintroduce it into the system as dissolved organic
carbon (Rai et al. 2015). This overall process is known as the microbial loop.
2 Key Developments in Wetland Microbiology
Various authors (Kolb and Horn 2012; Lamers et al. 2012a, b; Lovell and Davis
2012; Pester et al. 2012) have described the development of wetland microbiology
in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Kolb and Horn (2012) represented the
microbial methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) consumption in acidic wetlands.
Acidic wetlands are the global sources of methane and nitrous oxide, the green-
house gases. Though the use of these atmospheric gases has been observed in vari-
ous wetlands, the microbial mechanisms are rarely known. At subsoil horizon,
methane is substantially consumed by aerobic methanotrophs at anoxic-oxic inter-
faces (e.g., rhizosphere of vascular plant roots, tissues of Sphagnum mosses) (Kolb
and Horn 2012). The likely candidates for the consumption of atmospheric methane
in acidic wetlands are methylocystis-related species (Methylocystaceae members)
whose activities are regulated by the availability of oxygen (Don et al. 2005). Acidic
wetlands act as a temporary source or sink of nitrous oxide since nitrous oxide is
produced and consumed by microbial denitrification. Based on the analysis of N2O
reductase gene in acidic wetlands, the acid-tolerant Proteobacteria can mediate
N2O consumption acidic wetlands. Lamers et al. 2012a, b analyzed the microbial
activities’ effect on the growth of plants. The wetland microbes participate in the
nitrogen, sulfur, and iron cycling, thus, having a profound impact on the perfor-
mance and growth of plants. Lovell and Davis (2012) highlighted the role of diazo-
trophs in the maintenance of nutrient-limited salt marshes. Their studies suggested
that the highly varied diazotrophic community shows clear biogeography within the
salt marsh and even differs between plant species, pointing a niche differentiation of
nitrogen fixer diazotrophs within the wetlands. Pester et al. (2012) studied the
sulfate-reducing microorganisms in freshwater wetlands and reported that though
sulfate reducers form a small population in freshwater wetlands, they are very much
capable of catalyzing significant sulfate reduction rates and interacting with
microbes which are involved in other cycles. Freshwater wetlands consist of a
highly diverse sulfate-reducing community in contrast to marine habitats, and this
community is mostly comprised of microbes which are not related to cultured rep-
resentatives (Reyes-Sosa et al. 2018).
3 Microbial Abundance, Diversity, and Spatial Distribution
Microbial communities in the wetland systems play an important role in

biogeochemical cycles, crucial for wetland functions (Truu et al. 2009). Recently,
by the advancement in the science and technology especially in the field of molecular
92 A. Singh et al.
biology, approaches toward next-generation sequencing, identification and analysis,

and research on microbial diversity in various natural wetlands have rapidly devel-
oped (Reyes-Sosa et al. 2018). For example, the 16S rRNA tag-encoded pyrose-
quencing approach has been adopted to study microbial diversity in different natural
wetlands (Deng et al. 2014). Deng et al. (2014) also reported that the diverse micro-
bial community in different wetlands using same experiments revealed that the size-
able bacterial diversity in these wetlands includes the following organisms:
(A) Bacteria
The bacterial population which is abundant in the wetland ecosystem
includes:
i. Proteobacteria is relatively high in abundance in wetlands (37.5%) and is
capable of some essential functions ranging from nitrogen fixation to denitri-
fication and reduction of iron and sulfate. Proteobacteria are chemotrophs
and obtained their energy from the chemical breakdown of inorganic and
organic compounds instead of light (or photosynthetic) energy. These
Proteobacteria in wetland ecosystem are mainly composed of Nitrospira
(nitrate reductions-denitrification), Nitrosomonas (ammonia oxidations),
Pseudomonas (capable of degrading contaminants naphthalene, toluene,
etc.), Desulfovibrio (sulfate reducers), and Geobacter (Deng et al. 2014).
ii. Actinobacteria or actinomycetes are also chemotrophic bacteria and found
in lower abundance (17.3%) in the wetland communities due to slow decom-
position rates. Some examples include Streptomyces (most common, degrade
resistant substrates) and Arthrobacter (degrade toxic compounds).
iii. Bacteroidetes also belong to a lesser amount (11%) and include Firmicutes
such as Bacillus (facultative aerobes) and Clostridium (17.3%). Besides this,
there are also photosynthetic bacteria mainly cyanobacteria that are present
in wetlands. The high abundance of Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria was
not surprising as they are prevalent in the soil of various ecosystems.
(B) Archaea
The archaea in wetland ecosystem are responsible for the anaerobic reductions of
sulfate as well as ammonia as lithotrophic organisms are classified as nitrifiers,
methanogens, and anaerobic methane oxidizers (Head et al. 1998). Examples are
Euryarchaeota, Methanobacteria (methanogenesis), Methanosarcina, Crenarchaeota,
etc.
(C) Eukaryotes
Algae and other higher organisms, such as daphnia and ciliates, are also integral
parts of wetland communities that perform photosynthesis and are a primary source
of energy for higher trophic levels (Singh et al. 2018). Fungi are important in nutri-
ent cycling by acting as a decomposer and are present in the relatively minor popu-
lation in wetland communities due to the anoxic environment; decomposition rates
of fungi are low which limits the importance of fungi in the wetland (Lodge and
Cantrell 1995). In several wetlands such as in northern Russia, Florida Everglades,
and North Carolina coastal plain, the Bacteroidetes composition was found to be
less than 1%; however, they were found relatively abundant in high-altitude wet-
lands of Chile (Bridgham et al. 2000; Deng et al. 2014; Dorador et al. 2013;
Serkebaeva et al. 2013). Apart from this, wetlands constitute one of the dominant
species in the sediments and freshwaters of Tibetan Plateau lakes (Yun et al. 2014).
Thus, the relatively high abundance of Bacteroidetes in the three wetlands of the
Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau might be partially associated with factors shared between
these high-altitude environments; however, investigations are required to under-
stand their ecological role in these systems. In natural wetlands, methane is released
as a final product of anaerobic degradation of organic matter which is performed by
methanogens and methanotrophs (Conrad 1999; Reeburgh 2003). Thus, both meth-
anogens and methanotrophs are the key components in methane cycling of natural
wetlands. The composition of the methanogen community depends upon various
factors, and more studies are required to understand which factors play critical roles
in structuring methanogen populations.
Recent studies reveal that bacterial communities in lake ecosystems are strongly
correlated with a multitude of environmental factors over horizontal gradients rang-
ing from hundreds of kilometers to centimeters (Ding et al. 2015). Various
approaches were applied by Preston et al. (2012) for the characterization of depth-
dependent microbial community structure and function. They found that irrespec-
tive of the nutrient contents in different systems, a similar dominant microbial taxon
is found to be abundant. These microbes are identified through their microbial activ-
ity, the quality of the available substrate, and the presence or absence of potential
microbial inhibitors.
4 Microbes Processing and Output in Wetlands
Wetland microbes mediate various vital biogeochemical processes such as nitrogen,

carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, and iron cycles (Lamers et al. 2012a, b). The microbes
present in the anoxic wet soils are primarily responsible for the various redox reac-
tions in wetland ecosystems. A long disputed question in the methane emission in
rice paddies is to what extent the rice straw affects the methane production (He et al.
2015). Conrad et al. (2012) utilized a combination of stable isotope fractionation
and molecular detection techniques to demonstrate that methane formation path-
ways in degradation straw (rice vs. maize) were rather simple despite the involve-
ment of methanogenic communities of the soils. Hence, the path of methane
production is mainly regulated by the soil type rather than the straw type. Sun et al.
(2012) studied the rate of methane production in three peat lands with different
characteristics: two acidic peat bogs and a minerotrophic fen. In this study, they
tried to analyze the inducible shifts in methanogen population on the addition of
substrates (acetate and hydrogen) to peat during short-term incubation. They con-
cluded that different metabolic substrate supply is a driving force for methanogen
species sorting in wetlands. Thus, methanogenic substrates predominantly control
94 A. Singh et al.
the methane formation and emission from wetland soils. A study conducted by
Irvine et al. (2012) reveals that salt marshes’ methanogens may be nitrogen-limited,
which could be an alternative explanation for increased emission of methane from
wetlands by addition of nitrogen. This was never considered before due to general
acceptance that increases in methane emissions upon addition of nitrogen are due to
both plant biomass increases and methane consumption inhibition. However, this
finding urges to rethink the nitrogen control of methane emission from wetlands and
thus opens up many possibilities for new research.
Nitrogen and nitrogenous fertilizers have been shown to affect the consumption
of methane in wetlands and upland soils, though solid mechanistic explanations
supported by experimental data are still lacking. Alam and Jia (2012) experimented
using rice soil and demonstrated that up to certain levels, the addition of nitrogenous
fertilizers stimulates specific methane oxidizers (i.e., type I). The obtained result
was consistent with the earlier studies performed on different rice soils. However,
when higher doses of ammonium-based fertilizers were used, methane oxidation
was inhibited. This might be acted through the activity of nitrifiers given the robust
correlation between nitrate production and methane oxidation. In opposed to the
above, in situ addition of nitrogen to a natural littoral wetland in a boreal lake does
not yield any effect either on methane oxidation potential or on methane flux.
Siljanen et al. (2012), in their study, observed that nitrogen load activates pmoA
gene transcription of type I methanotrophs but at the same time decreases the rela-
tive abundance of pmoA gene transcripts of type II methanotrophs. Thus, the net
methanotroph activity remained unaffected by the nitrogen augment. Hence, while
evaluating nitrogen load on methane oxidation, in situ observation needs to be
considered.
Apart from nitrogen, methanotrophic bacterial dispersal and distribution play a
regulatory role in methane cycling in wetland. Putkinen et al. (2012) studied the role
of water dispersal in the colonization of Sphagnum mosses by methanotrophic bac-
teria. Sphagnum plantlets, particularly hyaline cells of these mosses, are known to
be colonized by methanotrophs and are responsible for methane oxidation on its
way from anoxic peat layers to the atmosphere (Bodelier and Dedysh 2013a, b).
Putkinen et al. (2012) showed that inactive methanotroph-free Sphagnum plantlets
acquired methane-oxidizing activity and respective methanotroph population after a
few days of transplantation next to methanotroph-containing mosses. They con-
cluded this colonization as a resilience mechanism for peatland methane dynamics
by allowing the re-emergence of methane oxidation activity in Sphagnum.
5 B
ioprospecting of Wetland Microbe’s Present and Future
Scenarios
The Earth’s three-fourth surface is covered with water and of which 96% is in the
form of marine ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems, i.e., marine and freshwater, are
biodiversity rich and are responsible for the environment’s healthy functioning;
unfortunately, most of these life forms are still uncharacterized. Furthermore, this
biodiversity is currently under threat due to various anthropogenic activities includ-
ing rising environmental pollution, particularly in wetland ecosystems. Many of
these life forms are very important for the proper functioning of our healthy life, and
their role must need to understand. This leads to an urgent need for bioprospecting
of biological diversity as well as bioactive compounds from the wetland ecosystem.
Bioprospecting can be defined as the discovery and commercialization of new prod-
ucts based on natural resources (Strobel and Daisy 2003). In the last few decades,
scientists have taken attention toward wetland biodiversity. Dedysh (2011) success-
fully cultivated the peat-inhabiting microbes and identified the bacterial diversity
from northern wetlands. Figure 7.1 is showing the taxonomic composition of bacte-
rial communities in northern Sphagnum-dominated wetlands of various geographic
locations. An overview of the 16S rRNA-based diversity assessment of acidic north-
ern peatlands in different geographic locations identified six cultivation-independent
wetland microbes (Fig. 7.1). Interestingly, the bogs in the north, as well as tropical
acidic showing a similar bacterial diversity pattern and, are mainly dominated by
Acidobacteria and Proteobacteria.
Fig. 7.1 Northern Sphagnum-dominated wetlands’ microbial communities of various geographic

locations. The taxonomic composition of identified bacterial communities, determined in different
cultivation-independent studies. (Adopted and modified from Dedysh 2011)
96 A. Singh et al.
Stovea et al. (2014) have characterized microbial diversity in the sediment cores
of different wetlands based on 16S rRNA and two functional gene transcripts (mcrA,
involved in archaeal methane cycling, and glnA, implicated in nitrogen metabo-
lism). They advocated that the bacterial communities are highly diverse and Archaea
are mostly methanogens. Raina et al. (2018) have discussed the sediment microbial
biodiversity using traditional and modern techniques for understanding the nutrient
cycling and spatiotemporal variations in brackish water ecosystem of Chilika Lake.
Padhi et al. (2011) have identified red alga Gelidium and Gracilaria from Chilika
Lake which is a useful source of agarose. Gayathri et al. (2010) have bioprospected
the endophytic bacterial population of mangroves and salt-marsh plant from India.
Out of 104 identified bacterial isolates, 36 were defined as a fast-growing isolate
and were screened for biological activities. Of 36 isolates, 28 (77%) have demon-
strated to possess antimicrobial activity and 94.4%, 58.3%, and 52.7% of isolates
with pectinase, protease, and inulinase as well as invertase activities. Table 7.1
shows the plant growth promoting the activity of strains.
Furthermore, the pollutant-degrading activity that was tested for these endophytes
was also recorded. The malachite green and phenol-degrading activities were
observed in 12 (33.3%) and 20 (55.5%) endophytic bacterial isolates, respectively.
Again, 34 (94.4%) and 31 (86.6%) endophytic isolates are tolerant to 7.5% and 10%
NaCl concentrations, respectively. These results have proved that the wetlands like
mangroves are the sources of endophytic bacteria with bioprospecting potential,
which deserves further studies.
6 Conclusions
In response to climate change, aquatic ecosystems are changing rapidly due to

alteration of the landscape, which in turn affects not only the hydrology but also the
cycling of nutrients. Microbes play a dominant role in the geochemical nutrients
cycling in anaerobic freshwater sediments. Unfortunately, most of these tiny cre-
ators remain under enigma and not identified although the efforts are going on to
decode the role of microbes in wetland ecosystems and their identification. However,
identification by metagenomic data provide useful information, but these need to be
mined and analyzed, and proper statistics need to be maintained so that relevant
information can be used for the betterment of the environment and humanity.
Table 7.1 Plant growth is promoting the activity of isolates of marsh wetland
S. No. Number of isolates % of population Nutrient production
1 22 61.1% Ammonia
2 25 69.4% Acetoin
3 26 72.2% Nitrogen fixation
4 6 16.6% Phosphate solubilizing
5 7 19.4% Indole acetic acid (IAA)
Notably, there are certain drawbacks and bottlenecks in metagenomics, which need
to be understood. Furthermore, to understand the interactions, dynamics, response
to environmental changes, and biochemical and physiological processes of micro-
bial communities, we need to focus more on in-depth studies of their metagenomes
and monitor changes in populations over time. These studies will eventually help us
to design a model toward structuring the biochemical processes and dynamics of
entire ecosystems, henceforth allowing us to predict the effects of complexities of
environmental conditions, including pollution, drug treatment, the release of trans-
genic organisms, or climate change.
Acknowledgments Prashant Kumar Singh is thankful to the Agriculture Research Organisation

(ARO), Israel, for a postdoctoral fellowship. Alok Kumar Shrivastava is grateful to the Department
of Science and Technology (DST)-Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) for young
scientist award.
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Chapter 8
Contribution of Microbes
in the Renovation of Wetlands
Prem Chandra, Enespa, and Mukesh Kumar
Abstract A wetland ecosystem is an important reservoir of microbial diversity and

contributes significantly in mitigation of the Greenhouse gas emissions. Increased
nitrogen (N) inputs from agriculture and fossil fuel combustion have been recog-
nized as a severe threat to biodiversity loss and ecosystem functioning of wetlands,
such as control of greenhouse gas emissions. The intensive biogeochemical activi-
ties in the wetlands are performed by microbs, which have an important role in
improving water quality and nutrient recycling. It is well known that the structure
and function of the microbial community enhance the restoration of nutrient cycling
in wetlands. Investigating the interactions of structure and functions of microbes
with wetland plants is important because the microbial taxa can be interconnected
to specific transformations, biodegradation, biogeochemical cycles, survival, and
restoration of the wetlands. The processes of nitrification, denitrification, mineral-
ization, humification, and absorption are performed by physical, chemical, and
microbial processes for the sustainability of the wetland. This chapter suggests that
microbially mediated processes are directly and indirectly crucial in the restoration
of wetland function and ecological aspects. The phenomenon and the working prin-
ciple of microbes in wetlands are discussed in detail with emphasis on nutrient
cycling. This chapter also describes how microbes are an indispensible part of wet-
land functioning and restoration.
Keywords Bioremediation · Restoration · Microbes · Sustainability · Wetlands
P. Chandra (*)
Department of Environmental Microbiology, School for Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb
Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central) University, Lucknow, UP, India
Enespa
Department of Plant Pathology, Mahesh Prasad Degree College, University of Lucknow,
Lucknow, UP, India
M. Kumar
University Sophisticated Instrumentation Centre, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central)
University, Lucknow, UP, India

102 P. Chandra et al.
1 Introduction
Wetlands are the most productive ecosystems on the Earth. According to their
genesis, they exhibit enormous diversity in geographic location, water regime and
chemistry, dominant species, soil and sediment characteristics (Bassi et al. 2014).
The transitional areas flanked by land and water are known as marshlands or wet-
lands, categorized by superficial overlying waterlogged soils sheltering a rich diver-
sity of flora and fauna (Stickney 2005). The freshwater ecosystem includes a rich
diversity of macrophytes and microphytes such as diatoms, algae, and other phyto-
plankton (Browder et al. 1994; Upadhyay et al. 2019). Macrophytes and micro-
phytes that grow in freshwater require nutrients for their proper growth, which are
facilitated by the activity of different microbes present in the freshwater system
(Momot 1995). Moreover, the existence of plants in the environment depends on the
consortia of microbes and their different communities, such as the detrital microbial
floor covering, microbial biofilm, and planktonic phycological, bacteriological, and
mycological assemblages. These microbial communities contribute significantly to
biogeochemical nutrient cycling, that is, nitrification, denitrification, sulfate reduc-
tion, methanogenesis, and metal ion reduction, which maintains the sustainability of
natural ecosystems (Wu et al. 2012). The assemblage of microbes as a biofilm nor-
mally occurs on the foliage regions of waterlogged plants, on the rhizoplane of the
rhizosphere, and on the hard surfaces of sediments. The ecosystem is continuously
exposed to degradation from eutrophication, worsened by anthropogenic input
(Jackson et al. 2001). Increased human interference erodes water, air, and soil eco-
systems, in which the aquatic ecosystem is highly prone to loss (Cole et al. 2007).
Interaction of the microbes and macrophytes influences water quality.
Wetlands cover about 5–8% of the Earth’s land surface (Baron et al. 2002).
Generally, the wetlands consist of freshwater, soil, vegetation (macrophytes and
microphytes), and microbes (Bardgett et al. 2001; Bambaradeniya et al. 2004).
Wetland studies are mainly focused on the ecological systems, their conservation,
biodiversity, water quality improvement, and flow of nutrients (biogeochemical
cycle), and the restoration of ecological systems (De Groot et al. 2002). Wetlands
are categorized into two types: naturally occurring and manmade (i.e., constructed
wetlands) (Ghermandi et al. 2010). The most widely used wetland classifications
systems are characterized as marine (coastal wetlands), estuarine (mangrove
swamps, deltas, tidal marshes), lacustrine (lakes), riverine (along rivers and streams),
and palustrine (bogs and swamps), based on their hydrological, ecological, biologi-
cal, and environmental characteristics (Junk et al. 2014). The ecosystems of con-
structed wetlands have similarities to naturally developed wetlands. Water covers
the soil in regions known as natural wetlands such as marshland, fenlands, sloughs,
and bogs (Keddy 2010). Presently, however, these ecosphere wetlands are shrinking
because of the development of farmlands, expansion of industrial areas, and urban-
ization, liberating stockpiled carbon into the atmosphere and hastening environ-
mental transformation (Misra 2012). The grass Spartina alterniflora that grows in
coastal wetlands protects coastal lands from erosion and land loss. The
8 Contribution of Microbes in the Renovation of Wetlands 103
icroorganisms of coastal plants improve restoration efforts by improving the sta-

m
bilization of the soil (Deegan et al. 2012). Restoration is achieved by microbially
induced formation of biofertilizers in the wetland (Khan 2005) and its utilization for
plant germination, improving the health of plants, which restore soil health and
stabilize the area by providing habitat for beneficial communities of microorgan-
isms (Chandra and Singh 2016). Biogeochemical and nutrient cycling of wetlands
are very important functions to restore biodiversity and thus human lives sustain-
ably (Verhoeven et al. 2006). This chapter is focused on the broad aspects of sus-
tainable wetland renovation and the function of microbes for macronutrients and
micronutrients such as nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), carbon (C), etc.,
with respect to their cycling in the functioning and progression of plant communi-
ties in the wetlands.
2 Increasing Risks to the Wetland Biome
Freshwater wetlands ecosystems are commonly used and exploited for sustainable
development and human safety (Kivaisi 2001). During the twentieth century more
than 50% of specific types of wetlands were converted in parts of North America,
Europe, Australia, and New Zealand (Davidson 2014). Approximately 5000 km2 of
wetlands vanish yearly because of the increase in agriculture acreage, construction
of dams, and other uses in Asian countries alone (Tockner and Stanford 2002). Most
of the global population depends upon water and other natural resources in this
environment, which has impacted global ecology and the entire environment
directly (Vörösmarty et al. 2010). Consequently, these wetland-dependent species
are either extinct or globally threatened: bird species (21%), mammal species
(37%), and freshwater fish species (27%) (Gotelli and Colwell 2001). The loss of
wetlands causes adverse impacts on the functioning of ecosystems (Erwin 2009).
Suburbanization, changes in land use, drainage systems from agricultural use,
development of infrastructure, pollution from industrial effluents and agricultural
runoff, climate changes, and changeability are the main causes of wetland loss
(Brinkmann 2016). In Indian scenarios, significant changes have been caused by
these factors on wetland ecosystems, as discussed in the subsequent subsections.
2.1 Urbanization and Land Use Changes
To satisfy its basic needs, an increasing population always puts pressure on natural
ecosystems and biodiversity (Cordell et al. 2009). In India, being a country of fast
population growth, land use change has dramatically increased: cultivated land
increased about 129–156 m hectares (ha) between 1950–1951 and 2008–2009
(Bhalla and Singh 2009), and commercial or residential use increased from 9 to
26 m ha (Data Source: India state) (Sato et al. 2013), which caused alterations in
primary forests, floodplain areas, associated freshwater ecosystems, and grasslands

(Motha and Baier 2005; Bassi et al. 2014). For example, the waterspread area of the
Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh) was about 34,000 ha, but has been cultivated for
agriculture in current years.
Further, the large reservoir projects involved in water supply, flood control,
irrigation, and power production are critical in devastation of natural habitats,
leading to loss of the wetlands and other ecosystems (Postel and Richter 2012). The
rapid increase of artificial water possessing systems without proper planning also
put a load on natural resources (Nilsson and Renöfält 2008). This improper planning
has caused extensive loss and disintegration of freshwater habitats (Bond et al.
2008), This substantial utilization of the wetlands environment and aquatic systems
by the suburbanized population has influenced the structure and function of
wetlands, mostly by transforming the hydrological and sedimentation patterns and
the changing factors of nutrients and biochemical pollutants (Meyer and Turner
1992). The urbanization impact has equally disturbed natural water bodies in the
metropolitan cities (McKinney 2008). In the National Capital Territory (NCT) of
Delhi, a study declared that of 629 water bodies, 232 cannot be rejuvenated because
of the large-scale encroachments. Similarly, the Greater Bengaluru region, 66
wetlands with a waterspread area of about 1100 ha have vanished as the result of
urban extension between 1973 and 2007 (Bassi 2016). Additionally, poor
administration, the shortage of effective conservation plans, increasing pollution,
and fast increase in localized demands by suburban areas for water are pushing
these valuable eco-balancers to death (Economy 2010).
2.2 Agricultural, Municipal, and Industrial Pollution
Most of the Asian rivers, waters, lakes, streams, and wetlands have been heavily
damaged by pesticides, runoff of agricultural fertilizers, and discharge of wastewa-
ters, which cause extensive eutrophication from the presence of N and P (Rabalais
2002). As a result of increased agricultural activities during the past years, use of
fertilizers in India increased continuously, from about 2.8 million tons in 1973–
1974 to 28.3 million tons in 2010–2011 (Zhang et al. 2012). It is also observed that
10–15% of nutrients added to the soil through such enrichments ultimately find
their way to the shallow water system (Asner et al. 2004). The rich nutrient content
stimulates the growth of algae, leading to eutrophication of shallow water bodies
(O’Neil et al. 2012; Singh et al. 2018a, b). Non-point source pollution such as agri-
cultural runoff is the main source for the Indian rivers flowing through the Indo-
Gangetic plains (Chattopadhyay et al. 2005). Populations of fish and other animals
are decreased by the lake eutrophication process because of oxygen deficiency and
the loss of many other services provided by lakes (Cooke et al. 2016). Unprocessed
wastewater also contributes significantly to pollution of water bodies (Shrimali and
Singh 2001).
In India, less than 31% of the sewage wastewater that emerges from urban centres
is treated, whereas 80% treatment of sewage wastewater takes place in developed
countries (Capodaglio 2017). The situation in smaller urban centres is very poor as
treatment capacity exists for only about 18% of the sewage generated in Class I
cities (population of 100,000 or more but other than metropolitan cities) and 9% of
the sewage generated in Class II towns (population between 50,000 and 100,000)
(Agrawal et al. 2010). Because of nonfunctional treatment plants and the
insufficiency of the sewage collection system, actual sewage treatment has
decreased. Consequently, most of the untreated sewage waste is discharged in natu-
ral water bodies such as ponds, streams, lakes, and rivers (Dadi et al. 2017). The
River Yamuna, one of the secret rivers of Indian mythology, receives about 1789
million liters per day (MLD) of unprocessed wastewater from the capital city of
Delhi alone, and also passes the other six states of India. Every day approximately
78% of the total effluent load is discharged into the river. Consequently, the hydro-
logical character and water quality in the area of the Delhi division of the River
Yamuna is the most polluted in terms of dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological
oxygen demand (BOD) as compared to other sections (Bhatnagar and Devi 2013).
2.3 Climate Change
In wetland ecosystems, global climate change is projected to become an important

driver of loss and alteration of the ecosystem (Bunn and Arthington 2002). These
findings are very important in the Indian subcontinent because the mean atmo-
spheric temperature and frequency of occurrence of intense rainfall events have
increased, whereas the duration and amount of rainfall have declined because the
concentration of greenhouse gases such as CO2, CH4, and N2O is increasing in the
atmosphere (Trenberth et al. 2003). Climate change affects wetlands of high altitude
and the coastal region in India, such as mangroves and coral reefs. For example,
climate change caused the expanding level of glacial-fed water at high-altitude
lakes, such as Lake Tsomoriri in Ladakh, which is an important breeding centre of
migratory birds such as the black-necked crane and bar-headed goose, which has
submerged the habitats (Pangare et al. 2006). Climate change in coastal wetlands
such as the Sunderbans mangroves affects fish dispersal and has caused the devasta-
tion of a substantial portion of the mangrove ecosystem, with rising sea surface
temperature, and rise in sea level also, because of thermal expansion (Alongi 2002).
As per estimations, by increasing the water level of the sea approximately 1 m,
about 84% of coastal and 13% of saline wetlands vanished in India because of cli-
mate change (Michener et al. 1997). Consequently, the species of various flora and
fauna were affected severely, especially those that cannot rearrange their appropri-
ate habitats, as do migratory species which depend on a variety of wetland types
throughout their life cycle (Bellard et al. 2012). Generally, the characteristic hydro-
logical changes in wetlands change the climate, rather than observing the real physi-
cal and socioeconomic processes responsible for such changes (Adger et al. 2003).
3 Microbial Diversity
3.1 Microbial Processes
The transitional zones between land and water bodies are categorized by shallow
overlying water-logged soils harboring a rich floral and faunal diversity known as
wetlands (Caughman and Ginsberg 1987). The microbial communities of wetlands
interact in several of the energetic biogeochemical proceedings in the surrounding
environments. The elemental cycles such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,
and iron all have some role in wetland societies from the presence of various bacte-
rial groups (Robertson and Vitousek 2009). In all inland water habitats the microor-
ganisms dominate, and the established functioning of an aquatic environment is
sustained by the rich microbial diversity that depends upon the nutrients and normal
environments (Hurst et al. 2007). Freshwater microbial diversity belongs mostly to
the culturable bacterial groups Actinobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria,
Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Archaea
(Munshi and Chattoo 2008). The majority of bacteriological groups are often pres-
ent mostly in freshwater; the graphical arrangement of the biofilm is shown in
Fig. 8.1. This slimy matrix-based extracellular polymeric substance contains poly-
saccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids in which microbial cells remain sur-
rounded, secreted from the bacteria as a porous meshwork known as biofilm (Wotton
2004). In the biofilm, the cells of microorganisms are alive in a modified micro-
niche in a multifarious microbial homeostatically recognized community having a
stable metabolic existence, which purifies naturally altered characters of the micro-
organisms. With the changing of habitats and ecological conditions, the assemblage
of microbes in a biofilm is vigorous and susceptible to being considerably altered
Fig. 8.1 Bacterial groups commonly present in an aquatic system with the most common examples
(Johnson et al. 2015). In the various plant species, accommodating altered bacterial
communities are observed. This observation shows that the bacterial communities
are altered by accommodating the various plant species (Martiny et al. 2006).
3.2 A
quatic Plant–Microbe Interaction and Its Role
in Freshwater Ecosystems
The macroscopic flora containing the members of four various groups are limited:
developing (Phragmites australis), free-leaved (Hydrilla spp.), freely floating
(Pistia stratiotes), and waterlogged macrophytes (Chara spp.) (Fig. 8.2) (Wersal
and Madsen 2012). The microbial species and aquatic plant distribution mostly
depend upon the presence of nutrients in freshwaters in the following order: oligo-
trophic > mesotrophic > eutrophic (Dodds 2007).
The rhizoplane regions of the macrophytes are the most active zone in the
presence of several communities of microbes (Laanbroek 2009). The microbial
community structure in the microcosm is not affected by macrophytes, and provides
resilient proof in maintenance of the advanced accomplishments of natural plant–
microbe communications, even in the residues (Moss et al. 2009). Each microbe
sets the continuous supply of nutrients, organic carbon, and oxygen for the benthic
microbial community and acts as a modified niche (Davey and O’Toole 2000).
Similarly, the microbes and aquatic plants obtain mineral nutrients and defensive
immunity among each other and form firm interrelationships (Dordas 2008). Several
environmental factors in water such as pH, electrical conductivity, concentrations of
salts, dissolved oxygen, dissolved organic matter, toxic organic pollutants, some
Fig. 8.2 Plant and microbe interaction in an aquatic wetland

redox reactions, and the availability of nutrients are responsible for plant–microbe
interactions in freshwater bodies (He et al. 2005).
Very limited evidence is available about the significance of plant–microbe
interactions in an aquatic ecosystem from climate change (Read and Perez-Moreno
2003). However, plant–microbe interactions and their role in the aquatic system are
given in Table 8.1. The table also indicates the interaction of microbes with aquatic
macrophytes, mostly in the nutrient cycle. The high microbial activity in the rhizo-
plane region of aquatic plants has a different water chemistry compared to other
regions of the water column (Francoeur et al. 2012). Generally, the microbes form
endophytic and ectophytic symbiotic relationships with aquatic plants involved in
colonization of internal tissues of plants such as fixing of N2 diazotrophs and arbus-
cular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) nutrient assimilators (Srivastava et al. 2017).
Ectophytes form an important plant–microbe interaction that involves both roots
Table 8.1 Plant–microbe interactions in the aquatic ecosystem

Plant species Microbial species Role in ecosystem References
Typha domingensis Acinetobacter junii Siderophore, indole-3-acetic Rehman
TYRH47 acid (IAA) production et al. (2018)
Brachiaria mutica, Bacillus subtilis LORI66, Siderophore, IAA Rehman
Phragmites Klebsiella sp. LCRI87, production, et al. (2018)
australis Acinetobacter junii 1-aminocyclopropane-1-
TYRH47, Acinetobacter sp. carboxylic acid (ACC)
LCRH81 deaminase
Juncus acutus Sphingomonas sp. U33, Improves efficiency of Corrêa et al.
Bacillus sp. R12, wetland plants (2018)
Ochrobactrum sp. R24
Spartina alterniflora Pseudomonas putida and Nitrogen transformers, Bledsoe and
Pseudomonas fluorescens phosphorus solubilizers, Boopathy
siderophore producers (2016)
Phragmites Gigaspora margarita Increase N and P uptake Sarkar et al.
japonica, (2016)
Polygonum
cuspidatum
Brachiariamutica Bacillus licheniformis Siderophore production Fatima et al.
BRSI58 (2015)
Lemna minor Pseudomonas sp. RWX31 Denitrification Srivastava
et al. (2017)
Phragmites Nitrosomonas spp. Ammonia oxidation Okabe et al.
australis (2012)
Utricularia spp. Scenedesmus spp., Improving P supplements Srivastava
Characiopsis spp. et al. (2017)
Nuphur spp. Mesorhizobium loti Nitrogen fixing Taylor and
Qiu (2017)
Chara aspera Members of Cytophaga, Allelopathic activity against Goecke
Flavobacteria, Bacteroidetes algae and Cyanobacteria et al. (2010)
Ulva australis Pseudoalteromonas tunicata Allelopathic effect on other Wietz et al.
algae (2013)
and leaves, wherein several biochemical reactions are completed at the interactive
surface and stimulate the elemental cycles in the aquatic ecosystem (Shelake et al.
2018).
4 B
iogeochemical Renovations in Wetlands Driven
by Microbes
Water quality is improved by wetlands naturally by sedimentation, recycling of

micro- and macronutrients, and uptake by microbes and plants (Liang et al. 2006).
In the form of sediments, nutrients and pathogens contribute to non-point sources of
water pollution that degrade downstream water quality (Carpenter et al. 1998). The
procedure of methane formation is constant in spite of the fluctuating composition
of the communities. In order, the altering communities may be associated with the
pathway of carbon degradation and the subsequent substrates for methane forma-
tion (Lu et al. 2015). The rate of methane production in relationship to the variety
and dynamics of methanogens was studied in three peatlands with conflicting fea-
tures: two acidic peat bogs and a minerotrophic fen (Ye et al. 2012). Inducible shifts
analyzed in the populations of methanogen in response to substrates (acetate and
hydrogen) added to peat in instant cultivation was investigated. The rates of CH4
production stimulated by acetate amendment in a fen peatland soil increased the
relative abundance of Methanol sarraceniaceae (Sun et al. 2012). By contrast, addi-
tion of H2 stimulated CH4 production in two acidic bog soils and enhanced abun-
dance of the E2 group of Methanol regulaceae. The supply of varied metabolic
substrates is a driving force of methanogen species-sorting in wetlands. Therefore,
the methanogenic substrate mainly controls methane formation and emission from
wetland soils (Bodelier and Dedysh 2013). The elements are required by methano-
gens for energy generation and strengthening biomass, which has never been
observed in marshland systems. Nitrogen fertilizers influencing the consumption of
methane in wetland and an upland soil have been shown (Chirinda et al. 2018). As
well as nitrogen, the scattering and dissemination of methanotrophic bacteria can
perform as an adaptable characteristic in methane cycling in wetland ecosystems
(Filstrup et al. 2012). The plantlets and hyaline cells of Sphagnum moss are inhab-
ited by methanotrophs and are accountable for the oxidation of CH4 on its way from
anoxic peat layers to the atmosphere. The elemental cycles (Fe–N, S–N cycle) in
groundwater and fenland residues are focused on interactions (Fig. 8.3). The nitrate
reducers of iron-oxidizing presence and potentially co-occurring iron reducers were
assessed in an iron sulfide- and nitrate-rich groundwater in a freshwater wetland
(Scherer et al. 2000). Nitrate-reducing iron oxidizers showed a potential role by
molecular analyses. Sulfur and nitrogen cycles interact in a wide range of apparent
residues, representing disparity in major monitoring factors that were measured
(Fru et al. 2012).
Fig. 8.3 Role of prominent wetland species in biogeochemical cycling of trace elements
5 Significance of Microbes in Wetlands Restoration
Unique ecological features that are found in wetlands offer several products and
services to humanity (Turner et al. 2000). Wetland loss caused by pollution, flood,
biodiversity, drought, land use changes, and climate change can only be restored by
the active participation of the microbes present in the wetland (De Groot et al. 2010;
Erwin 2009).
5.1 Pollution and Its Control
In several agricultural and urban landscapes, wetlands acts as sinks for environmental
contaminants (Jackson and Pringle 2010). Naturally occurring wetlands, such as
riparian wetlands, remove nitrate and phosphorus from surface and subsurface run-
off and thus reduce the nutrient load of flowing water (Verhoeven et al. 2006).
Wetlands in temperate regions have a maximum potential rate for the removal of
nitrogen and phosphorus ranging from 1000 to 3000 (kg N/ha/year) and from 60 to
100 (kg P/ha/year), respectively (Sidiropoulos et al. 2017). In India, release of agri-
cultural runoff and untreated wastewaters of urban areas causes much pollution of
wetlands (Novotny 1999). Hence, the increasing pollution load degrades the natural
wetlands, affecting biodiversity and wildlife habitats.
5.1.1 Removal of Organic Contaminants
Aquatic ecosystems are the most threatened systems because of the massive field
applications of various compounds such as chlorinated organic compounds, poly-
brominated biphenyls ethers (PBEs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Shannon et al. 2010; Srivastava et al. 2017). The
resident microorganisms are renowned bio-remediators and have the capability to
reduce practically all biological compounds by catabolic activity (Haritash and
Kaushik 2009). The microbes follow with catabolic degradation of recalcitrant
organic compounds to unite organic carbon with electron acceptors, readily obtain-
able in the rhizospheric regions of terrestrial and aquatic macrophytes (Chandra and
Singh 2014). The quantity of microbes and the concentrations of xenobiotic com-
pounds determine the rate of biodegradation in natural waters, following the second-
order kinetics reaction (Suflita et al. 1983). However, the communities of microbes
mainly depend upon the species of macrophytes (Van Donk and van de Bund 2002).
Additionally, the plants provide organic carbon to the rhizospheric microorganisms
to help degrade complex recalcitrant organic compounds, for example, PAHs and
pyrenes. Rhizospheric microbial degradation of PAHs provides growth hormones
such as indole acetic acid (IAA) as a mutual benefit (Chandra and Singh 2016;
Enespa and Chandra 2019). Sinorhizobium meliloti P 221, isolated and identified as
a microbe that produced the association of the ectorhizosphere with aquatic plants,
has the capability to synthesize IAA after the degradation of PAHs (Srivastava et al.
2017). The dynamic aquatic environment of algae is the best survival mode for bac-
terial communities because the bacteria use the algal derivative carbon resource-
fully to nurture and proliferate (Margulis and Sagan 1997). After proliferation, the
bacterial colonies produce odor and taste problems in fresh and potable waters from
the degradation of organic and inorganic waste. The biofilms of associated aquatic
plants can degrade amines, aliphatic aldehydes, and phenolic substances, and dis-
solved PCBs and atrazine organic matter (Dodd 2012). Methanotrophic bacteria and
a group of proteobacteria utilizing methane as a carbon source for energy are found
in the rhizoplane of aquatic plants (Eller and Frenzel 2001). The methanotrophs
Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b and Methylococcus capsulatus produce particu-
late methane monooxygenase (pMMO), which degrades toxic organic compounds
and chlorinated ethanes via a cascade of enzymatic reactions containing formalde-
hydes that later produce the terminal compound of CO2 (Oldenhuis et al. 1989).
5.1.2 Removal of Inorganic Contaminants
Low levels of metal ions are naturally found in aquatic systems, as they move very
slowly from the soil and rocks and do not affect the aquatic microflora. Excessive
metal ions are generated in various countries by industrial, agricultural, and munici-
pal waste processes (Bolan et al. 2014). The mobilization of metallic ions in the
water is prejudiced by numerous biochemical factors such as pH and electrical con-
ductivity of water, hydrated iron oxides, carbonates of metals, the biofilms of rhizo-
spheric macrophytes, and plant–microbe interactions (Elzinga et al. 2012; Urakawa
et al. 2017). The formation of cations in water is adhered by the essential role of the
exopolymers (EPS) matrix of biofilm, which inhibits the entrance of metallic ions
into the plants (Coetser and Cloete 2005). The roots and submerged parts of aquatic
macrophytes retain iron plaque and sequestrations of metallic ions from the water
(Hansel et al. 2001). Precipitation of iron oxide layers from various sources and the
production of plant parts occurs by oxidation of iron, or by molecular O2, or by iron-
oxidizing bacteria such as Ferroplasma sp. and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans (Vera
et al. 2013). The loss of radical oxygen depends on the root porosity of the plants,
which improves the level of oxygen at the rhizoplane (Stottmeister et al. 2003). In
the aquatic ecosystem, reduction of sulfates is another important metal-removing
process after the oxidation of iron, whereby macrophytes with the association of
sulfate-reducing bacteria as biofilm degrade sulfate compounds into sulfides, and
lower the pH so that metallic ions from the water bodies can be absorbed by the cells
of microbes (Mkandawire 2013). The microorganisms also interact with algae to
remove pollutants from the aquatic water bodies in spite of the macrophytes
(De-Bashan and Bashan 2010). Microalgae such as Chlorella sorokiniana, associ-
ated with the bacterium Ralstonia basilensis, adsorb Cu (II) exclusively because of
having more binders compared to other metals (Singh et al. 2018a, b). Free-floating
macrophytes such as Pistia stratiotes, Eichhornia crassipes, Ipomoea aquatica, and
Spirodela polyrhiza are also important in the removal of nutrient ions such as dis-
solved inorganic nitrogen (Srivastava et al. 2008).
5.2 Biodiversity Hotspots
Natural aquatic habitats or wetlands support species diversity. Most invertebrates

and vertebrates depend on wetlands for their entire life cycle (Dudgeon et al. 2006).
Recycling of nutrients and photosynthesis take place in the wetland environment
and have a significant role in the support of food chains between plant microbes and
animals (Holguin et al. 2001). Freshwater ecosystems such as lakes and rivers rep-
resent almost all taxonomic groups and support a large diversity of biota in India.
Aquatic plant species provide a valuable source of food for waterfowl (Prasad et al.
2002). The Western Ghats in India, a biogeographic region of freshwater ecosys-
tems that runs along with the west coast, has about 290 species of fish, 77 species of
Mollusca, 171 species of Odonata, 608 species of aquatic plants, and 137 species of
amphibians, covering a total area of 136,800 km2 (Arya and Syriac 2018). Also,
about 53% of freshwater fish species, 36% of freshwater Mollusca, and 24% of
aquatic plant species are prevalent in this region. Similarly, the largest natural
aquatic ecosystem in the northeast region of India is the Loktak Lake of Manipur,
which supports a rich biodiversity (Jena and Gopalakrishnan 2012). The lake is
famous for phumdi, floating mats of vegetation, being a refuge for the endangered
Manipur brow-antlered deer also known as Sangai (Rai and Raleng 2011). The 75
species of phytoplankton and 120 species of rotifers have also been recognized in
the Loktak Lake. Migratory birds and other wildlife are protected and breed in wet-
land habitats frequently (Sahoo et al. 2003). Indian wetlands invite several migra-
tory species of birds from western and European countries for seasonal feeding and
breeding such as the Bharatpur wildlife sanctuary in Rajasthan, and little Rann of
Kutch and coastal areas of Saurashtra in Gujarat (Rangarajan 2005). Approximately
24% of total bird species are recorded as migratory birds in Indian wetlands. More
than 450 species of migratory birds are seen every year in the capital city Delhi
alone after Nairobi (Keiper et al. 2002).
5.3 Flood Regulator
A wetland regulates floods by absorbing the water and decreasing water flow.
Moreover, throughout the loading period, the water flood traps suspended solids and
nutrient load. So, the scarcer suspended solids and nutrients will be transported to
the rivers and streams flowing into rivers through wetlands (Sharpley et al. 2013).
For conventional flood control, reserves such as dykes, dams, and embankments are
considered to be a natural capital substitute for wetlands (Maltby 2009). In a river
watershed study in Canada the wetland area increased 10%, which reduced 11.1%
to 18.6% of the total volume of the flood. Mangrove forest-protected areas have
lower losses (US$ 33.31) in the villages compared to villages without the shelter of
mangrove forests. In the Indo-Gangetic floodplains area (a large wetland system of
India), many lives are lost and economic output is ruined every year by increased
flooding (Bassi et al. 2014). Complementarily, increasing groundwater pumping for
farming in the eastern part of India (in West Bengal) adversely affected the wetlands
(Alauddin and Quiggin 2008). During the winter and summer seasons, when agri-
cultural water demands increase, lowering of the water table of shallow aquifers
actually increases. So, the shallow temporary wetlands are drying up (Bates 2009),
which affects more those families who depend upon shallow water bodies for catch-
ing fish, irrigation purposes, and domestic water supplies (Knight 2003).
5.4 Repossession of Carbon
The carbon cycle in the atmosphere functions naturally with the sink of the swamps,
mangroves, peat lands, mires, and marshes and wetlands. The sediment of wetlands
has a high capacity of carbon storage (Mitsch et al. 2013), whereas the existing
biomass of plants, animals, bacteria, algae, and fungi solubilizes and stores carbon
for the short term in various components in the groundwater and surface waters.
However, the wetlands contribute about 40% of global methane (CH4) emissions
(Horwath 2015). Terrestrial ecosystems have less carbon density than wetlands and
have more capacity to sequester additional carbon dioxide (Chmura et al. 2003).
The soil of wetlands contains 200 times more carbon compared to its vegetation.
Organic matter input has a high rate of carbon sequestration in the wetlands and
reduces the rate of decomposition (Chapin et al. 2002). A sink of atmospheric CO2
reverses the restoration of wetlands. The potential of carbon sequestration restora-
tion in the wetlands (over a 50-year period) is about 0.4 ton C/ha/year, as per esti-
mates (Bruce et al. 1999). Most carbon sequestration takes place in the coastal
wetlands of India. About 43,000 km2 of coastal ecosystems are located in India
(Godoy and Lacerda 2015). In eastern India, the mangrove wetlands are more
important than those on the western coast as a carbon sink. Also, these have higher
diversity, larger size, and show more complexity from the canal network and tidal
creeks (Tomlinson 2016). Generally, the mangroves have a carbon sequestration
capability of about 1.5 mt per hectare per year. Methane (CH4) is one of the primary
greenhouse gases emitted by the marshland and wetlands, using approximately 19%
of their carbon sequestration potential (Roulet 2000). Similarly, a lagoon along the
West Coast of India, Vembaland Lake of the tropical coastal wetlands, releases as
much as 193.2 mg/m2/h CH4.The wetlands functions depend on their biogeochemi-
cal processes and hydrology as net producers of greenhouse gases such as CH4.
Mitigation of carbon is their potential role in climate change (Canadell and Raupach
2008).
5.5 Multiple Use of Water Facilities
Water is used for irrigation, domestic activities, fisheries, and recreational uses,
groundwater recharge, and flood control and silt capture restoration in wetland
tanks, ponds, lakes, and reservoirs (Ramachandra 2001). The largest concentration
of irrigation tanks, found in the southern states of India such as Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, amount to 0.12 million and account for nearly 60% of
India’s tank-irrigated area (Thakkar 2000). The same traditional tank systems are
also available in the states of Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal, and
account for nearly 25% of net tank irrigated area. During the monsoon season, har-
vesting the surface runoff water is vital for using the water in various purposes later
(Shah 2009). The water stored in the tanks is used for multiple purposes such as
fisheries, domestic activities, nutrient-rich soils, fodder grass collection, and mak-
ing brick. The tanks are also helpful in the conservation of soil, water, biodiversity,
and groundwater recharge in the ecological perspective (Arunachalam et al. 2014).
Several lakes of India, such as Carambolim (Goa), Chilka (Orissa), Dal Jheel
(Jammu and Kashmir), Deepor Beel (Assam), Khabartal (Bihar), Kolleru (Andhra
Pradesh), Loktak (Manipur), Nainital (Uttarakhand), Nal-sarovar (Gujarat), and
Vembanad (Kerala), have long provided recreational, tourism, fisheries, irrigation,
and domestic water supply services.
5.6 Constructed Wetland Approach for Wetland Restoration
Constructed wetlands (CW) are manmade engineered ecosystems employed for the
treatment of waste and restoration of natural wetland integrity (Upadhyay et al.
2016). Restoration in CW is achieved by treating a variety of wastes before it enters
into natural systems, thereby reducing the pollution load in the wetlands.
Macrophytes present in the wetland act as a sink for C and other toxic heavy metals
by sequestering and accumulation in parts of the plants, from which further extrac-
tion removes the heavy metal load (Postel and Carpenter 1997; Rai et al. 2013;
Upadhyay et al. 2016, 2017). Generally, the wetlands prevent the entry of pollutants
to streams and rivers because the water is recollected from shallow and subsurface
regions of runoff (Kent 2000). However, the loading of nutrients in wetlands far
exceeds their capability to retain and remove pollutants through nitrification, sedi-
mentation, adsorption, and uptake by aquatic plants because of increased suburban-
ization and land use changes (Carey and Migliaccio 2009).
6 Management of Wetlands by Institutional Approaches
The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF and CC),
Government of India, has the principal responsibility for the management of eco-
logically sensitive zones (Prasad et al. 2002). Both the Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands and the Convention of Biological Diversity were signed by the Indian
Government, but the regulatory framework in India for conservation of wetlands is
not completely clear (Farrier and Tucker 2000). So, the subsections of wetland man-
agement schemes containing the legal context and support of policy for the conser-
vation of wetland are discussed here (Metcalfe et al. 2013).
6.1 Legal Agenda
In India, separate legal provisions for wetland conservation are not found. Other
legal provisions indirectly influence wetlands conservation (Junk et al. 2013),
including the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980; Biodiversity Act 2002; Wildlife
(Protection) Act 1972; Indian Forest Act 1927; Indian Fisheries Act 1857;
Environmental (Protection) Act 1986; Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 1991;
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974; Territorial Water, Water Cess
Act 1977; Maritime Zone of India (regulation and fishing by foreign vessels) Act
1980; Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Marine Zones Act
1976; and Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of
Forest Rights) Act 2006 (Paul et al. 2011).
6.2 Procedure Provision
Procedural support for marshland conservation in India was essentially nonexistent

until the early 2000s (McDonald et al. 2007). The international obligations made in
the Ramsar Convention then indirectly finalized the selection of other procedures
for management actions for wetlands, such as The Coastal Zone Regulation
Notification, 1991; National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Environment and Development, 1992; National Policy and Macro Level Action
Strategy on Biodiversity, 1999; and National Water Policy, 2002 (Verma and
Negandhi 2011). The Ramsar Convention was signed for the protection of these
wetlands. The two sites identified by the Government of India were Chilika Lake of
Orissa and Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan, as International Importance of
Ramsar Wetlands in 1981 (Reddy and Char 2006). After that, the National Wetland
Conservation Programme (NWCP) was launched in 1985–1986 in partnership with
state governments (Arya and Syriac 2018). The Ramsar site was recognized for
protection and management only designated under the Programme of MoEF and
CC 2007 (Gopal 2013) because of infringement, weed infestation, siltation, catch-
ment erosion, weed infestation, wastewater discharge, and agricultural runoff carry-
ing pesticides and fertilizers. Several procedures were undertaken to capture further
degradation and reduction of the recognized wetlands (Cullet et al. 2012). The
National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) with an objective to improve the quality
of the water of Indian rivers through the operation of pollution works in majority
has been operational since 1995 (Ghosh and Ponniah 2001). The National Water
Resources Council also distinguishes the need for the conservation of a river access
strip and wetlands and water bodies in a systematic manner that is cleared by the
National Water Policy, 2012 (a new draft) (Vos and Boelens 2014). The recognized
procedure, that there is no official scheme of wetland directive in the country out-
side the international commitments, was prepared in respect of Ramsar (De Stefano
2010). There is a prerequisite of a legitimately enforceable regulatory mechanism
for recognized appreciated wetlands, to inhibit their disintegration and improve
their preservation (Freeman and Farber 2004). The National Forest Commission
made such approvals, the directions of the National Environment Policy, 2006; and
the Central Government notified the Wetlands (Conservation and Management)
Rules, 2010 (Huang et al. 2010). The Central Wetlands Regulatory Authority
(CWRA) was constituted under the Secretary of Environment and Forest as per the
provision under Rule 5 of the wetlands rules (Daily et al. 2009). However, on the
basis of implications, only selected wetlands that performed functions for the over-
all well-being of the people were regulated under these rules (Meli et al. 2014). The
selection of wetlands is, under the Ramsar Convention: ecologically sensitive wet-
lands; recognition of wetlands under sites of UNESCO World Heritage; wetlands at
high elevation of 2500 m with an area equal to or greater than 5 ha; wetlands below
2500 m elevation with an area equal to or greater than 500 ha; and other wetlands is
recognized by the Authority (Wetlands Rules 2010) (Salzman and Ruhl 2000).
Moreover, the river channels included as wetlands under the Ramsar Convention
and irrigation tanks are accepted for protection status under the Wetland Rules
(Dudgeon et al. 2006).
7 Conclusions
Diversified and unique environments are disseminated across various topographic

and climatic organizations supporting the wetlands ecosystem in India. An essential
part of the hydrological cycle and its extremely dynamic schemes in the natural
forms are considered under this agenda. The microbial communities in wetlands
and their processes are needed to ensure successful delivery of ecosystem services
by mitigation links to ecological drivers and the protocol of assessment. Microbes
are accountable for driving of nutrient cycling, and accepting their dynamic forces
in reaction to wetland mitigation accomplishments can offer a view into the suitable
administration and nurturing of reinstated areas. If the environmental conditions are
appropriately restored, the successful restoration of denitrification will occur. The
process of renovation is directed by microbes such as microalgae, bacteria, and
plants and assimilated by biological processes. The various components of wetlands
such as water biota, plants, algae, bacteria, litter, and soil are active throughout all
these processes. The key processes of transformation are ammonification, nitrifica-
tion, and denitrification, wherein nitrate (NO3) is converted to harmless nitrogen gas
(N2), which constitutes 85% of atmosphere. Manifold services are provided by the
wetlands in India such as irrigation, water supply for domestic purposes, fisheries,
and recreation. Recharge of groundwater, control of flooding, sequestration of car-
bon, and abatement of pollution are accomplished by wetlands, although insuffi-
cient attention is present in the national water sector agenda for the management of
wetlands. Anthropogenic pressures are generated on many of the wetlands in urban
and rural areas: changes in land use in the catchment, industry and household pollu-
tion, tourism, encroachments, and overexploitation of their natural capital. No sig-
nificant progress has been made on the conservation and wise use of wetlands,
although India drafted the Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules in 2010
after countersigning the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
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Chapter 9
Phytoremediation: Role of Mycorrhiza
in Plant Responses to Stress
Bimal K. Chetri
Abstract Phytoremediation is not a new concept. However, it is important to

understand plant’s ability to remediate contaminated soil and water alone or in asso-
ciation with microorganisms by absorbing toxic substances, metabolizing them into
useful compounds within and eventually transpiring excess of them. Native plants
due to their unique characteristics are able to clean up soil and water very often in
association with mycorrhizal fungi. This chapter focuses phytoremediation as eco-
friendly cleaning tool, its basic strategies, role of native plants in restoring wetland
habitats and limitations.
Keywords Phytoremediation · Mycorrhiza · Soil · Water · Native plants
1 Bioremediation and Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is the method of removing pollutants in eco-friendly manner, by

using plants for cleaning the nature (Suresh and Ravishankar 2004; Yadav et al.
2016). Bioremediation is the method of elimination of contaminants (especially
heavy metals) from the polluted area by using bio-adsorbents such as bacteria,
fungi, and algae (Bestawy et al. 2013).
B. K. Chetri (*)
Department of Environmental and Life Sciences, Sherubtse College, Royal University of
Bhutan, Kanglung, Bhutan
e-mail: [email protected]

126 B. K. Chetri
2 P
hytoremediation Is a Useful Tool to Clean Up Polluted
Soil and Water
Phytoremediation is a useful process of cleaning the polluted soil and water. In

phytoremediation, plants like cattails are used to treat acid mine drainage and
municipal sewage of wetlands (Hinchman et al. 1996). Italian researchers reported
Ni accumulation in Alyssum bertolonii (Ouyang 2002). Similarly, the accumulation
of lead in the shoot of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) and high biomass of plant
when grown in Pb polluted soil was reported by Blaylock et al. (1997). This shows
the ability of mustard to remove the lead from the lead-contaminated area as cited
by Ouyang (2002). The other plants like Thlaspi caerulescens and Viola calami-
naria are the first plants found to be accumulating high levels of heavy metals (at
the end of nineteenth century). Similarly, the plant of genus Astragalus is also capa-
ble of accumulating selenium (Lasat 2000; Singh et al. 2018). The movement of
metal in plants are mediated by the transport proteins, and sensitive mechanisms
maintaining the intracellular metal concentration (Ouyang 2002). Bioremediation is
the use of living organism primarily the microorganism to remove pollutants from
soil and water. Mostly bacteria and fungi or plants (naturally occurring) are used to
degrade or detoxify substances hazardous to human health and environment. These
microorganisms are called the bioremediators, and they can be either native to the
contamination site or they can be isolated from some other places. Bioremediation
is applicable mostly for sites that have been contaminated with organic pollutants
(Jadia and Fulekar 2009). The most common examples of plants used in phytoreme-
diation practices are water hyacinths (Eichornia crassipes), poplar trees (Populus
spp.), forage kochia (Kochia spp.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Kentucky bluegrass
(Poa pratensis), coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum), American pondweed
(Potamogeton nodosus), and the emergent common arrowhead (Sagittaria latifo-
lia). According to Paz-Alberto and Sigua (2013), tomato and mustard plants were
able to extract different concentrations of each heavy metal (Cu, Cr, As, and Pb)
from the soils, and scientists favor Brassica juncea and Brassica oleracea for phy-
toremediation because these plants appeared to remove large quantities of Cr, Pb,
Cu, and Ni from the soil. The principle application behind phytoremediation of
moderately contaminated soils and waters is the material to be treated is at a medium
depth, and the area to be treated is large. The plants should also grow quickly (easy
harvesting) besides accumulation and/or volatilization of contaminants (Paz-
Alberto and Sigua 2013). Essentially, if the plants are left to die in situ, the contami-
nants will return to the soil; thus, it should be cut and disposed (Paz-Alberto and
Sigua 2013). For example, vetiver grass is useful in phytoremediation as it has sev-
eral unique characteristics as reported by the National Research Council (Alexander
and Smith 1988). These unique characteristics include a massive and deep-rooted
system, tolerance to extreme climatic variations (prolonged drought, flood, submer-
gence, fire, frost, and heat waves), and soil acidity, alkalinity, salinity, sodicity, and
elevated levels of Al, Mn, and heavy metals (Truong and Baker 1998). Its root sys-
tem (main, secondary, or fibrous roots) does not expand horizontally but penetrates
9 Phytoremediation: Role of Mycorrhiza in Plant Responses to Stress 127
vertically deep into the soil (up to 5 m). In China, vetiver grass was planted in large
scale for pollution control and mine tail stabilization (Chen et al. 2000). In Thailand,
vetiver hedges had an important role in the process of decontamination of pesti-
cides, preventing them from contaminating and accumulating in crops (Truong
2000).
Bioremediation is a process that uses aerobic bacteria like Pseudomonas,
Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus and Mycobacterium, whereas, phytore-
mediation is an eco-friendly technology where plants are used to repair the contami-
nation of soil, water, and sediments (Oh et al. 2014). Plants that can take up toxic
substances are grown, and this specific plant accumulates different substances
which cannot be consumed when harvested (bioremediation) (Yadav et al. 2017).
For example, B. juncea (Indian mustards) is a rapidly growing plant that has an abil-
ity to accumulate Ni and Cd in its shoots (Jadia and Fulekar 2009; Chowdhary et al.
2018). Plants used in phytoremediation are:
Rhizofiltration Brassica juncea (for heavy metals), Helianthus annuus, Phaseolus
coccineus, Eichhornia crassipes, Hydrocotyle umbellata (pennyworth), Lemna
minor (duckweed), Azolla pinnata (water velvet)
Phytostabilization Brassica juncea
Rhizodegradation Morus rubra (red mulberry), Malus fusca (crabapple), Maclura
pomifera (osage orange), Mentha spicata (spearmint), Medicago sativa (Alfalfa),
Pinus taeda (Loblolly pine), Glycine max (soybean), Sorghastrum nutans (Indian
grass), Agropyron smithii (western wheatgrass), Bouteloua curtipendula (sideo-
ats grama), and Bouteloua gracilis (blue grama), Oryza sativa (rice)
Phytovolatilization Medicago sativa, Brassica juncea, Brassica napus (canola),
Hibiscus cannabinus (kenaf), and Festuca arundinacea (tall fescue)
It is put in practice by people to speed up the cleaning process without affecting
the environment and the organisms (Cheng 2003). The basic concept behind biore-
mediation is to convert hazardous substances in the environment into less hazardous
substances by biological means (Paz-Alberto and Sigua 2013). For example, micro-
organisms (Fig. 9.1) are the main concern when implementing these methods since
they are easy to use and exhibit diverse reactions (Paz-Alberto and Sigua 2013).
Phytoremediation is an environment-friendly technology employed to remove
contaminants in the environment by the use of green plants. With the help of plants,
soils, sludge, sediments, and water which were contaminated with organic and inor-
ganic contaminants are cleaned in biological means in the phytoremediation
(Indelicato 2014).
Generally, the key difference between bioremediation and phytoremediation is
that bioremediation includes the overall process of decontamination of the environ-
ment using biological agents (microorganisms and plants), whereas phytoremedia-
tion is the process which uses only the green plants to decontaminate the
environment. Bioremediation includes both in situ and ex situ types, whereas phy-
toremediation involves only one mode of bioremediation called in situ bioremedia-
tion (Indelicato 2014).
128 B. K. Chetri
Fig. 9.1 Mechanism of salt removal from tsunami-affected soil by bioremediation. (Moqsud and
Omine 2013)
3 Role of Native Plants in Bioremediation
Native plants degrade the contaminants by increasing the microbial growth in their
root zone (mostly the gram-negative bacteria) (Devinny et al. 2005). Microbe
growth increases with the increase in the exudation of carbohydrate, amino acids,
and other compound from roots (Devinny et al. 2005). The rhizosphere (soil region
subjected to plant root and their associated microorganisms) will have high density
of microorganism than the surrounding soil; therefore, rhizosphere bacteria play a
dominant role in degrading contaminant. Since bacteria are more abundant, they
degrade xenobiotic contaminants (by acting synergistically) (Devinny et al. 2005).
Native plants, Coreopsis drummondii and Pteris vittata when planted with Trifolium
repens (legumes), have adverse effects on Cu-polluted soil. Since the root of T.
repens is symbiotically associated with mycorrhiza, it increases the ability of root to
absorb more nutrients and water from soil (Chibuike 2013). Mycorrhiza also
increases the resistivity of plant against diseases and detoxifies the toxic substances
(Chibuike 2013). Bioremediation can also be used successfully as some microor-
ganisms absorb, precipitate, oxidize, and reduce heavy metals in soils. Mustard
(Brassica juncea Linn) soaks up heavy metals such as Cr, Ni, Pb, U, and Zn, and it
also acts as a hyperaccumulator for Cu (Indelicato 2014). Seed plants of Brassica
napus Linn, water hyacinth (Eichhoria crassipes), and hydrilla (Hydrilla verticil-
lata) are accumulators for Cr, Pb, and Hg (Indelicato 2014). Vetiver grass (Vetiveria
zizanioides) (Fig. 9.2) has been used in Hong Kong for land protection and to miti-
gate soil erosion, with a high tolerance to a range of trace elements such as As, Cu,
and Cd. Other grasses worth of mention are colonial bentgrass (Agrostis castellana)
and native (Indelicato 2014). Thus, native plants in association with microorganism
make bioremediation successful in nature.
Fig. 9.2 Native plants involved in bioremediation (a) Hypericum perforatum, (b) sunflower, (c)
rapeseed plant, (d) chives, (e) vetiver grass, (f) coconut plants (Indelicato 2014)
The plants used for remediating a particular contaminated can be either native or
non-native, but native plants are most desired plants for bioremediation because of
following advantages:
• Maintains local heritage of plants
• Restores biodiversity (variety of natural plant and animal life) to a damaged area
• Requires less maintenance, as plants are already adapted to the environment
• Reduces the risk for introduction of exotic plants to sensitive ecosystem (Devinny
et al. 2005)
Native plants are suitable for rhizosphere degradation and phytostabilization.
Since native plants are well adapted to the local climate and soils, it supports the
animals at that area. For example, according to Hellmers et al. (1955), native plants
of South California have dense and deep root systems which help this plant to adapt
the seasonal rainfall of the Mediterranean climate as stated by Devinny et al. (2005).
Native plants clean up the contamination site as well as help in habitat restoration.
Some native plants promote degradation of hydrocarbons through their rhizospheres
and at the same time provide food and habitat for rehabilitated ecosystems (Devinny
et al. 2005). Native plants species have proper mycorrhizal associates in the soil
which affect the availability of root exudates to the rhizosphere and enhances micro-
bial composition in the rhizosphere. Diverse community of native plants can
130 B. K. Chetri
increase the assemblage of this native plant and provide different aboveground habi-
tats which help in greater rhizosphere degradation (Devinny et al. 2005).
4 Strategies of Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation involves various process of remediation (Fig. 9.3) for the suc-
cessful reduction of contaminant present in wastewater and soil (Fig. 9.2). The basic
strategies are as follows:
i. Phytoextraction
Phytoextraction is a process of planting a crop or plant species that can accumu-
late the contaminants in the root. Mostly phytoextraction is used to extract heavy
metals for the soil where the concentration has reached at toxic level (Upadhyay
et al. 2019). This process involves extraction and accumulation of contaminants
from the soil by plants species. These contaminants are transferred to shoot and
other plant parts. Subsequently, the roots and shoots are harvested to remove the
contaminants from the soil. With successive cropping and harvesting, the levels of
contaminants in the soil can be reduced (Jadia and Fulekar 2009). Then the plant
biomass and the contaminants are disposed or recycled. At the same time, transpira-
tion and volatilization from the plant surface can also remove the contaminants.
It is the subarea of phytoremediation in which plants are used to accumulate the
metals and other organic compounds from the soil. If the absorbing plant is an herb,
Fig. 9.3 Processes involved in phytoremediation (Oh et al. 2014)

then the biomass is harvested from the accumulated part (i.e., heavy metal from the
soil in plant is harvested). The plants used in extraction of heavy metals are Quercus
petraea, Prunus avium, Taraxacum officinale, and Urtica dioica, whereas Brassica
juncea is considered as hyperaccumulator of lead (Stanković and Devetaković
2016). Similarly, hyperaccumulator of Zn is Thlaspi caerulescens and Viola calami-
naria, respectively.
ii. Phytostabilization
The term phytostabilization is defined as a process in which certain heavy metals
and organic contaminants in soils can be concentrated in the root zone in which this
process does not degrade but reduces the mobility of the contaminant and prevents
migration to the deeper soil or groundwater and enhances the precipitation and con-
version of soil metals to insoluble forms (Rhizosphere processes) (Morikawa and
Erkin 2003). For example, some plants immobilize (restrict movement) contami-
nants through absorption by roots, adsorption onto root surface and precipitation
within the area of plant roots (Jadia and Fulekar 2009). Phytostabilization occurs
through the adsorption, precipitation, complexional or metal valence reduction pro-
cesses. These plants also involve the use of plants and plant roots to prevent con-
taminant migration via wind and water erosion, leaching, and soil dispersion. The
root limits the contaminants mobility and bioavailability in the soil. It decreases the
amount of water present in the soil matrix that can form hazardous leachate. The
root also acts as a barrier to prevent direct contact with the contaminated soil and
prevent soil erosion and the distribution of contaminants (Jadia and Fulekar 2009).
According to the United States Protection Agency (2000), phytostabilization is use-
ful in treating lead, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, copper, and chromium. The contami-
nants are preserved in the ground and surface water, and this process doesn’t involve
the disposal of hazardous plant biomass (Jadia and Fulekar 2009). Phytostabilization
happens through root zone by altering the soil environment (pH of soil). The pH of
soil is usually changed by the exudates of root or through the production of CO2.
This process not only affects the solubility and mobility of metals but also impacts
the dissociation of organic compounds (Adams et al. 2000). According to Stanković
and Devetaković (2016), phytostabilization method is used to stabilize the soil,
sediments, and sledges (that is present in the root zone and deeper) by using heavy-
metal-tolerant species that restores vegetation in the contaminated area (also mini-
mizes the contamination).
iii. Phytodegradation
It is defined as a type of phytoremediation in which organic and inorganic sub-
stances including atmospheric nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are taken up by
plants and transformed or degraded (Morikawa and Erkin 2003). Dioxins are
reported to be not taken up by plants. Thus, it is simply a use of plants to uptake,
store, and degrade contaminants within its tissue (Tangahu et al. 2011).
Phytodegradation is the breaking down of contaminants that are absorbed by plants
either by metabolic processes within the plant or the breakdown externally through
the effect of compounds (enzymes) produced by the plants. It is also called as
132 B. K. Chetri
phytotransformation. Phytodegradation involves uptake of contaminants, metabo-

lism, and transformation.
The compound must be taken up by plants for phytodegradation, but the uptake
depends on hydrophobicity, solubility, polarity of the compounds, type of plant, age
of contaminant, and other physical and chemical characteristics of the soil (Adams
et al. 2000). Metabolism and transformation are the two processes through which
plants uptake contaminant.
The breakdown of contaminants in the soil through microbial activity that is
enhanced by the presence of the root zone is called rhizodegradation. The concept
is that natural substances are released by the plant roots (sugars, alcohols, and acids
provide food for soil microorganisms) so that it establishes a dense root mass that
takes up large quantities of water and degradation occurs (Tangahu et al. 2011). It
involves the metabolism of plant that leads to the breakdown of contaminants taken
up by the plants. The breakdown of contaminant may happen external to plants
through the release of compounds (enzyme) by the plant (Adams et al. 2000).
Phytodegradation occurs when plant absorbs moderately hydrophobic organic com-
pounds, and these absorbed compounds are translocated within the plants (hydro-
phobic organic compound cannot be translocated in the other part of plants, but it
bounds to the root). The molecules that are polar in nature will get translocated in
plant parts while nonpolar doesn’t (Adams et al. 2000).
iv. Rhizofiltration
In this type of phytoremediation, plant roots take up metal contaminants or
excess nutrients from growth substrates through rhizofiltration (root) process, the
adsorption, precipitation onto plant roots, or absorption into the roots of contami-
nants that are in solution surrounding the root zone. Generally, this process is for
metals, excess nutrients, and radionuclide contaminants in groundwater, surface
water, and wastewater medium (Tangahu et al. 2011). It is the adsorption or precipi-
tation of contaminants in solution surrounding by root zone. The contaminants are
accumulated in the root, and then it is harvested by hydroponic techniques. Exudates
from the plant roots might cause precipitation of some metals. This technology does
not work well with soil, sediments, or sludges because the contaminant needs to be
in solution in order to be absorbed to the plant system.
v. Phytovolatilization
It is defined as process in which uptake contaminants from the soil and release
into the atmosphere in the modified form through transpiration (Jadia and Fulekar
2009). Phytovolatilization is the plants’ ability to absorb and subsequently volatilize
the contaminant into the atmosphere (Vara Prasad and de Oliveira Freitas 2003).
Phytovolatilization of trichloroethylene (TCE) by poplar (Chappell, 1998) and
methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) by eucalyptus (Newman et al. 1999), selenium
by Indian mustard (de Souza et al. 2000), and methyl mercury by tobacco (de Souza
et al. 2000) and yellow poplar (Jadia and Fulekar 2009) have been reported earlier.
Once volatilized, these compounds may be degraded by hydroxyl radicals in the

atmosphere or stay as air pollutants. It is the uptake and transpiration of a contami-
nant by a plant, with release of the contaminant or a modified form of the contami-
nant to the atmosphere from the plant through contaminant uptake, plant metabolism,
and plant transpiration phytoremediation. The contaminants are transformed into
volatile forms and transpiring them into the atmosphere. In laboratory, N. tabacum
and Arabidopsis thaliana that had been genetically modified to include a gene that
are used to reduce mercuric ions. The ionic mercury is converted to less toxic metal-
lic mercury and then volatilized it (Jadia and Fulekar 2009). It is the method of
absorption, adsorption, and precipitation of contaminants (solution surrounding the
root zone) by the plant roots in surface water, wastewater, or extracted groundwater
(Stanković and Devetaković 2016; Adams et al. 2000; Vishnoi and Srivastava 2007).
The process involves absorption or adsorption and translocation of contaminant
(depends on the types of contaminant) within the plants (Adams et al. 2000). The
exudates from the root may lead to precipitation of some metals, while some con-
taminants get accumulated within the plants. These contaminants are removed by
physically removing the plant (Adams et al. 2000).
In the following section, basic processes for phytoremediation are briefly sum-
marized. Phytoaccumulation: The process is also called phytoextraction and defined
as extraction of metals or organics substances by plant roots from contaminated soil
and water to translocate them to aerial parts of plants (shoots tissue). Metal hyper
accumulators are those plants which accumulate more than 1.0% (Mn) or 0.1% (Co,
Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn), or 0.01% (Cd) of leaf dry matter (Fig. 9.4) (Morikawa and Erkin
2003). According to Baker et al. (2000), more than 400 species or about 0.2% of all
angiosperms of 80 families are known as metal accumulator, and such plants have
been used at Chernobyl Nuclear Power plant accident site in Ukraine (Dobson et al.
1997).
Fig. 9.4 Uptake of metals (Nickel) by phytoextraction (Morikawa and Erkin 2003)
134 B. K. Chetri
5 P
hytoremediation Process of Heavy Metals with Specific
Plants Used and Its Limitations
Cotton wood and hybrid poplar trees were used to remove heavy metal, nutrients,
and pesticide contaminants of shallow groundwater of East and Middle East (Adams
et al. 2000). Poplar tree is used because rate of transpiration in this plant is high.
Wright and Roe (1996) found that poplar trees on a landfill transpired 70 acre-
inches of water per acre of trees (as cited in Adams et al. 2000). Similarly, cotton
wood trees in Southwestern Ohio pumped 50–350 gal per day per tree (Adams et al.
2000). The process involves the absorption, translocation, and transpiration of con-
taminant along with water. Through transpiration, removal of contaminant or modi-
fied volatile contaminant takes place. According to Cheng (2003), Eriachne
pallescens has got high phytoremediation against Cu contaminant, and
Lycopodiaceae and Melastomataceae species were found to be accumulating large
amount of Al, in Al-contaminated soil. Similarly, Salix matsudana was found to
accumulate high amount of Cd. Leguminous species are considered as most promi-
nent scavenger of heavy metals than any other plants because the root of legumi-
nous species is symbiotically associated with the mycorrhiza (mycorrhiza helps in
more absorption of contaminants) (Cheng 2003). Plants absorb heavy metals from
the soil, and these heavy metals also get accumulated in root and the aerial part of
the plants (Cheng 2003). The accumulated heavy metal either transpires along with
water or gets modified and transpires in air (Stanković and Devetaković 2016).
Phytoremediation is one of the natural processes of removing the contaminants
from the nature, and it has got some limitations.
i. Phytoremediation is not applicable to shallow streams and groundwater (Vishnoi
and Srivastava 2007).
ii. The plant may suffer from toxicity due to high accumulation of contaminants.
iii. Though it helps in removing the contaminants in the soil, it also pollutes the
atmosphere (Vishnoi and Srivastava 2007).
iv. Some plants are involved in altering the solubility of toxic metals; therefore, if
the solubility of toxic metal is increased, it may leach into the groundwater
causing environment risk (Cheng 2003).
6 Phytoremediation Process of Heavy Metals
According to Baker and Brooks (1989), the largest numbers of temperate climate
hyperaccumulating species belong to the Brassicaceae, but in the tropics, the
Euphorbiaceae is the best represented group. One of the most striking examples of
metal hyperaccumulation is displayed by a New Caledonian tree (Sebertia acumi-
nata), which has over 11% of Ni in its latex (Baker and Brooks 1989). The plant for
phytoextraction would be able to tolerate and accumulate high level of heavy met-
als, grow rapidly, and be able to produce a high biomass yield (Ensley et al. 1997).
The first reported field trials of metal accumulators on soils demonstrated the feasi-
bility of phytoextraction as per Baker and Brooks (1989). The site was contami-
nated by Ni- and Zn-containing sludges. The best metal accumulator identified in
this trial was Thlaspi caerulescens (require 13–14 years of continuous cultivation to
clean the site).
Generally, phytoremediation can be a time-consuming process, and it may take
at least several growing seasons to clean up a site, and the intermediates formed
from those organic and inorganic contaminants may be cytotoxic to plants (Tangahu
et al. 2011). Phytoremediation is also limited by the growth rate of the plants and
time as compared to traditional cleanup technologies (Tangahu et al. 2011).
Phytoremediation may not be the remediation technique of choice and best suited
for remote areas where human contact is limited or where soil contamination does
not require an immediate response (EPA 2000). Further, the success of phytoreme-
diation may be limited by factors such as growing time, climate, root depth, soil
chemistry, and above all low remediation efficiency (Salido et al. 2003).
7 Limitation of the Plants Used in Metal Phytoremediation
• The pH of the influent solution may have to be continually adjusted to obtain

optimum metals uptake.
• A well-engineered system is required to control influent concentration and flow
rate of metal through the plant.
• Periodical harvest and ultimate disposal of plant biomass is necessary.
• Metal immobilization and uptake tested in laboratory and greenhouse studies
might not be achievable in the field.
• It is limited to shallow soil, streams, and groundwater.
• Absorption of high contaminant substances is toxic to plants as well.
• Climate change and other seasonal factors can increase the treatment period.
• Phytoremediation requires large area (Vishnoi and Srivastava 2007).
8 P
hytoremediation Plays Important Role as an Eco-friendly
Low-Cost Technology in the Field of Agriculture and Food
Safety
Phytoremediation makes the soil or the cleansed site more fertile (Robinson et al.
2003). Therefore, crops and other vegetables can be grown in such areas (not much
complex equipment needed to make soil fertile and the process used to make the soil
fertile is eco-friendly). In this developing world, the urbanization and industrializa-
tion have led to the pollution of agricultural land by adding heavy metals and other
organic pollutants in soil (Oh et al. 2014).
136 B. K. Chetri
If an agricultural field is contaminated with heavy metals and other pesticides or

insecticides, phytoremediation is the cheapest and eco-friendly method to improve
the quality of the soil (and to remove the contaminant from the soil). Since heavy
metal stress inhibits the germination and growth of crops, it leads to reduction of
crop productivity (Sinclair and Krämer 2012). Therefore, plants that absorb the con-
taminant should be planted together with the other crops (make sure no allopathic
effect is there in crop) in the field so that these plants absorb the unwanted contami-
nant and allow the crops to grow (the product will also be free of chemicals like
pesticides). Phytoremediation also reduces the movement of pollutant in groundwa-
ter, sustains soil structure, and enhances the soil quality and productivity (Oh et al.
2014).
Therefore, phytoremediation is the cheapest method for agricultural field because
it prevents the loss of soil resources and energy is fully supplied by the sun (no
external energy is required) (Oh et al. 2014). Thus, food safety is also maintained
when agricultural pollutants are removed from soil.
The key role of phytoremediation in the field of agriculture and food safety is
that phytoremediation is a natural and in situ remediation system done by solar and
green plants and can also conserve the soil resources (Cheng 2003). It is inexpen-
sive, does not induce the secondary contamination, can reduce movement of pollut-
ants toward groundwater, sustains the soil structure, and enhances the soil quality
and productivity (Wang et al. 2003). In broad sense, phytoremediation does exploit
natural plant physiological processes and can be used to decontaminate agricultural
soils and food chain safety by phytostabilization of toxic elements; thus, it is a low-
cost and environment-friendly technology targeting removal, degradation, or immo-
bilization of contaminants (Schwitzguébel et al. 2011). Contaminants such as heavy
metals cause a significant threat to agricultural crops (Neilson and Rajakaruna
2015). It can alter the plant growth and development as intake of such toxins affects
important physiological processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, transloca-
tion, nutrient uptake, etc. To prevent the huge loss of agricultural products, removal
of contaminants is important, but techniques such as solidification, vapor extraction,
and thermal desorption are costly and also cause harm to plant productivity.
9 Mycorrhizal-assisted Phytoremediation
There are two common types of mycorrhizae that remediate the polluted soils; it
includes arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) and ectomycorrhiza (EcM) (Doidy 2012).
The mostly used mycorrhiza is the AM type because it has the ability to colonize
almost all types of plants, whereas EcM colonizes mostly woody species (Chibuike
2013). In the case of AM fungi, highly branched hyphae called arbuscule is sur-
rounded by a plant membrane called the periarbuscular membrane (PAM). The
nutrient exchange or movement of molecules takes place between PAM and cell
wall of fungi through periarbuscular space (PAS) which is between the fungal cell
wall and PAM. PAM unlike the normal cell of plant (non-arbusculated cells)
contains mycorrhiza-inducible transporters that help in transferring the nutrient

from the mycorrhizal interface to plant (Doidy 2012). The processes involved in the
removal of contaminant are phytoextraction and phytostabilization (Chibuike 2013).
The nutrients and other compounds (heavy metals) are absorbed by the fungus and
are transported to plant which get accumulated in the plant, thus removing the con-
taminants from the soil and water.
Generally, mycorrhizal fungi, being the most prevalent beneficial organisms
associated with plants, can be applied for phytoremediation purposes (Aroca et al.
2008). Mycorrhiza can assist in phytoremediation either by making contaminants
more available for uptake by the plants or by reducing metal toxicity in their host
plant and rely on various extracellular (chelation and cell wall binding focus on the
prevention of metal entry) and intracellular (binding to nonprotein thiols and trans-
port into intracellular compartments reduce the metal concentration in the cytosol)
defense mechanisms (Fig. 9.5) (Coninx et al. 2017). Similarly, ericoid mycorrhiza
is best suited for the remediation of metal-polluted, acidic, nutrient-poor soils, as
members of the Ericales (plants associated with this type of mycorrhiza) are domi-
nant in these types of environments (Danielson and Visser 1989). Acidic soil condi-
tions increase the availability of potentially toxic metals, which makes it even more
challenging for organisms to survive and reproduce in these areas (Danielson and
Visser 1989). Mycorrhizal fungi contribute to the degradation of man-made xenobi-
otic compounds by the process rhizodegradation so that plants absorb such com-
pounds from roots to aerial parts by the process phytoextraction before releasing
these toxic elements to the atmosphere as remedy for environment pollution (Allen
and Boosalis 1983). Drought is one of the plant stresses which affects growth and
development of many plants, but there are some plants species that are drought
resistant. There are numerous reports which describe drought tolerance of the plants
by fungal symbiosis. Drought stress in plants is due to osmotic adjustments, altered
stomatal activity, production of antioxidants, and altered transcriptional and
translational regulation, and Malinowski and Belesky (2000) stated that fungal sym-
biont involves the osmotic adjustments and altered stomatal activity. It is found that
Fig. 9.5 Schematic diagram of plants colonized by ECM (green) root tips, AMF (red) vesicles,
and ERM (blue) root hairs. (Coninx et al. 2017)
138 B. K. Chetri
there is significant increase in drought tolerance in fungal endophytes from the for-
age grass and tall fescue (Rodriguez et al. 2004).
9.1 Mycorrhiza and How It Is Different from AMF
Mycorrhiza is the symbiotic association between the hyphal fungi and the root of
the plant whereby both benefited from each other (the fungi provide nutrients to
plants while plants provide fixed carbon to fungi) (Coninx et al. 2017). AMF is a
kind of mycorrhizal fungi (called arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) that colonizes the
plant roots and regulates the growth of plant by obtaining fixed carbon from plant
for their own survival (Coninx et al. 2017). It was coined by Albert Bernhard Frank
describing the symbiotic association of plant roots, and it literally means fungus
root (Bagyaraj 2014). According to Coninx et al. (2017), mycorrhiza is broadly
categorized into ectomycorrhizase, orchid mycorrhizae, ericoid mycorrhizae, and
arbuscular mycorrhizae. Ectomycorrhizae are association between basidiomycetous
fungi (genera Boletus, Suillus, Russula, etc.) or some ascomycetous fungi with for-
est tree species in the families Pinaceae, Salicaceae, Betulaceae, Fagaceae, Tiliaceae,
Rosaceae, Leguminaceae, Myrtaceae, and Juglandaceae with key role in the uptake
of nutrients from soil, protect roots against invasion by pathogens and decompose
organic matter (Bagyaraj 2014).
The most common type of mycorrhizal association which is about 85% occur-
ring in crops (agriculture and horticulture) is the arbuscular type of mycorrhizal
association, and it’s different from other mycorrhizae. It is an association between
most tropical plant species except Pinaceae, Betulaceae, Orchidaceae, Fumariaceae,
Commelinaceae, Urticaceae, and Ericaceae and fungi genera Glomus, Gigaspora,
Scutellospora, Acaulospora, and Entrophospora (obligate fungi) (Bagyaraj 2014).
The key difference between mycorrhiza and AMF is that there is presence of
vesicles and arbuscules in AM fungus (Fig. 9.5) in the roots (Bagyaraj 2014). AMF
symbiosis is a unique relationship as some parts of the fungus (intraradical hyphae,
arbuscules, and vesicles) are inside the root and some other parts of the fungus
(extra radical hyphae and extramatricular chlamydospores) are outside the root in
soil unlike mycorrhiza (Bagyaraj 2014).
It is also described as fungus root which serves as water and nutrient transfer
interface where both the plant and the fungi are benefited (Mutualism). According
to Smith and Read (2008), mycorrhizae can also be formed between hyphal fungi
and the underground organs of many lower land plants (Coninx et al. 2017).
According to Smith and Read (2008), mycorrhizae can also be formed between
hyphal fungi and the underground organs of many lower land plants (Coninx et al.
2017) and AMF is the most common type of mycorrhizae. According to Brundrett
(2009) AMF are found in mutualistic relationships with over 74% of flowering
plants and with over 80% of vascular plants but host can also be non-vascular, some
gymnosperm and angiosperm (Coninx et al. 2017). AMF are the dominant mycor-
rhizal type in boreal and temperate forests and are generally regarded as obligate
biotrophs. They form a special structure called the arbuscules and vesicles (Coninx
et al. 2017). Arbuscules are temporary structures which will stay for around 2 weeks.
When they mature, vesicles may act as reproductive structures and act as the site for
nutrient exchange between the host and the fungi (Sharma et al. 2015).
9.2 Role of Mycorrhiza in Plant Responses During Drought
It is found that there is a relationship between proline accumulation and drought

tolerance. The low proline accumulation in plant is due to less injury by water stress
(Rodriguez et al. 2004).
i. AMF inoculation in Brassica juncea has increased the proline content by
63.47% (Coninx et al. 2017). Proline accumulation helps to maintain high
osmotic levels in plant cells suffering from water deficit (Cicatelli et al. 2014).
ii. According to Auge (2002), lower accumulation of sugar in AMF has led to suc-
cessful avoidance of drought stress as cited in Rodriguez et al. (2004). According
to Schellenbaum et al. (1998), lower accumulation of sugar in AMF is due to
utilization of sugar by the fungus, e.g., Glycine max (Rodriguez et al. 2004).
iii. Tian et al. (2004) found that there is increase in the activities of antioxidant
enzymes in plants inoculated with mycorrhizae during drought conditions, and
this reduces the accumulation of intracellular ROS in plants during stress
(Rodriguez et al. 2004).
iv. AMF plants reduce the transpiration rate under drought stress, and they exhibit
higher values of root hydraulic conductivity.
v. AMF increases the root water absorption during drought condition.
vi. AM symbiosis regulates ABA contents of the host plant under drought condi-
tions (Aroca et al. 2008).
It is found that mycorrhizal plants grew better than non-mycorrhizal with accumu-
lated Cu and Zn. Roots of mycorrhizal plants can accumulate one or both metals at
higher concentration (Cicatelli et al. 2014). According to Cabral et al. (2015),
mycorrhizal either makes metals more available for uptake by the plants or reduces
metal toxicity in their host plant as cited in Coninx et al. (2017). But the mycorrhizal
fungi should be able to first establish a mycorrhizal symbiosis for effective phytore-
mediation. Mycorrhizal fungi have the ability to increase the metal availability in
the soil and also increase the transfer of metals from soil to roots. Even if it is harm-
ful for the host plants, the toxic metals are translocated to higher plant parts from
roots (Coninx et al. 2017). Ectomycorrhiza association in P. involutus increases
phytoextraction of metals. AMF in Oryza sativa could increase phytostabilization
of cadmium (Cd). Most of the phytoremediation of organic contaminants are
through direct degradation. Mycorrhizal fungi produce surfactant which helps in
organic degradation using enzyme and a non-specific free-radical-based mechanism
(Coninx et al. 2017). It provides a stable soil for plant growth by production of a
substance that binds soil aggregates (glomalin) (Chibuike 2013).
140 B. K. Chetri
Drought stress in the plant leads to serious changes in the metabolism of nitrogen
and carbon and often decreases the photosynthetic activity (reducing assimilation)
(Pinior et al. 2005). Therefore AM induces drought stress tolerance in several plants.
The AMF increases enhance the supply of phosphorus to plant (Pinior et al. 2005).
It was observed that AMF increased the content of polyamines in alfalfa plant and
also increased the free amino acid and sugar content in Rosa hybrid (showing the
adaptation of mycorrhizal plants to drought) (Pinior et al. 2005). Physiological
changes occurred in the AM-induced drought stress-tolerant plant. The changes
include modification of parameters (enhances internal entropy) involved in foliar
water relation (gas exchange, leaf potential, leaf tissue elasticity, and stomatal
behavior) and alteration of root turgor and root to shoot signals (Pinior et al. 2005).
According to Wu and Zou (2017), mycorrhizal plants could adapt the drought stress
in morphology, especially if leaf epicuticular wax and root morphology and mycor-
rhizal plants have direct pathway of water uptake by extraradical hyphae. In a study
done by Wu and Zou (2017), AMF had shown to enhance drought tolerance in
plants (release glomalin into soil, improve soil structure, and regulate water relation
of plants or soil). According to Aroca et al. (2008), AM symbiosis enhances plant
tolerance to drought through the alteration of plant physiology and the expression of
plant stress marker genes (Lsp5cs, Lslea, and Lsnced). Arbuscular mycorrhizal
plants always reduced transpiration rate under drought stress and allow a more ade-
quate balance between leaf transpiration and root water movement during drought
(Aroca et al. 2008). As experimented by Pinior et al. (2005), Rosa hybrida (rose
plants) inoculated fungus Glomus intraradices (arbuscular mycorrhizal) with four
different water stress conditions revealed that mycorrhizal association prevented
drought damages and maintained higher water contents as compared to a non-
mycorrhizal soil. This is because of the aggregating outcome of mycorrhizal hyphae
on soil structure (Augé et al. 2001). Also hyphae can enter pores that are too small
for root hairs to access and hyphae proliferated well beyond the limit of root hairs
giving plants access to more water (Allen and Boosalis 1983).
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Chapter 10
Integrated Approach for Bioremediation
and Biofuel Production Using Algae
S. K. Mandotra, Afreen J. Lolu, Sunil Kumar, P. W. Ramteke,

and Amrik S. Ahluwalia
Abstract Large-scale industrialization and anthropogenic activities have led

inordinate disposal of waste water into fresh water bodies, causing imbalance in
aquatic ecosystem and degradation of water quality. Waste water contains
significantly high amount of organic, inorganic substances as well as toxic heavy
metals. To neutralize the negative impact of waste water, effective remediation
processes are required. At present, numbers of conventional waste water treatment
technologies have been employed, but they require high operational cost, large input
of energy and huge land area, which leads to its failure at the ground level. Therefore,
bioremediation of waste water using microalgae has emerged as an alternative
approach that provides simple and cost-effective technology of waste treatment
with simultaneous production of value-added products. Microalgae are very efficient
in assimilating nutrients and other pollutants from waste water for huge biomass
production. Harvested algal biomass is a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids and secondary metabolites that can be used as animal feed, biofertilizer and
feedstock for biofuel production. Therefore, this chapter highlights the different
mechanisms involved in nutrient removal by microalgae and subsequent utilization
of algal biomass for biofuel production.
Keywords Microalgae · Waste water treatment · Biofuel · Nutrient removal
1 Introduction
The last few decades witnessed rapid increase in human population as well as
industrial development; consequently, our dependence on fossil fuel has increased in
such a way that these finite sources of fuels are at the brink of extinction. Excessive
S. K. Mandotra (*) · A. J. Lolu · S. Kumar · A. S. Ahluwalia

Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
P. W. Ramteke
Department of Biological Sciences, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology
and Sciences, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

146 S. K. Mandotra et al.
utilization of these petroleum reserves has also posed serious hazard to human as well
as environmental heath including much serious anomaly, for instance, global warm-
ing (Udaiyappan et al. 2017). Furthermore, continuous generation of waste water due
to various anthropogenic activities and its disposal without adequate treatment results
in water pollution. Phosphorus and nitrogen being the main components of waste
water cause eutrophication that further contributes to excess growth of plants and
algae; this process results in oxygen depletion followed by total devastation of fresh
water ecosystems (Renuka et al. 2013; Gonçalves et al. 2017). Surface water pollu-
tion has become a worldwide challenge; in most of the developing countries, human
health is facing serious threat as large portion of fresh water bodies are polluted with
heavy metals, organic pollutants, eutrophication and acidification (Conway et al.
2015; Salama et al. 2017). A survey conducted in 1993 by the International Lake
Environment Committee stated that the eutrophication level in the lakes and water
reservoirs of North America, Asia and the Pacific, South America, Europe and Africa
are 48%, 54%, 41%, 53% and 28%, respectively (ILEC 1994; Cai et al. 2013).
As discussed earlier, phosphorus and nitrogen are the main factors that caused
eutrophication; they are mainly removed during the tertiary treatment with the help
of both biological and chemical treatments. There removal comprises several cycles
of anaerobic digestion, nitrification and denitrification until acceptable level is
reached. Whereas during chemical treatment, excess phosphate and nitrogen are
removed by the process of precipitation using common precipitating agent such as
iron and aluminium salts (Singh and Thomas 2012). Although both of these pro-
cesses are very effective, they require huge setup in terms of large land area, high
maintenance and operational cost and large manpower that make overall processes
very costly and energy consuming (Gonçalves et al. 2017; Queiroz et al. 2007;
Udaiyappan et al. 2017).
Microalgae (common term used for eukaryotic green algae and prokaryotic
cyanobacteria) offer an optional practice for the treatment of waste water loaded
with plenty of nutrients; they have the ability to grow in fresh, brackish, sea as well
as waste water (Patel et al. 2017). Microalgae are photosynthetic microorganisms
that convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and water with the aid of solar energy into various
bioenergy forms (Wijffels and Barbosa 2010). They are 20% more efficient than
other terrestrial plants in terms of photosynthetic efficiency (Lindeman 1942). In
addition, algal biomass could be used a sustainable feedstocks for biofuels and other
value-added products. At present, on a yearly basis, only 9000 tons of algal biomass
is produced worldwide with the production cost of $20–200 kg−1 (Wang et al. 2016;
Singh et al. 2018). However, the high production cost of biomass is still the major
bottleneck in the production of algal biofuel. Therefore, algal cultivation integrated
with waste water treatment (Fig. 10.1) is an alternative and economic approach by
which overall cost of algal biofuel production and waste treatment could be reduced
(Wang and Lan 2011; Wang et al. 2016). This ability of microalgae makes it useful
in the process of coupling waste water treatment to other useful products such as
biofertilizers and animal feed (Chinnasamy et al. 2010). Several microalgal species
(Chlorella sp; Chlamydomonas reinhardtii; Scenedesmus obliquus; Dunaliella ter-
tiolecta) have the ability to utilize almost 80–100% of phosphorus and nitrogen from
10 Integrated Approach for Bioremediation and Biofuel Production Using Algae 147
Fig. 10.1 Schematic diagram showing integrated technology of algal biomass production for
waste water treatment and biofuel production. (Adapted and modified from Sivakumar et al. 2012)
waste water (Sydney et al. 2011; Zhu et al. 2013); moreover, some species have been
reported to uptake much harmful chemical like heavy metals (Upadhyay et al. 2016).
2 Algal Cultivation
Bioremediation of waste water using algae can be carried out by two culture systems,
viz., suspension culture and immobilized algal cell system. Both of these systems
have their own advantages as well as disadvantages (Mallick 2002; Gómez-Serrano
et al. 2015). Suspension culture is rather widely used process in which microalgae
are grown in culture flasks, photobioreactors and open ponds (Pires et al. 2013).
Culture flasks and photobioreactors are basically used in controlled laboratory
conditions that have an advantage of controlling several culture parameters including
light intensity, pH, temperature and CO2 supply, apart from these; they also offer an
advantage of higher cellular growth, minimal contamination and evaporation of
media (Posten 2009; Ugwu et al. 2008). Besides these advantages, photobioreactors
have disadvantage in terms of construction and operational cost. There are a number
of photobioreactors that are being currently used such as bubble column, tubular
Fig. 10.2 Schematic diagram showing (a) flat plate bioreactor, (b) bubble column bioreactor, (c)
tubular photobioreactor, (d) raceway pond. (Singh and Sharma 2012)
and flat plate bioreactor (Fig. 10.2). On the other hand, open pond facility can be
used to treat large quantity of waste water at a time. They may be natural ponds,
lakes, lagoons and raceway ponds (Fig. 10.2d). Open pond cultivation of algae is
rather less expensive as it has lower construction and maintenance cost. But, the
major problems associated with open pond system are contamination, lack of
mixing of nutrient, lower light availability and loss of water due to evaporation (Lee
2001). Raceway pond system, however, is more effective as they contain paddle
wheels that ensure proper mixing of nutrients and availability of sunlight to
microalgal cells (Gonçalves et al. 2017; Narala et al. 2016).
Immobilized algal cell system is yet another approach that is being widely used
in the industries. The significance of this process lies in the fact that it minimizes the
overall cost required to separate algal biomass from the rest of the medium/waste
water (Mallick 2002). After waste water treatment, algal biomass need to be sepa-
rated; if not, it might contribute to 60–90% of total biological oxygen demand
(BOD) of effluent (He and Xue 2010). The harvesting process itself is cost intensive
and time-consuming; 20–30% of total production cost for algal-based products is
utilized by the harvesting process (Fasaei et al. 2018). Therefore, natural and artifi-
cial methods of algal immobilization provide an alternative means that prevents free
movement of algal cell in the suspension (Tampion and Tampion 1987). The natural
process of immobilization is through algal biofilm formation carried out by the
natural property of algal cells to adhere to specific surface. On the other hand, algal
cell is immobilized artificially by various processes such as capturing in semiper-
meable membrane, covalent coupling with polymers and entrapment in liquid-liquid
emulsions (Hameed and Ebrahim 2007; Eroglu et al. 2015). During this process, the
algal cells are entrapped inside the polymer matrix; polymer does not allow the free
movement of the algal cell, whereas substrate and the product are able to move
freely in and out of the matrix. The most commonly used polymeric matrix for
entrapment is alginate and carrageenan. Chevalier and Noüe (1985) reported higher
biomass content of microalga Scenedesmus obliquus under immobilized conditions;
not only biomass, pigments and lipid productivities were also found to be higher
under immobilized conditions (Gonçalves et al. 2017). In spite of several advan-
tages, the cost factor associated with the immobilization process to treat large quan-
tity of waste water is a major drawback.
3 A
pplication of Microalgae for Industrial and Domestic
Waste Water Treatment
Present-day waste water treatment strategies of industrial and agro-industrial waste

have some drawbacks as they produce large amount of sludge. As a result, the dis-
posal and operational cost of this sludge contribute to higher capital investment
(Greben and Oelofse 2009). Apart from this, another problem associated with
sludge is odour, especially in the countries with average higher temperature.
Therefore, modern techniques of waste water treatment using algae, biofilms and
membrane filtration offer an alternative opportunity to overcome these problems.
After considering their potentials and drawbacks (Table 10.1), microalgae seem to
be a way ahead for efficient waste water treatment in comparison to other existing
processes (Udaiyappan et al. 2017).
Having rich amount of micro as well as macro nutrients, waste water is a kind of
low-cost and readily available medium that can be used for microalgal cultivation
(Ding et al. 2015). Phosphate (PO4−3), nitrate (NO3−1), ammonia (NH4+), urea and
trace metals are abundantly present in waste water (Ji et al. 2013). To provide suf-
ficient nutrients to the growth medium/waste water, the ratio of N/P should match
Redfield ratio, i.e. 16:1; however, it is not a standard optimum value; the idea is to
provide adequate nutrients and support luxuriant growth of algae (Klausmeier et al.
2004). Table 10.2 shows the potential of various microalgae for waste water treat-
ment and biofuel production.
On the basis of type of carbon source, the growth of the microalgae may be
autotrophic and heterotrophic. During autotrophic mode of growth, microalgae con-
sume CO2, whereas organic carbon source was consumed during heterotrophic
mode of nutrition. During treatment, microalgae reduce the amount of nutrients
thereby reducing chemical oxygen demand (COD) and BOD of the waste water.
Algae-mediated treatment reduces the higher demand of chemicals, energy and cost
input to treat the waste water (Prajapati et al. 2013); the nutrient uptake ability of
microalgae is exceptionally high due to its small size and large surface area (Bich
et al. 1999).
Table 10.1 Different types of waste water treatment with their potential and drawbacks
(Udaiyappan et al. 2017)
Types of
treatment Potential Drawbacks References
Membrane High productivity Membrane fouling Qureshi et al. (2005)
Able to achieve high cell High cost
density inside reactor
Clear permeates for
further separation
Biofilm High reactor productivity Require Qureshi et al. (2005)
with high cell centrifugation of
concentration waste water
Longer operation time Bioclogging in
porous media
Lower cost
Anaerobic Does not use CO2 Temperature Diamantis et al. (2007),
digestion sensitive Dobre et al. (2014) and
Produce biogas High energy Zanirun et al. (2014)
consumption
Less sludge formation Ammonia inhibition
Reduce greenhouse gas Application mainly
emission and global on solid waste
warming
Table 10.2 Biomass and lipid accumulation potential of algae using different sources of waste
water
Biomass
Microalgae Waste water Content Lipid content References
Neochloris Digested dairy 88.3 mg/L/d 2.57 mg/L/d Levine et al.
oleoabundans Waste (2011)
Botryococcus Industrial (carpet mill, 34.0 mg/L/d 13.2 mg/L/d Chinnasamy
braunii untreated) et al. (2010)
Dunaliella Industrial (carpet mill, 28.0 mg/L/d 15.20 mg/L/d Chinnasamy
tertiolecta untreated) et al. (2010)
Scenedesmus sp. Municipal 0.99 g/L 30.0% Fortin and
UM284 Wastewater (filtration+ Campbell
autoclaved) (2001)
Chlamydomonas Piggery waste water 0.92 g/L 33.0% Abou-Shanab
mexicana effluent (filtration w/ et al. (2013)
(0.22 μm) membrane)
Botryococcus Domestic sewage 0.64 g/L 36.0% Chen et al.
braunii (2016))
Auxenochlorella Municipal 2.5 g/L 21.0% Hu et al. (2012)
protothecoides Wastewater (filtration+
autoclaved)
3.1 Mechanism of Nutrient Removal by Microalgae
As discussed earlier, phosphate and nitrogen are the main component of waste water
that causes eutrophication. With the help of different pathways, these nutrients are
taken up by the microalgae. The understanding of these pathways can be used to
improve the efficacy of algae to enhance its phytoremediation potential (Schenk
et al. 2008). Mechanism involved in the removal of phosphorus, nitrogen, and car-
bon is outlined in Table 10.3.
3.1.1 Nitrogen Removal
Nitrogen is one of the most common pollutants of waste water; it is generally found
in various inorganic forms such as nitrite, nitrate, ammonia, ammonium, nitric acid,
nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and molecular nitrogen (Barsanti and
Gualtieri 2014). Microalgae play an important role in the process of assimilation of
inorganic nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite and ammonium) into its organic form such as
proteins, amino acids, etc. Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), on the other hand, fix
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. Nitrate is thermodynamically stable and com-
monly found in aquatic environment; however, it cannot be directly assimilated by
the algae unless and until it is reduced into ammonium (Gonçalves et al. 2017). Two
important enzymes, nitrate and nitrite reductase, play an important role in the reduc-
tion of nitrate and nitrite, respectively. Nitrate reductase converts nitrate into nitrite;
this reaction is facilitated by reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Table 10.3 Mechanism involved in nutrient removal by microalgae (Gonçalves et al. 2017)
Nutrients Mechanism Cell incorporation
Carbon
CO2 Integration in the Calvin cycle Diffusion (5.0< pH <7.0) or
active transport (pH >7.0)
Organic Integration in the respiration metabolism Diffusion or active transport
carbon (depending on molecule size)
Nitrogen
N2-N Fixation by prokaryotic microalgae
(cyanobacteria) into ammonia, followed by
conversion into amino acids
NO3-N and Reduction into ammonium, followed by Active transport
NO2-N conversion into amino acids
NH4-N Direct conversion into amino acids Active transport
Stripping due to volatilization (high pH values n.a.
and temperature)
Phosphorus
PO4-P Phosphorylation Active transport
Chemical precipitation (high pH values and n.a.
dissolved oxygen concentration)
(NADH), followed by further reduction of nitrite into ammonium by the enzyme

nitrite reductase (Eqs. 10.1 and 10.2). Finally, the enzyme glutamine synthase catal-
yses the formation of amino acid glutamine from ammonium in the presence of
glutamate and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Hellebust and Ahmad 1989; Cai et al.
2013; Gonçalves et al. 2017).
Nitrate reductase
NO3- + 2H + + 2e - ® NO2- + H 2 O (10.1)

Nitrite reductase
NO2- + 8H + + 6e - ® NH 4+ + 2H 2 O (10.2)
The assimilation of ammonium requires least energy as it does not involve any
redox reaction. Maestrini et al. (1986) reported that the ammonium is the preferred
form of nitrogen source, as algae do not assimilate nitrate until and unless ammo-
nium is completely consumed. Therefore, ammonium-rich waste water can readily
be consumed to produce higher biomass of algae. Nevertheless, there are few reports
indicating that the higher concentration of ammonium has inhibitory effects on the
growth of the algae; the optimum ammonium concentration ranges from 25 to
1000 μ mol per litre of the culture medium/waste water (Morris and Syrett 1963;
Collos and Berges 2004).
3.1.2 Phosphorus Removal
Phosphorus is another important nutrient that is mainly responsible for the

eutrophication of fresh water bodies (Correll 1998). Besides this, it plays an
important role in algal cell growth and metabolism and is found as a chief component
of lipids, nucleic acids and proteins. Inorganic phosphorus enters microalgal cell in
- 2
the form of H2P O 4 and HP O 4 - through active transport (Chalivendra 2014).
Conversion of inorganic to organic form of phosphate inside microalgal cell is
carried out by substrate- level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation and
photophosphorylation (Martinez et al. 1999). These three processes generate
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) with the input of
energy. In case of substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation,
the energy comes from mitochondrial electron transport system and through
oxidation of respiratory substrates, while, during photophosphorylation, energy
come from light through photosynthesis (Kuenzler 1965). Besides taken up by the
algal cells, phosphate removal is also carried out by precipitation at higher dissolved
oxygen concentration and pH levels (>8.0) (Cai et al. 2013; Gonçalves et al. 2017).
3.1.3 Carbon Fixation
In microalgae, photosynthesis plays an important role to assimilate carbon in the

form of CO2, either from atmosphere or from industrial flue gases. Autotrophic
algae assimilate inorganic form of carbon, while heterotrophic algae take up organic
carbon from the sources such as glycerol, glucose, acetate and ethanol. At lower pH
levels (pH 5.0–7.0), soluble carbonates serve as a source of CO2 that enters into the
algal cell through diffusion. At higher pH values (≥7.0), the main source of inor-
ganic carbon is bicarbonate that transported actively inside the microalgal cell with
the help of enzyme carbonic anhydrase (Neilson and Lewin 1974; Picardo et al.
2013; Sydney et al. 2014). Within the microalgal cell, bicarbonate is converted into
CO2 followed by conversion into energy-rich molecules by the action of ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco) (Gonçalves et al. 2017).
3.1.4 Heavy Metals Removal
Apart from phosphate, nitrogen and carbon, waste water also contains heavy metals.
Industries such as tanneries, petroleum refineries, metal plating, battery manufac-
turing and mining use chemicals which are loaded with huge quantity of heavy
metals; waste water from these industries contain significant amount of heavy met-
als (Eccles 1999). As heavy metals are non-biodegradable, various methods such as
chemical precipitation, filtration, ion exchange, chemical oxidation/reduction, elec-
trochemical treatment and evaporation are being used to get rid of these heavy met-
als (Ahluwalia and Goyal 2007). But, the production of toxic sludge is the biggest
problem associated with these processes; moreover, these processes are cost inten-
sive, and most of the time, the removal efficiencies of metal ion is very low (Perales-
Vela et al. 2006; Udaiyappan et al. 2017). Therefore, much effective and modern
technique of microalgal-assisted waste water treatment is considered as one of the
best solutions for heavy metal removal. Various microalgal species are having inher-
ent ability to synthesize certain peptides that have the ability to bind with heavy
metals. When compared to other biological entities such as fungi, bacteria and
yeast, heavy metal adsorption capability of microalgae is significantly high due to
the presence of several biomolecules (proteins, polysaccharides and lipids) on their
cell wall (Tüzün et al. 2005). These bimolecular have a number of functional groups,
for instance, hydroxyl, sulphate, phosphate, carboxyl and amine, that are involved
in binding metal ions very tightly (Gong et al. 2005). Not only living cell but dead
microalgal cells have also been reported to have biosorbent capabilities for heavy
metal bioremediation (Monteiro et al. 2009); however, bioconcentration capacity
for metal ions is dependent on several factors such as pH, temperature, nutrient
availability, cell number and size, structure and concentration of chemical (Kosek
et al. 2016).
4 Biofuel from Microalgae
Biofuel is defined as fuel which is derived from biological feedstock. On the basis
of the feedstock, biofuel is grouped into three main categories, i.e. first-, second-
and third-generation biofuels. The feedstocks of first-generation biofuels are basi-
cally food crops, and the major disadvantages associated with these fuels are
increased prices with shortage of food supply and utilization of arable land for their
cultivation (Mandotra et al. 2014). The second-generation feedstocks are mainly
lignocellulosic biomass that comprises food processing and agriculture residue and
nonfood crops. The disadvantages with second-generation biofuel are the require-
ment of cultivable land area, slow growth rate and physical and chemical treatments
for its conversion to liquid fuels suitable for transportation (Chisti 2008). Third-
generation biofuel is derived from algal feedstock. There are a number of advan-
tages of using microalgae for biofuel feedstock; they can be grown in a wide variety
of waste water with wide range of pH and chemical composition. Few microalgal
species have been reported to yield as much as 80% lipids of their dry cell weight
(Chisti 2008; Mandotra et al. 2014, 2016). At present, several new technologies
have been applied to improve the efficacy and reduce the overall production cost of
microalgal-derived biofuel (Mandotra et al. 2018).
Biodiesel production from microalgae is carried out by extraction of lipids
followed by transesterification to convert them into fatty acid methyl esters
(biodiesel) (Kumar et al. 2016). Apart from biodiesel, biohydrogen and biomethane
are also produced using certain microalgae; during this process, algae provide
carbon source for methanogens. On the other hand, hydrogenase enzyme plays a
key role in the production of hydrogen. Few species of Chlamydomonas and
Scenedesmus have been reported to produce considerable amount of hydrogen
under sulphur-deprived condition (Nguyen et al. 2009; Dasgupta et al. 2015). At
present, much of the efforts have been made on microalgal-based bioethanol
production. During ethanol production, microalgal biomass is used as carbon source
for certain bacteria and yeast that catalyses the production of bioethanol (de Jesus
Raposo et al. 2013; Udaiyappan et al. 2017).
4.1 Transesterification
Transesterification is a chemical reaction in which fats or oils are converted into

fatty esters and glycerol (Fig. 10.3). The process of transesterification or alcoholysis
is reversible in nature; therefore, excess of alcohol is used to shift the reaction
equilibrium towards the product formation. Reaction rate and product yield are
improved with the use of catalyst that catalyses the stepwise conversion of triglyc-
eride to diglyceride to monoglyceride and finally to glycerol with the production of
1 mole of fatty ester at each consecutive step (Leung et al. 2010).
Fig. 10.3 General reaction of transesterification
There are three main categories of catalysts used in transesterification process,

viz., enzymes, acids and alkali. At commercial scale, enzymes are not very much
popular, as they are costly and require long reaction time. The soap formation is,
however, negligible during enzyme-catalysed transesterification that makes purifi-
cation process more simple. Alkali and acid catalyst are widely used in transesteri-
fication process (Leung et al. 2010). They are broadly divided into homogenous and
heterogeneous catalysts; homogeneous catalysts are named so because they are in
the same phase as that of reactants (soluble catalyst) (Leung et al. 2010). On the
other hand, heterogeneous catalysts are in different phase that of reactants, immis-
cible liquids (catalysts) also comes under this category (Chalivendra 2014).
Homogenous catalysts have higher activity, low temperature and pressure require-
ment and often more efficient than heterogeneous catalysts. Low-cost sodium and
potassium hydroxide and concentrated sulphuric acid are commonly used as alkali
and acid homogenous catalysts, respectively (Leung et al. 2010). Most of the het-
erogeneous catalysts are in solid phase; therefore, they are easily separated from the
product and do not require the washing step. Calcium oxide and titanium dioxide
are most commonly used alkali and acid heterogeneous catalysts, respectively
(Singh and Singh 2010).
4.2 Hydrotreating and Hydrocracking
Hydrotreating is a traditional refinery process that can be used to convert algal lipids
into a drop-in (does not require engine modification) hydrocarbon fuel (Rye et al.
2010). During this process, heteroatoms (oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur) are removed
from the fuel up to the extent that fulfils the minimum requirement of the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The major purpose of this process is to
remove oxygen from the triglyceride, so as to release alkanes from lipid, propane
from glycerol backbone and water from oxygen molecule. Hydrocracking, on the
other hand, is the process of conversion of large molecule of crude algal oil into
smaller and more volatile one. But the major disadvantage associated with this
process is the lower oil yields due to the evaporation of lighter fractions (Duan and
Savage 2011).
5 Conclusions
The present chapter reviews the potential application of microalgae for waste water
treatment and biofuel production. Increasing demand of energy sources, global
warming and pollution of fresh water bodies are major global concern. As far as
agricultural, industrial and municipal waste is concern, several conventional tech-
nologies are being employed for their treatment and disposal into fresh water bod-
ies. But these technologies are not as effective as they are very costly and energy
intensive. Microalgal-based bioremediation offers cost-effective means of reutiliza-
tion of nutrients for biomass production. Microalgal biomass is utilized as animal
feed, biofertilizer and biofuel feedstock. Being a third-generation biofuel feedstock,
microalgae offer a number of advantages over other fuel cops for sustainable biofuel
production. Algae-based integrated technology of nutrient removal and biofuel pro-
duction is a sustainable approach; however, further research is needed to explore
different waste water sterilization techniques to make the process more effective.
Acknowledgment The authors are thankful to the University Grants Commission (UGC), Delhi,
India, for financial support. Authors are also thankful to the vice-chancellor, Panjab University
Chandigarh, for providing necessary laboratory facilities and support.
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Chapter 11
Dual Role of Microalgae:
Phycoremediation Coupled with Biomass
Generation for Biofuel Production
Amit Kumar Singh, Harvesh Kumar Rana, Ravi Kumar Yadav,

and Abhay K. Pandey
Abstract Environmental pollution has become a worldwide concern for develop-

ing as well as developed nation. During the last two decades, a serious attention has
been given in the management of environment pollution caused by hazardous mate-
rial. Currently, water pollution is a serious threat for mankind which continuously
deteriorated due to industrial revolution. Various physicochemical processes such as
precipitation, evaporation, ion exchange, filtration, etc. are being used in the treat-
ment of wastewater. However, several disadvantages are associated with these pro-
cesses. Algae are the photosynthetic microorganism having potential to grow in
both fresh and marine water bodies and can be safely utilized for contaminant
removal from wastewater without imposing any hazard to the environment. The
term “phycoremediation” is now being used for the process which involves algae
for the removal or biotransformation of pollutants from wastewater. Apart from
removal of contaminants, they also reduce biological and chemical oxygen demand
of water bodies. Therefore, algae are now emerging as a desirable treatment option
and could be a sustainable biomass feedstock for biofuel production. So, the dual
use of microalgae, i.e., phycoremediation, as well as biomass production is a feasi-
ble option. Therefore, this chapter provides a detailed account regarding the waste-
water, phycoremediation, nutrients and heavy metal uptake mechanism, and
potential benefit and limitation of using wastewater as a source of nutrients for
cost-effective biofuel production from microalgae.
Keywords Wastewater · Microalgae · Biofuel · Phycoremediation · Sustainable

energy
A. K. Singh · H. K. Rana · A. K. Pandey (*)

Department of Biochemistry, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India
R. K. Yadav
Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India

162 A. K. Singh et al.
1 Introduction
Water pollution is an alarming problem for the whole world. Population burst cou-
pled with industrialization caused serious threat to the environment due to release of
millions of liters of untreated waste to nearby water bodies (Singh and Pandey
2018a, b). Coal, the unsustainable source of energy, was the primary catalyst for
industrialization and to meet the increasing demand of fuel for fast-growing popula-
tion; thus, exploiting of petroleum fuels and natural gas increased (Gupta and
Demirbas 2010). The major drawback associated with the use and dependence on
fossil fuels is their limited resources. In a study, it has been stated that with this cur-
rent consumption rate, petroleum reserves will exhaust in less than 50 years.
Moreover, use of fossil fuel causes adverse effect on our health and environment
(Rawat et al. 2011) with undesirable consequences, i.e., release of CO2 in the envi-
ronment, depletion of fossil fuel reserve, and global warming (De La Torre Ugarte
2000). Burning of fossil fuel causes release of CO2, a greenhouse gas which has
direct effect on the environment. The global CO2 emission increased from 22.7 bil-
lion tons in 1990 to 33.9 billion tons in 2011 (Judkins et al. 1993; Ma et al. 2015).
A study conducted by Winkelman et al. (2015) shows that continuous burning of
petroleum reserve is enough to melt Antarctic ice sheet which result in increased
global sea level (Winkelmann et al. 2015). The vegetation in the Arctic region
increased considerably from 1984 to 2012, owing to the increase in temperature, the
changes in the annual growing season, soil physiology, and soil nutrition (Ju and
Masek 2016). So, there are drawback associated with fossil fuel dependence and
physicochemical treatment of wastewater. Keeping this thing in mind, scientist
around the world is searching for alternative resources which not only efficiently
and economically depollute the wastewater but also helps in the production of
renewable source of energy to move from petro-economy to bioeconomy. In this
regard, algae seem to be the appropriate choice to function as an eco-friendly tool
for treatment of wastewater with biomass production coupled to biofuel generation.
Phycoremediation is a promising option for treatment of wastewater as it lessens the
requirement of chemicals and energy than conventional wastewater treatment meth-
ods, i.e., centrifugation, filtration, floatation, gravity settling, etc. (Wu et al. 2012).
It has been estimated that as many as 200,000–800,000 species exist, of which
only about 35,000 species have been identified and described (Tabatabaei et al.
2011). It is reported that algal cellular respiration produces approximately half of
the atmospheric oxygen on earth and consumption of vast amounts of the green-
house gas carbon dioxide (Chisti 2007). Microalgae can be cultivated in nonarable
land by utilizing brackish or wastewater as growth medium of food production
(Chisti 2007; Dismukes et al. 2008). Alga has potential to produce bio-hydrogen
(Ghirardi et al. 2000). Integrated use of microalgae in biofuel, bio-hydrogen pro-
duction coupled to wastewater treatment emphasizes its potential applications.
Downstream processing of biofuel production from algae is receiving increasing
attention as it significantly contributes 60% of the total biodiesel production cost.
Apart from this, microalgae play an important role in aquatic system, i.e., primary
11 Dual Role of Microalgae: Phycoremediation Coupled with Biomass Generation… 163
producers, water quality indicators, biofuel feedstock, and pharmaceutically impor-

tant bioactive compound and dyes. The fossil algae are being used to reconstitute
the lake evolution, climate change, and pollution level (Singh et al. 2017).
It has been reported that when microalgae are grown under controlled condition,
it produces >20 times more oil/hectare than the terrestrial oilseed crops (Chisti
2007; Benemann 2008; Sheehan et al. 1998). However, the investment and down-
streaming cost of algae-based biofuel production system are still very high (Tampier
2009). The concept of microalgae- mediated wastewater treatment was introduced
by Oswald and Gotass (Gotaas and Oswald 1955). High-rate algal ponds (HRAPs)
are shallow, open, and raceway ponds and have been used for the treatment of
wastewaters (municipal, industrial, and agricultural) and algal biomass generation.
There is an increasing demand of clean water and sustainable energy. This demand
can only be sustained through using pioneer technology, which may improve energy
efficiency, greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation, and production of clean and safe
water with low cost and low energy consumption (Elimelech and Phillip 2011).
Algal biomass contains significant amount of proteins, essential amino acid, fatty
acids, carbohydrates, chlorophylls, carotenoids, vitamins, etc. that can be utilized as
health supplements for humans and animal feed and in cosmetics and pharmaceuti-
cal industry (Kay and Barton 1991). Alga produces several secondary metabolites
that has been investigated for their medicinal properties and reported to possess
antibacterial, antioxidants, antifungal, anticancer agents, anti-inflammatory, and
antidiabetic activities (Sarkar et al. 2006). This chapter describes the applicability of
microalgae in phycoremediation as well as in wastewater treatment.
2 Physiochemical Treatment of Wastewater
Water pollution has been in existence since time immemorial (Singh and Pandey
2018b). Dumping of solid and liquid wastes in nearby water station seemed conve-
nient for humans, which leads to water pollution. Wastewater treatment is an impor-
tant initiative, for the betterment of society and our future (Rawat et al. 2011). Water
is a rare and precious gift to humans, and approximately 0.03% of earth’s water
reserves constitutes the water stations, which is useful for human exercises (Singh
and Pandey 2018a). Industrial revolution and population burst result in the con-
stantly growing demand for useful water, the supply of which remains constant;
therefore, there is an increasing demand over supply (Armaroli and Balzani 2007).
Hence, existing situation demands water consumption minimization as well as to
return it back to the earth with minimum possible pollution because of limited
potential of self-purification in water bodies (Singh and Pandey 2018b). Inclusive
information about the nature and composition of wastewater is essential for design
and operation of wastewater treatment units (Singh and Pandey 2018b).
On the basis of chemicals and techniques used, treatment of wastewater can be
classified into three types, i.e., physical, chemical, and biological treatment meth-
ods. Figure 11.1 enlists the unit operations involved within each category. Out of
Fig. 11.1 Unit operations involved in physical, chemical, and biological wastewater treatment
methods (Singh and Pandey 2018b)
these three treatment methods, physical treatment strategies are the most commonly
used techniques. This method involves the use of mechanical forces such as cen-
trifugation, filtration, and gravitational settling for contaminant removal from
wastewater (Upadhyay et al. 2019). The other wastewater treatment method is
chemical treatment technique which utilizes the chemical reaction to depollute the
wastewater (Upadhyay et al. 2019). Chemical treatment processes always been used
in combination with physical and biological methods. Chemical treatment method
has disadvantages, and the drawback linked to use of chemical treatment methods is
that it results in a net increase in the dissolved content of wastewater (Armaroli and
Balzani 2007). This is an important thing to keep in mind if water has to be reused.
However, biological treatment method involves the use of microorganism to treat
wastewater in primary, secondary, and tertiary process of waste treatment (Madigan
et al. 1997; Maier et al. 2000).
3 Phycoremediation of Wastewater
Phycoremediation is broadly defined as the utilization of algae for the removal of

contaminants from water. The term “phycoremediation” was coined by John J. in
2000 to denote remediation carried out by microalgae. However, the first report
regarding the involvement of microalgae for wastewater treatment was reported by
Oswald and Gotass in 1957. Alga- mediated wastewater treatment is effective in the
removal of nutrients such as nitrogen (N), carbon (C), phosphorus (P), coliform
bacteria, heavy metal, biological oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen
demand (COD) (Raouf et al. 2012; Olguin et al. 2003; Rawat et al. 2011). Algae-
based wastewater treatment is applicable to various types of wastewater, i.e., human
sewage, industrial wastes, agro-industrial wastes, livestock wastes, piggery effluent,
food processing waste, and other agricultural wastes (Raouf et al. 2012). Microalgae,
both aerobically and anaerobically, are being used for treating industrial effluents.
Remediation is generally subject to an array of regulatory requirements and also can
be based on assessments of human health and ecological risks where no legislative
standards exist. Phycoremediation of municipal sewage has been a subject of
research and development for several decades (Oswald 1963, 1988). Microalgal
biomass also has potential to quench or absorb xenobiotics or heavy metal from the
polluted wastewater (Upadhyay et al. 2016). Additionally, the algal systems can
also be utilized for treating acidic waters, CO2 sequestration, biotransformation, and
degradation of xenobiotics and toxic element (Dominic et al. 2009; Gupta et al.
2016; Leung et al. 2014; Olguın 2003). Phycoremediation is one-step efficient
wastewater treatment method, whereas conventional wastewater treatment pro-
cesses are multistep and require intensive chemicals and energy, therefore very
expensive. Phycoremediation also results in the photosynthetic aeration and there-
fore reduces BOD and COD of wastewater (Munoz and Guieysse 2008). Wetlands
are those areas that are saturated with surface or groundwater at a level to support
the life of vegetation (Upadhyay et al. 2019). It generally includes bogs, swamps,
marshes, and similar areas. Natural wetlands are those that do not require human
support for formation (Verma et al. 2012). However, natural wetlands are not effec-
tive in removal of pollutants from wastewater, since water often short-circuits
through natural wetlands, giving little time for treatment (Verma et al. 2012). To
overcome this problem, wetlands are now being constructed to increase the effec-
tiveness of phycoremediation process by targeting either specific pollutants or group
of pollutants. Physiochemical property of wetland gives an insight about pollutant
remediation. Constructed wetlands are considered as complex ecosystem because
of inconstant hydrology, species diversity, soil and sediment type, and water com-
position (Upadhyay et al. 2019). Constructed wetlands are being predominantly
intended to eliminate a wide variety of contaminants such as bacteria, enteric
viruses, suspended solids, nutrients (N and P), heavy metals and metalloids, volatile
organic compounds, pesticides, explosives, and petroleum hydrocarbons and addi-
tives (Hazra et al. 2011). These pollutants should be precisely removed or bio trans-
formed for the success of phycoremediation. There are several types of constructed
wetland treatment strategies. However, microalgae grown in constructed wetland
have potential to remove nutrients, heavy metals, and reduction in the level of bio-
logical oxygen demand as well as chemical oxygen demand without using arable
land (Upadhyay et al. 2017). In addition to wastewater treatment, algal biomass
produced can be utilized to extract lipid which by the process of transesterification
can be converted to biofuel (Upadhyay et al. 2019). Carbon chain length of pro-
duced triglycerides depends upon the species and growth condition (Herath and
Fig. 11.2 An integrative approach phycoremediation coupled to biofuel generation at constructed

wetlands
Vithangen 2015). Algal biomass can be directly used as human food, supplements,
or animal fodder, and it has been reported to produce several by-products such as
dyes, polyunsaturated fatty acid, antioxidants, vitamins, anti-cancerous, and hepa-
toprotective agent (Fig. 11.2) (Singh et al. 2017).
3.1 Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds
Various anthropogenic activities are responsible for the presence of nitrogenous and
phosphatic compounds in wastewater. Wastewater is treated by both aerobic and
anaerobic biological degradation; however, the treated water still contains inorganic
compounds (Barsanti and Gualtieri 2006). Ammonium (NH4+) ion is the most abun-
dant form of nitrogen in wastewater and others are nitrate (NO3−), nitrite (NO2−), or
nitrogen (N2) (Barsanti and Gualtieri 2006). Presence of unionized ammonia or
nitrate/nitrite in higher concentration is toxic to aquatic organisms and humans, as
well as their presence causes eutrophication/microalgal blooms in water bodies
(Conley et al. 2009). Hence, the removal of nitrogenous compounds from wastewa-
ter is essential prior to discharge to nearby water bodies.
Nitrogenous compounds are necessary for the biosynthesis of peptides, proteins,
ribonucleic acid (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), etc. (Cai et al. 2013; Conley
et al. 2009). Microalgae assimilate nitrogen by converting inorganic form to organic
form required for cell synthesis. However, the most preferred form of inorganic
nitrogen by microalgae is ammonium ion because it can easily be converted to amino
acid glutamine without the involvement of redox reaction therefore utilizes less cel-
lular energy (Cai et al. 2013; Flynn et al. 1997). (NO3−) and (NO2−) are also assimi-
lated by microalgae by reducing them to ammonium ion. However, this reaction
pathway is complex and requires various enzymes and intermediate product (Dortch
et al. 1984). Reduction of nitrate to nitrite is mediated by an enzyme nitrate reduc-
tase, afterward nitrite to ammonium by nitrite reductase (Cai et al. 2013; Flynn et al.
1997). Apart from utilizing nitrogen inside cell indirect removal, ammonia stripping
also occurs because of increased pH with algal cultivation (García et al. 2000).
Phosphorus is another important macronutrient that plays a key role in cellular
metabolic processes (Tiessen 1995). It is present in nucleic acids (DNA, RNA),
proteins, lipids, and the intermediate of biosynthesis and metabolism of nucleic
acids, carbohydrates, and proteins. Major forms of phosphorus present in wastewa-
ter are orthophosphate, polyphosphate, or organic phosphate; however, the bioavail-
ability of phosphorus varies with chemical speciation (Schindler 1977). Nonetheless,
higher nitrogen and phosphorus concentration lead to the eutrophication in water
bodies (Schindler 1977; Tiessen 1995). Agricultural and domestic wastes are the
major sources of phosphorus in wastewater (Bennett et al. 2001; Soranno et al.
1996). Therefore, wastewater needs further treatment for the removal of phosphorus
at acceptable level before disposal to natural system (Kadlec and Knight 1996).
Microalgae are reported to utilize phosphorus from wastewaters mainly in the
form of orthophosphates (HPO42− and H2PO4−) and utilizes the orthophosphates
during biosynthesis of various compounds such as nucleic acid, phospholipid, and
protein via phosphorylation (Powell et al. 2009). It is also used in various metabolic
processes which utilize ATP/ADP as energy transfer processes, as it forms the pri-
mary part of ATP and ADP (Conley et al. 2009). During favorable condition, excess
amount of phosphorus is taken up by microalgae and stored it in the form of poly-
phosphate granules for future uses (Rasoul-Amini et al. 2014). Acid-soluble poly-
phosphate granules are directly utilized in biosynthetic processes, whereas acid
insoluble granules are stored for future use when P is limited or exhausted (Powell
et al. 2009). Like nitrogen, indirect removal also occurs in case of phosphorus
because algal culture results in increased pH which causes precipitation of phos-
phate (Nurdogan and Oswald 1995). Table 11.1 shows the nutrient (N and P)
removal efficiency of some reported microalga.
3.2 Reduction in BOD and COD Level
BOD are broadly defined as amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic micro-
organisms to break down organic compounds present in the given water sample
(Fig. 11.3) (Singh and Pandey 2018b). Therefore, it is a measure of oxygen demand
by bacteria to metabolize the organic compound. Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
measures the organic compound that can be chemically oxidized rather than just the
Table 11.1 Nutrient (N and P) removal efficiency of reported microalga and cyanobacteria in wastewater
168
Total nitrogen Total phosphorus

Initial Initial Removal
Process Removal conc. Mg Removal conc. Mg efficiency
Category Species Waste stream type time (day) L−1 efficiency (%) L−1 (%) References
Chlorophyte Chlorella sp. Digested Batch 21 100–240 76–83 15–30 63–75 Wang et al. (2011)
manure
C. kessleri Artificial Batch 3 168 8–19a 10–12 8–20b Lee and Lee (2008)
medium
C. pyrenoidosa Industrial Fed-batch 5 267 87–89 56 45–72 Hongyang et al. (2011)
C. sorokiniana Municipal Batch 10 – – 22 70 Hernandez et al.
(2006)
C. vulgaris Artificial Batch 1–10 13–410 23–100c 5–8 46–94b Aslan and Kapdan
medium (2006)
C. vulgaris Industrial Batch 5–9 3–36 30–95c 112 20–55 Gonzalez et al. (1997)
C. vulgaris Municipal Batch 2–10 48–1550 55–88 4–42 12–100 Khan and Yoshida
(2008) and Ruiz et al.
(2010)
C. reinhardtii Artificial Batch 10–30 129 42–83c 120 13–14b Kong et al. (2010)
medium
Scenedesmmus Artificial Batch 0.2–4.5 14–44 30–100c, a 1.4–6.0 30–100c Zhang et al. (2008)
sp. medium
S. dimorphus Industrial Batch 9 – – 112 20–55 Gonzalez et al. (1997)
S. obliquus Municipal Batch 0.2–8 27 79–100c 12 49–78 Ruiz et al. (2010)
A. K. Singh et al.
Total nitrogen Total phosphorus
Initial Initial Removal
Process Removal conc. Mg Removal conc. Mg efficiency
Category Species Waste stream type time (day) L−1 efficiency (%) L−1 (%) References
Cyanobacteria Arthrospira sp. Animal Semi-cont. _ – 84–96c – 72–87b Olguin et al. (2003)
wastewater
A. platensis Industrial Batch 15 2–3 96–100c 18–21 87–99b Phang et al. (2000)
Oscillatoria sp. Municipal Continuous 14 498 100 76 100 Craggs et al. (1997)
Diatoms P. tricornutum Municipal Continuous 14 498–835 80–100 76–116 50–100 Craggs et al. (1995)
Haptophytes I. galbana Artificial Batch 8 377 99 – – Valenzuela et al.
medium (1999)
Source: Cai et al. (2013, 19: 360–369)
a
Nitrate (NO3− – N), Nitrite (NO2− – N)
b
Total orthophosphates (PO43− – P)
c
Ammonia nitrogen (NH4+ –N)
11 Dual Role of Microalgae: Phycoremediation Coupled with Biomass Generation…
169
CO2
Bacterial Microalgal Biomass

Organic matter oxidation photosynthesis
O2 Light
Fig. 11.3 Mechanism of photosynthetic aeration in water bodies
level of biodegradable pollutants (Raouf et al. 2012). Excess BOD leads to the
depletion of dissolved oxygen in water bodies and responsible for fish death and
anaerobiosis (Raouf et al. 2012). Colak and Kaya (1988) studied the possibilities of
microalgae in reduction in BOD and COD level and reported the net reduction of
68.4% and 67.2% for BOD and COD, respectively, in domestic wastewater.
Photosynthetic microorganism utilizes nutrients present in wastewater for their
growth and releases oxygen in the water, and then heterotrophic aerobic bacteria
then utilizes this released oxygen and in turn the CO2 released from bacterial respi-
ration (Munoz and Guieysse 2006). And this released CO2 will then utilized by
photosynthetic microorganisms (Fig. 11.2). Hence, by using phycoremediation,
both BOD and COD level decreased without external mechanical aeration.
3.3 Biosorption of Heavy Metal
Industrial and agricultural wastewater reported to have considerable amount of heavy

metals, and when they intermixed with water banks, they remain in the water bodies
for long durations and finally deposited to the sediment systems (Agarwal 2005).
Hence, the sediment systems act as reserve for heavy metals, and metals are released
into the aquatic system from the sediments because of prevailing environmental fac-
tors (Gupta et al. 2006). Wastewater containing unacceptable level of heavy metals
needs to be treated thoroughly because biomagnification occurs in biological system
and has deleterious effect to aquatic organism and eventually to humans through
aquatic food chain (Babu and Gupta 2008; Gupta et al. 2006). Conventional physico-
chemical heavy metal treatment from the metal-contaminated wastewater treatment
is complex. Hence, the need of the hour is the economically feasible and eco-friendly
sustainable technologies for heavy metal removal from wastewater (Sandau et al.
1996). Alga-/cyanobacteria-mediated treatment plants are emerging as alternative
bioremediation techniques over conventional methods for heavy metal removal from
metal-contaminated wastewater, industrial effluents, and soil matrix (De Philippis
et al. 2011; Sandau et al. 1996). Studies have demonstrated the applicability of cya-
nobacteria in in situ removal of metals without external input of chemicals and energy
(De Philippis et al. 2011). Alga removes heavy metals from the water bodies either
by adsorption/diffusion or binding over the surface, which is facilitated by specific

structure of cell wall. This extracellular binding of metals to the algal cell surface is
passive uptake followed by slow intracellular active uptake (Gupta et al. 2006).
Several algal species have potential of sequesterating toxic heavy metal from
aqueous environment, and this sequestering process involves various mechanisms
(Upadhyay et al. 2019). Basically, it depends upon the algal species, metal ions,
solution condition, and whether the algal cells are living or nonliving (Han et al.
2007). Living microalgal cells accumulate micro elements (Co, Mo, Ca, Mg, Cu,
Zn, Cr, Pb, and Se) inside their cell through active transport (Ajjabi and Chouba
2009; Han et al. 2007; Kiran and Thanasekaran 2011; Rajfur et al. 2012; Tuzen and
Sari 2010; Yee et al. 2004; Yuce et al. 2010). A field trail conducted by Gale (1986)
reported that photosynthetic microalgae have high potential to detoxify metal from
mine wastewater. Soeder et al. (1978) showed that algae Coelastrum proboscideum
can absorb 100% of Pb from 1.0 ppm solution within 20 h at 23 °C and about 90%
after only 1.5 h at 30 °C, while Cd was absorbed only 60% from 40 ppb solution
after 24 h. Mc Hardy and George (1990) studied Cladophora glomerata in artificial
freshwater channels and found it as an excellent accumulator of zinc.
4 Common Sources of Biofuel
Fossil fuels are the primary energy source for the energy demand of world (Singh
et al. 2018). However, its limited resources and unsustainable nature alarmed the
research communities around the globe to search for the alternative energy source
which is sustainable and eco-friendly. Therefore, the biofuels originated from
renewable resources could be more effective and feasible option (Upadhyay et al.
2019). Biofuels are classified into first-generation biofuels which require edible
plant substrate such as oilseeds and grain, thus creating a food vs. fuel dilemma;
second-generation biofuels which are produced from nonedible plant parts such as
straw, wood, and biomass; and the third-generation biofuels which are generated
from algae (Mohr and Raman 2013). Third-generation biofuels have emerged as a
viable option, since they do not require arable land and food vs. fuel dilemma does
not occur (Daroch et al. 2013). Recently, fourth-generation biofuels have been
introduced which use genetically modified organisms (mainly algae) to achieve sus-
tainable production of biofuels (Daroch et al. 2013). Algal lipid is well character-
ized for having high energy, low-cost production, and renewable resource for
biodiesel production (Borowitzka and Moheimani 2013; Gupta et al. 2014).
4.1 Microalgae: Resource of Biofuel
Biofuel may be defined as fuels derived from renewable raw materials. The applica-
tion of algal biomass for the biofuel production involves the same procedure as
involved in biofuel production through terrestrial biomass (Daroch et al. 2013).
Algal species are now being used for the production of renewable energy such as
biodiesel, bioethanol, biogas, bio-hydrogen, etc. (Demirbas 2011).
Like plant-derived feedstocks, algal feedstocks can also be making use of directly
or processed into liquid fuels and gas through several biochemical or thermochemi-
cal conversion processes (Amin 2009; Demirbas 2009; Rittmann 2008). Dried up
biomass of alga may be utilized to produce energy by direct combustion (Kadam
2002), but this mode of algal biomass utilization for biofuel production is least uti-
lized. Thermochemical conversion of algal biomass to yield gas or oil-based biofu-
els involved several procedures, i.e., gasification, pyrolysis, hydrogenation, and
liquefaction of the algal biomass (Rittmann 2008). However, biochemical conver-
sion procedures include fermentation and anaerobic digestion of the biomass to
yield bioethanol or methane (McKendry 2002a, b; Miao and Wu 2004). Besides,
this bio-hydrogen can be produced by the process of bio-photolysis (Melis 2002).
Lastly, lipids mainly in the form of triacylglycerol can be extracted, isolated from
harvested microalgae biomass, and trans-esterified to produce biodiesel of variable
carbon chain length (Chisti 2007). It has been reported that biodiesel is lesser toxic,
releases lesser gaseous pollutants, and contains very minute quantity of CO2 or sul-
fur in comparison with petro fuels after combustion (Rawat et al. 2013). Therefore,
the biodiesel is now being accepted worldwide among scientific community as an
alternative for traditional fuel resources. This third-generation biofuel addresses the
limitation of plant-/food-derived biofuels (Sivakumar et al. 2012).
5 U
tilization of Wastewater Grown Microalgae for Biofuel
Production
It has been already described and proved that microalga has potential to grow well
in certain wastewater conditions; therefore, these effluents can serve as an appropri-
ate sustainable medium for biofuel feedstock (Singh and Gu 2010). Since, large-
scale production of microalgae has been used since two decades for production of
health supplements and treatment of wastewater (Chisti 2007). Microalga is capable
of removing nutrients from wastewater as described in Table 11.1. Hence, they pro-
liferate well in wastewater due to the availability of nutrients (C, N, and P).
Sometimes, they produce very high amount of lipid up to 80% of their biomass, and
composition of accumulated lipid depends upon the growth condition and microal-
gal species (Dean et al. 2010). However, it is also found that when nutrient stress is
given in growth medium, it leads to higher lipid production but lower biomass pro-
duction (Dean et al. 2010). Therefore, through the studies conducted, it has been
suggested that biomass productivity needs attention rather than lipid productivity,
basic need of biofuel production (Singh et al. 2018).
Proliferation of alga in wastewater provides an efficient method to remove nutri-
ent permanently, not possible with traditional mode of wastewater treatment (Rodolf
et al. 2009). Chinnasamy et al. (2010) conducted a study utilizing carpet industry
effluents as a medium for biomass generation and reported that the consortium of 15
native algal isolates represent >96% reduction of nutrient load. If a very large
amount of carpet-industry wastewater is available, that could be a resource for gen-
eration of algal biomass and potentially biodiesel.
6 Economic and Environmental Advantage

of Phycoremediation
Phycoremediation coupled to biofuel generation provides several environmental and

financial incentives in comparison to traditional wastewater treatment given below.
Phycoremediation Traditional wastewater treatment system

Economically feasible, requires investment of Not economically feasible, requires higher
less amount of money amount of money
Permanently removes nutrient from wastewater, Does not remove permanently; the extent of
extent of removal depends upon microalgae removal depends upon the method utilized,
species and wastewater physical or chemical
No need of trained operator, quite easy to Requires a trained operator, to regulate the
handle fluctuation in quality and quantity of flow and quantity of effluent in tank, because
effluent fluctuation affects the treatment system
No specificity toward the types of waste; it can There is different method of treatment with
be industrial, municipal, or agricultural respect to types of effluent
Photosynthetic aeration: oxygen required for Mechanical aeration: artificial method of
oxidation of pollutants obtained through aeration to provide oxygen for oxidation of
photosynthesis. Less energy expensive pollutants, more energy expensive
Does not require any kind of chemical, so there Requires various chemicals, so further
is no need of further separation in treated water, separation needed in treated water to remove
lessen the operational cost these chemical, increases operational cost
CO2 sequestration through photosynthesis, No such process,
environment friendly
Compatible with traditional method of Noncompatible, process specific
treatment
Single step process, nutrient removal, pigment Multistep process, removal of each parameter
removal, and reduction in BOD and COD can obtained through step by step
be achieved once algae grown in wastewater
Lesser amount of sludge generation Higher amount of sludge generation
Phycoremediation will result in the production Mostly generated sludge used as fertilizer and
of algal biomass, which has several commercial landfills, but greater attention requires
advantages, from bio-based chemical to biofuel avoiding them from becoming further source
of pollution
Does not require any kind of instrument so Requires several instruments like
energy expenditure in this process is very low centrifugation machine, mixer grinder, and
more energy expensive
7 Conclusions
Presently, the key disadvantage related with algal biofuel production is that existing
technologies do not economically support cultivating algae alone for biodiesel gen-
eration because it is very costly and does not result in positive energy returns.
Integrated application of microalgae for wastewater treatment, with biofuel produc-
tion, is therefore a smart choice to overcome operational costs, greenhouse gas
emissions, nutrients, and water scarcity problems. In addition, major problem asso-
ciated to algal biofuel generation is designing of cultivation system. Therefore, fur-
ther research is needed to identify algal species and optimization of operational
parameters for cellular lipid production that can be used to prevent eutrophication
of nearby water stations as well as production of biofuel.
Acknowledgments AKS acknowledges financial support from CSIR New Delhi in the form of
Senior Research Fellowship. The authors also acknowledge DST-FIST and UGC-SAP facilities of
the Department of Biochemistry, University of Allahabad, Allahabad.
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Chapter 12
Microalgae and Microorganisms:
Important Regulators of Carbon Dynamics
in Wetland Ecosystem
Nisha Yadav and D. P. Singh
Abstract Wetlands, a dynamic and natural ecosystem characterized by waterlogged

conditions, are used for the benefit of mankind since decades. One of the most impor-
tant ecological functions of the wetlands is their ability to sustain rich biodiversity and
storage of carbon. The carbon stock in the wetlands is mainly regulated by carbon
cycling mediated by microorganisms and photoautotrophs (algae and plants) in the
wetland. Carbon storage in the wetlands is often controlled by both decomposition of
labile carbon and carbon fixation by the photosynthesis. This internal carbon dynam-
ics in the wetland ecosystem influences the atmospheric carbon cycle. Under anaero-
bic condition, detritus chain involves microbial conversion of biodegradable material
into a mixture of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) with small amounts of
ammonium and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Methanotrophs are unique group of aero-
bic, gram-negative bacteria that use CH4 as a source of carbon and energy. Wetlands
act as biofilters through a combination of physical, chemical and biological factors
which contribute in the reduction of pathogen and waste water. Since algae play a
crucial role in carbon dynamics, the present chapter emphasizes the role of algae in
regulation of carbon, water hydrology and other ecosystem services of the wetland.
Keywords Wetland · Carbon reserve · Ecological functions · Methanotroph ·

Bioindicators
1 Introduction
Wetlands are found in all the climatic regions, inhabiting about 4–6% of the total
land area on the earth (~530 to 570 mha) (Mitra et al. 2005). Wetlands are formed
in zones where soil drainage is deficient due to occurrence of impermeable rocks
bed, permafrost and the area where annual precipitation exceeds the natural loss of
water (Tiner 2005). These days the wetlands are being destructed, pose a potential
N. Yadav · D. P. Singh (*)


180 N. Yadav and D. P. Singh
threat to the environment by releasing high concentration of carbon in the atmo-

sphere (Kim and Kirschbaum 2015; Yvon Durocher et al. 2014). Undisturbed wet-
lands are the active sinks of carbon, although they also emit the greenhouse gas
methane in huge amounts (Moreno-Mateos et al. 2012). Wetlands in most of the
parts in the world have been drained, occupied or damaged for construction of
houses for agricultural activities, roadways or other developmental work (Mitra
et al. 2005). This loss of wetlands has deteriorated water quality, caused habitat
reduction for plants and animals and stressed the ecosystem. However, due to lack
of knowledge, awareness and loose policies of government regarding to the conser-
vation and protection of resources significantly contribute to the degradation of
wetland.
After the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSD), held at Johannesburg in 2002, was the first serious effort to
draw the world attention towards providing a platform for conservation of wetland
as natural resource. Various governments, researchers and policymakers accepted
the crucial role of wetlands as an important natural resource on earth (Rebelo et al.
2018). The ‘sustainable use’ of wetlands refers to the human use of a wetland so that
it may yield the continuous benefit to the present generation, without the hampering
the need for future generation.
In fact, the Ramsar definition of wetlands broadens covering the areas of riparian
and coastal zones adjacent to wetlands, the islands or bodies of the marine water at
low tide. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines the wetlands as
areas where water is present either at or near the surface of the soil for varying peri-
ods of the year or throughout the year. In wetlands, seasonal fluctuations in water
levels are a key feature which accounts for highly productive nature of the wetlands
ecosystem (Abril et al. 2014). Wetlands include marsh, fen, peatland or waterlogged
areas, which have static or flowing freshwater, brackish or salty water). Peatlands
are important natural ecosystems with high value for biodiversity conservation, cli-
mate regulation and human welfare. Peatland are unique wetland ecosystems char-
acterized by accumulation of organic matter (peat) derived from dead plant materials
under the condition of permanent water saturation and represent at least one third of
the global wetland resource (Parish et al. 2008). They cover more than 4 million km2
area worldwide (3% of the world’s total land area) and contain 30% of total soil
carbon reserve (Immirzi et al. 1992; Joosten and Clarke 2002).
These waterbodies may be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent. These
wetlands are known to emit methane (a major greenhouse gas). Out of the above-
mentioned wetland types, peatland is the major contributor of methane.
The climate change is a worldwide major concern of the mankind as the ecologi-
cal effects of climate change will have devastating impact on human survival (Root
et al. 2003). The IPCC has predicted that the global temperatures will rise from 1 to
5 °C during the twenty-first century. A fast rise in temperature will affect the coastal
life and leading to changes in precipitation. Therefore, the impact of climate change
on wetland habitats on a regional and global level needs to be recognized. The mis-
cellaneous functions of wetland make it little more difficult to understand the rela-
tion between climate change and wetland ecosystem. The projected changes in the
12 Microalgae and Microorganisms: Important Regulators of Carbon Dynamics… 181
climate are likely to affect the extent and nature of wetland functions including
change in a carbon sink, carbon storage and sequestration within the system (Moor
et al. 2015). The temporal variations in carbon fluxes are found to be larger in water-
logged wetlands than drained wetlands. Nakano et al. (2004) reported that carbon
fluxes from the waterlogged sites in Siberian permafrost areas were much higher
than the relatively dry sites, where carbon fluxes were almost absent or frequently
negative.
Since wetlands by definition are permanently or temporarily flooded areas, alter-
ing the water level (water budget/wetland hydrology) to its original level is the
foremost problem that needs to be tackled for wetland restoration. The water budget
of the wetland includes precipitation, surface water flow, groundwater flow and
evaporation (Owen 1995). However, with the increased population growth, pressure
on wetlands increased by change in base flow of water (depth and hydrology), sedi-
mentation and land use patterns of wetlands. This causes a significant degradation
of wetland ecosystem. Thus, the water balance is an important determining factor
for wetland conservation. The major restoration concept on these lines includes the
re-establishment of wetland hydrology, nutrient availability, pH, soil conditions,
biodiversity and conservation of wetland habitat (Rosenthal 2006; Scholz and Lee
2005).
As per global carbon emission is concern, it is not yet clear whether the conser-
vation of wetland should also be integrated with international trading schemes of
carbon emission as in Kyoto Protocol. Microalgae being one of the important living
entities on the earth could regulate the carbon of wetland in a sustainable way and
can mitigate the global impact of CO2. The present chapter describes the role of
microalgae in carbon dynamics and also emphasizes the wetland specific manage-
ment and restoration issues.
2 Function of Wetland Ecosystem
Wetlands have been often treated as wasteland. This is also the reason of being
ignored by the people. Due to ignorance, the wetlands are sometimes drained and
filled for many development activities (building construction, dumping grounds for
domestic and industrial solid wastes, etc.). But, the ecologists and environmentalists
have started considering the wetlands as ecologically rich and highly productive
natural resource on the earth, which can be easily compared with the rainforests and
coral reefs ecosystems (Cronk and Fennessy 2016). The wetlands are natural abode
of diverse and rare of species of microbes, algae, plants, insects, amphibians, rep-
tiles, birds, fishes and mammals (Cronk and Fennessy 2016). Particularly, the
coastal wetlands act as ecotone between the marine, freshwater and terrestrial eco-
systems and exhibit high species diversity.
The ecological function of wetlands is significant due to their ability to regulate
water regime, act as natural filters and display amazing nutrient dynamics (Mulligan
et al. 2001). Wetlands provide many ecosystem services to the mankind (Mitra et al.
2005; Mitsch and Gosselink 2007). The term ecosystem function includes all the
physico-chemical and biological processes that characterize the wetland ecosys-
tems. Major functions of the wetland ecosystem are water storage and groundwater
recharge, flood control, water quality control, moderating climate and community
structure, sustaining biodiversity and wildlife (Turner et al. 2000). Wetlands
immensely contribute to recreational and aesthetic value, biodiversity, environmen-
tal and commercial values, etc. In addition, due to their anoxic wet conditions, wet-
land also provides natural environments for sequestering and storing carbon from
the atmosphere (Mitsch et al. 2013). Besides, the ecosystem services provide the
global economic values. The global value of ecosystem services provided by the
coastal areas and wetland ecosystems is estimated to be about 15.5 trillion US dol-
lars per year, which is about 46% of the total value of services provided by other
ecosystems (Costanza et al. 1997).
3 Carbon Storage in Wetlands
There is a large amount of carbon stored in the wetlands, which is about 350–535 Gt
C, accounts for 20–25% of the world’s total organic carbon in the soil (Mitra et al.
2005). Nahlik and Fennessy (2016) also reported that about 20–30% of global soil
carbon is stored in wetland. The net carbon storage by the wetlands depends upon
the difference between decomposition of carbon and photosynthetic CO2 fixation.
Many coastal, riverine wetlands and estuaries also receive large amount of carbon-
rich sediments from natural and anthropogenic sources, contributing to carbon
reserve of these wetlands (Xue et al. 2009; Ni et al. 2008).
Sometimes the wetlands, owing to sparse vegetation, carbon turnover are limited
as compared to other wetlands like salt marshes and tropical forests. The anaerobio-
sis nature of wetlands gradually increases the net carbon accumulation in the differ-
ent wetland like peatlands over a period of time (Vespraskar and Craft 2016). The
litter, peat and bogs are C-rich sediments. It has been estimated that bogs absorb
globally about 0.1 Gt C per year, while global C-sequestration in peatlands and
other wetlands range from 0.1 to 0.7 Gt C per year (Mitra et al. 2005).
Mechanisms of carbon processing in the wetland environment is complex as it
varies with the decomposition of organic matter taking place in different horizons;
e.g. respiration and methane oxidation occur in the aerobic zones, while methano-
genesis occurring in the anaerobic strata of the wetland (Pandey et al. 2014).
However, the rate of carbon decomposition is found to be higher in the upper strata
of wetland, i.e. wetland surface, where input of labile organic matter is higher.
Wetland plants and microphytes convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into biomass.
Hence, carbon trapping in the wetlands is mediated by the photosynthesis, growth
of vegetation, latitude of wetlands, temperature and nutrients (Nahlik and Fennessy
2016). Although wetlands occupy only 4–6% of the total land area (~530 to
570 mha) on the earth surface, they are major carbon sinks mediated by photosyn-
thetic fixation of atmospheric CO2 (Nahlik and Fennessy 2016). Depending upon
the existing environmental conditions, the wetland vegetation traps the atmospheric
CO2 just like other ecosystems; however, the rate of carbon decomposition varies
within a wetland ecosystem and influenced by the factor includes temperature,
water level, flow of water and nutrients, etc. (Brinson et al. 1981).
The hydrological cycle, changing land use pattern, climate change and other
environmental conditions enormously influence the role of wetlands in the global
carbon cycle. It has been reported that with increase in temperature, melting of the
permafrost results into reduced carbon storage and carbon sequestration in the wet-
lands (Schuur et al. 2015). A rise in the temperature could be important factor for
rise in the sea-level and changes in the precipitation pattern, which can adversely
affect the wetlands as carbon stores (Junk et al. 2013).Therefore, any environmental
perturbation might influence the carbon budget in the wetlands. The wetlands like
boreal and tropical peatlands have highly labile carbon pool which gets oxidized to
carbon dioxide, if the water level is lowered. The sequestration of carbon dioxide
into wetland ecosystem occurring via photosynthesis gets altered. These changes in
the carbon budget can be determining factor to assess the contribution of wetlands
into global carbon cycling. According to a study conducted by Frolking et al. (2011)
on peatlands, they observed that draining of peatlands leads to enhanced mineraliza-
tion process and resulted into sharp rise in the emission of carbon dioxide. Therefore,
protecting wetlands is a practical way of maintaining the present level of carbon
reserves and, thus, preventing the emission of GHGs like carbon dioxide and meth-
ane. Since the role of wetland-borne carbon fluxes in the global carbon cycle is not
fully understood, more information would be needed about wetland types and their
functioning as both sources and sinks of carbon.
4 Wetlands and Bio-geocarbon Cycle
The stored organic matter within a wetland ecosystem is removed by biodegrada-

tion, photochemical oxidation, sedimentation, volatilization and sorption (Burgoon
et al.1995; Reddy and D’Angelo 1997; Stottmeister et al. 2003). However, the long-
term net carbon storage in the wetlands is often controlled by both decomposition
of labile carbon and carbon fixation by the photosynthesis. This internal carbon
dynamics in the wetland ecosystem influences the atmospheric carbon cycle
(Fig. 12.1). Various factors like level of groundwater, temperature, availability of
substrate, nutrient level and microbial population also influence the carbon dynam-
ics (Shepherd et al. 2007). Under anaerobic condition, detritus chain involves
microbial conversion of biodegradable material into CH4 and CO2 with small
amounts of ammonium and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). The solubility of carbon bio-
mass in wetland is higher which facilitate the formation of acid forming bacteria
and methanogenic bacteria. The activity of these bacteria depends on the pH and
temperature of the medium.
Organic matter accumulation in wetland is enhanced when the primary produc-
tivity is higher than the corresponding decomposition of organic matter (Mitsch and
CO2 uptake by CO2 CO2

photosynthesis Atmosphere
CH4
CO2 released
through respiration
&decomposition Bacterial oxidation
Algal biomass
CH4
Methanogenesis
Aerobic zone
Methanogenic organism
Anaerobic zone
Fig. 12.1 Carbon cycling in wetlands
Gosselink 2007). Due to slower rate of organic matter decomposition, different soil
layers have different level of organic matter. The accumulated organic matter in the
wetlands is considered potential energy source for microbial communities (Reddy
and Delaune 2008; Turcq et al. 2002). The decomposition of dissolved organic mat-
ter is expected to occur via heterotrophic carbon consumption by aerobic and anaer-
obic bacteria and photodegradation. Several authors have reported the transformation
of dissolved organic matter by algae (Kragh and Sondergaard 2004), wetland plant
material (Pinney et al. 2000), microorganisms (Ibekwe et al. 2003; Li et al. 2008)
and soil fixation of carbon into carbonates (Qualls and Haines 1992) in the wetland.
It is also believed that various other conditions such as temperature, organic matter
quality, residence time of organic matter, level of oxygen, wetland maturity, sedi-
mentation rate and sediment texture impact the organic matter decomposition
(Barber et al. 2001; Lafleur et al. 2005; Savage and Davidson 2001; Shepherd et al.
2007; Turcq et al. 2002; Wolf et al. 2005; Yurova and Lankreijer 2007).
Wetlands have both aerobic and anaerobic interfaces in water, soil and organic
matter (Scholz et al. 2007). Under anaerobic conditions, both carbon dioxide and
methane are formed, whereas under aerobic conditions, only carbon dioxide is
formed. Earlier studies (Kadlec and Knight 1996; Mitsch and Gosselink 2007) have
indicated that the aerobic respiration in wetland systems is far more effective in the
organic matter degradation than the anaerobic fermentation and methanogenesis.
Wetlands are known to emit large amounts of methane, which is essentially more
potent greenhouse gas (GHG) than CO2. An internal carbon cycling could be an
important factor in the carbon budget of the wetlands.
5 Microorganisms in Wetland and Methane Production
Wetlands are important ecosystems on the earth. The microbial population in wet-
lands play important role in internal global carbon cycling. Thus, these microbial
communities in wetlands are ultimate regulators of both primary productivity and
carbon decomposition (Pant et al. 2003). The mineralization of soluble organic mat-
ter is the primarily ecological role of heterotrophic microflora in soil sediments,
which facilitate the recycling of energy and carbon within and outside the wetland
ecosystem (Li et al. 2008). Under anaerobic condition, methane formation (a source
of carbon) by methanogenic bacteria is important process in the freshwater wet-
lands (Hornibrook et al. 2000; Pandey et al. 2014). The production and consumption
of methane in wetlands involve complex physiological processes of plants and
microorganisms, which are regulated by climatic and edaphic factors, mainly soil
temperature and water table level (Joabsson et al. 1999). The interaction of these
processes with heterogeneous environments results in large variations in the meth-
ane fluxes.
Since methane is an important gas that contributes to 15% of the greenhouse
effect, several studies have been conducted to analyse the methane production and
its emission from the wetland ecosystem. However, most of the ecological studies
assessing the production, consumption and emission of methane have been per-
formed in boreal and temperate wetlands, yet there are few studies evaluating these
activities in tropical wetlands (Bartlett and Harriss 1993; Roulet et al. 1992; Turetsky
et al. 2014). It has been estimated that methane emission from the wetlands is about
115–227 Tg-CH4 per year, which contributes 20–25% of total global methane emis-
sions (Whalen 2005; Bergamaschi et al. 2007; Bloom et al. 2010). Bloom et al.
(2010) also reported that the rice fields emits about 60–80 Tg-CH4 per year.
The methanogenic bacteria (MB) are members of the Archaea domain, and they
comprise a morphologically diverse group of short and long bacilli, cocci, and sev-
eral arrangements of the basic forms in large chains or aggregated clumps (Whitman
et al. 2006). They include important genera like Methanobacterium,
Methanothermobacter, Methanobrevibacter, Methanothermus, Methanococcus,
Methanothermococcus, Methanohalobium, Methanosarcina, Methanosalsus, etc.
(Torres-Alvarado et al. 2017).
The reduction of methane from wetland ecosystem is mainly attributed to the
existence of methanotrophic bacteria, which contribute significantly to CH4 mitiga-
tion under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Conrad 2009; Borrel et al. 2011).
Methanotrophs are unique group of aerobic, gram-negative bacteria that use CH4 as
a source of carbon and energy (Khmelenina et al. 2018; Pandey et al. 2011). The
important methanotrophic bacterial genus includes Methylomonas, Methylococcus,
Methylobacter, Methylosinus, Methylocapsa, Methylocystis, etc. The population
size and community composition of methanotrophic bacteria in any ecosystems
may be an important factor to determine the flux of methane in a wetland ecosys-
tem. The CH4 oxidation depends on the availability of oxygen; therefore this pro-
cess occurs mainly in freshwater wetlands during the dry periods, when the level of
the water table descends and the soil of the wetland is exposed to air (Torres-
Alvarado et al. 2017; King 1994). In peatlands, CH4 oxidation is accomplished in
the first 7 mm layer where oxygen can easily penetrate (Moore and Roulet 1993).
The oxidation of CH4 is carried out by the methane oxidizing bacteria (MOB) as
well as nitrifying bacteria. These strict aerobic microorganisms oxidize CH4 to CO2
using oxygen as electron acceptor, releasing methanol as an intermediate product.
6 Role of Microorganism (Algae) in Wetland Function
6.1 Algae in Purification of Water
Wetlands are natural wetlands as well as constructed, used in the purification of pol-
lutants present in soil and water. Constructed wetlands are artificially engineered
systems that are the controlled system usually designed with specific objectives for
particular process (Upadhyay et al. 2017). The constructed wetlands are designed to
take advantage of the same processes occurring in a natural wetland (Vymazal
2010). Wetlands are characterized by several factors including the presence of
water, nature of soil and the presence of vegetation (Cheng et al. 2002). The natural
or constructed wetlands can best serve as polishing waterbody for partially treated
waste water and removal of specific pollutants such as nitrogen, phosphorus, cop-
per, lead, selenium, organic compounds and pesticides from agricultural and urban
storm runoff (Banuelos and Terry 1999; Upadhyay et al. 2019). Algae also play a
very important role in the remediation of organic pollutants of swamps, bogs and
mangroves wetland (Chekroun et al. 2014).
6.2 Algae as Bioindicators in Wetlands
Algae have a long history of use and possess many of the features valued in ecologi-
cal indicators. The growth of microalgae is indicative of water pollution as they
easily respond to many chemicals (Rai et al. 2013, 2015). Algae serve as the indica-
tors of changes in wetlands and provide precise assessments of changes in wetlands
(Van Dam et al. 1998). Algae exhibit a wide variety of sensitivity/tolerance and may
exploit for toxicity bioassay (Florence et al. 1994). The ecological importance and
distinguishing features of algae, particularly as indicators of nutrient pollution,
make them conducive as assessment endpoints for numeric nutrient criteria devel-
opment for water quality management purposes under the Clean Water Act (USEPA
2000).
Kolkwitz and Marsson (1909) were the pioneers who classified algal species
based on their tolerance to various kinds of pollution. They stated that the presence
of certain species of algae could define various zones of degradation in a river.
Palmer (1969) published and explains the algal species which can be used to indi-
cate clean and polluted waters. Patrick (1971) proposed a numerical approach to
study water quality using diatom flora attached to glass slides as artificial substrates
(Omar 2010). Algae are also used in laboratory bioassays to study water quality,
using media for culturing indicator species from the field or defined media (Ho
1979). Omar (2010) has also reported that blue-green algae and algae like Anabaena,
Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Nostoc, Dinobryon, Chroococcus, Staurastrum para-
doxum and Mallomonas are indicators of toxicity and pollution in aquatic ecosys-
tems. A list of different algae found in different type of water is mentioned below
(Table 12.1).
6.3 Waste Water Remediation Through Algae
Biological treatment of waste water is environmentally most compatible and least

expensive method for waste water treatment (Comninellis et al. 2008). The water
purification and groundwater recharge ability of the wetlands has been an attractive
option for waste water treatment due to its low-cost and easy operation. The use of
algae to treat waste water has been in vogue for over 40 years. The term phycoreme-
diation was for the first time used by Rawat et al. (2011) to refer to the remediation
of waste water by using algae only. The use of microalgae for the treatment of
Table 12.1 List of algae as an indicator of clean, polluted and brackish water
Fresh water algae Algae grow in waste water Brackish water algae
Achnanthes minutissima Achnanthes exigua Cocconeis sp.
Achnanthes oblongela Achnanthes exigua var. Coscinodiscus argus
Heterovalva
Achnanthes woltereckii Hantzschia amphioxys Coscinodiscus antiques
Cocconeis placentula Nitzschia amphibian Coscinodiscus excentricus
Cocconeis pediculus Nitzschia fonticola Coscinodiscus decipiens
Cocconeis thumensis Nitzschia palea Coscinodiscus symmetricus
Eunotia pectinalis var. Pinnularia biceps Cyclotella comta
Minor
Fragilaria capucina Pinnularia biceps f. petersenii Cyclotella striata
Gomphonema acuminatum Pinnularia microstauron Diploneis ovalis
Psammothidium bioretii Diploneis interrupta
Surirella linearis Diploneis bombus
Surirella tenuissima Nitzschia littoralis
Nitzschia obtuse
Nitzschia obtuse var.
Scalpelliformis
Nitzschia sigma
Surirella ovalis
Adopted and modified from Wan Maznah and Mansor (2000)
municipal waste water has been a subject of research and development for several
decades (Clarens et al. 2010). Extensive work has been conducted to explore the
feasibility of using microalgae for waste water treatment, especially for the removal
of excess nitrogen and phosphorus (Harun et al. 2010). The phycoremediation of
waste water offers (i) nutrient removal from the different effluents, (ii) accumulation
and biodegradation of organic contaminants, (iii) CO2 sequestration, (iv) xenobiot-
ics transformation and degradation and (v) working as bioindicator of toxic com-
pounds. The algal treatment is considered to be a cost effective tertiary treatment of
the waste water. The capability of microalgae to degrade hazardous organic pollut-
ants is now well known. The algal species of Chlorella, Ankistrodesmus and
Scenedesmus species have been successfully employed for treatment of olive oil
mill waste waters and paper industry waste waters (Mata et al. 2010) One way to
investigate the capability of algae to biodegrade organic pollutants in municipal
waste is to encourage the algal cells to grow in the presence of pollutants. (Lima
et al. 2003) reported that p-nitrophenol can be removed by a consortium of Chlorella
vulgaris and Chlorella pyrenoidosa.
The concept of constructed wetlands (CWs) was first designed to increase the
efficiency of phytoremediation process, targeting a specific pollutant or group of
pollutants as compared to natural wetland (Rai et al. 2013; Upadhyay et al. 2017).
The CWs are particularly designed to remove a wide spectrum of pollutants includ-
ing pathogens, suspended solids, nutrients (ammonia, nitrate, phosphate), metals
and metalloids, volatile organic compounds (VOC), pesticides and other organo-
halogens, TNT and other explosives and petroleum hydrocarbons and additives
(Brix 1994; Haberl et al. 2003; Wu et al. 2015).
The constructed wetlands are shown to be capable of removing a wide variety of
pathogens including bacteria, viruses and protozoan cysts (McCarthy et al. 2009).
Wetlands act as biofilters through a combination of physical, chemical and biologi-
cal factors which contribute to reduction in the number of harmful bacteria (Ottová
et al. 1997). Sedimentation is one of the mechanisms of reducing microbial popula-
tion in wetlands during the waste water treatment (Karim et al. 2004). Sediments of
the constructed wetlands are able to accumulate significant concentrations of patho-
genic microorganisms (Karim et al. 2004). However, the technology of constructed
wetlands for waste water treatment is still not fully developed, and various problems
are encountered with regard to its best management and sustainability.
7 Conclusions
Wetlands have the potential to sequester carbon. Wetland management becomes

necessary in order to avoid the emission of excess greenhouse gases, freshwater
wetlands possess the ability to act as a sink for green house gas (CO2). The micro-
organisms in wetlands play an important role in carbon turnover and methane emis-
sion, but the impact of different species of microorganisms in variable nutrient
regimes is yet to be studied. Thus, there is pretty need to restore the wetland
ecosystem for the sustainability of the world. Besides, a policy should also be
framed which emphasizes the importance of wetland for the enhancement of biodi-
versity, reducing climate change and energy crisis through education, training or
awareness.
Acknowledgements I would like to extend my gratitude to Vice-Chancellor, BBAU and UGC for
providing the funds to carry out my research work. I am also thankful to Prof. D. P. Singh and Dr.
A. K. Upadhyay for assistance in the preparation of chapter.
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Chapter 13
Bioremediation of Heavy Metals: A New
Approach to Sustainable Agriculture
Gereraj Sen Gupta, Garima Yadav, and Supriya Tiwari
Abstract With the advancement in agricultural practices, use of various chemicals

for better yield is posing huge threat to the society. These chemical containing vari-
able amounts of heavy metals are the key players that have become threat to plants
and human beings. The discharge of various harmful environmental pollutants from
different industrial sectors has created a challenge for environmentalists and scien-
tists concerning the sustainable development of mankind. Particularly in plants,
heavy metals are essential for its growth and development, but when the concentra-
tion of each heavy metal crosses, its threshold concentration becomes harmful for
plants itself. These heavy metals possess specific density of more than 5 g/cm3 (Cr-
7.2, Co-8.9, Ni-8.7, Cu-8.9, Zn-7.1, Mo-10.2, Cd-8.2 etc.). Various survey studies
reveals intense exposure of heavy metals still continues in different parts of the
world though its ill-effects are well documented. Some of the well-known heavy
metals include arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc, etc., all of which cause
risks for the environment and human health. Considering heavy metals as potential
threat to different life forms, it has become an important and interesting issue since
last few decades. This chapter attempts to review different strategies for remediating
heavy metal contamination with the plants and microorganisms. An attempt has also
been made to review and promote the sustainable development with the involve-
ment of phytoremediation and micro-remediation technologies.
Keywords Phytoremediation · Micro-remediation · Heavy metals
1 Introduction
Heavy metals are natural constituents of the environment but with rapid industrial-
ization and development; there has been a considerable increase in the discharge of
pollutants in the environment (soil, air and water) (Nagajyoti et al. 2010).
Unfortunately contamination of the environment with heavy metals has reached
G. Sen Gupta · G. Yadav · S. Tiwari (*)

Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

196 G. Sen Gupta et al.
beyond the recommended limit (Chibuike and Obiora 2014). As compared to other
pollutants, heavy metals are non-biodegradable, and so they persist for long time in
the environment (Tak et al. 2013; Kumari et al. 2016; Yadav et al. 2016). Highly
reactive heavy metals can enter soil and groundwater, bioaccumulate in food web
and adversely affect biota. In the food chain, the non-biodegradable heavy metals
get accumulated and cause damage to vital organs such as lungs, liver, kidney and
nervous system (Kumar et al. 2015).
Thus, there is a need to remove these hazardous heavy metals from the environ-
ment. To seek solution to this problem, bioremediation is applied as a tool. The term
bioremediation implies use of microorganisms and plants to degrade the environ-
mental contaminants to less toxic forms (Mani and Kumar 2014; Upadhyay et al.
2016). The reason that bioremediation is used as a potential tool for this problem is
because it helps to restore the natural state of the polluted environment. It has long-
term environmental benefits and is cost-effective (Dixit et al. 2015).There are two
strategies of bioremediation, viz. in situ and ex situ. In in situ bioremediation, the
treatment of contaminated soil or water is done at the site in which it is found. It is
more convenient and less expensive as compared to ex situ type. In ex situ bioreme-
diation, the contaminated soil or water is excavated or pumped out of the location at
which it is found. It is faster, easier to control and usually more able to treat a wide
range of toxins from soils. Microorganisms have metabolic pathways which utilizes
toxic heavy metals as a source of energy for growth and development. They possess
characteristic enzymes for a particular contaminant which provide resistance against
heavy metals. The microbes have cell wall which is anionic in nature and thus
enables them to bind metal cations through electrostatic forces (Siddiquee et al.
2015). Not only microorganisms but plants also have the potential for remediation
of environmental pollutants (Upadhyay et al. 2019). The various processes used by
plants under phytoremediation are phytodegradation, phytovolatilization, phyto-
stimulation and phytostabilization.
Bioremediation is less expensive as compared to other technologies. Blaylock
et al. showed the cost-effectiveness of bioremediation. They made use of bioreme-
diation for treatment of one acre of lead (Pb)-polluted soil and were able to save
50–60% of cost. The effectiveness of bioremediation depends on the wise selection
of the microorganism, identification of the polluted environment and the technique
chosen. The ability of the microorganism to degrade pollutants depends on the suit-
ability of the environmental conditions such as temperature, pH and moisture
(Verma and Jaiswal 2016). The objective of this chapter is to discuss the heavy
metal pollution, its causes and effects along with the bioremedial potential to tackle
this problem. A detailed account of bioremediation, various strategies employed,
mechanisms, microorganisms used and merits and demerits associated with it has
also been covered.
13 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals: A New Approach to Sustainable Agriculture 197
2 Heavy Metal Pollution
The heavy metals are defined as naturally occurring elements that have a high
atomic weight and density five times higher than that of water and is toxic or poi-
sonous even at very low concentration (Lenntech 2004). Due to rapid industrializa-
tion, the concentrations of heavy metals have reached beyond the threshold value
(Dixit et al. 2015; Yadav et al. 2017). Some of the essential heavy metals exert bio-
chemical and physiological functions in plants and animals. They make remarkable
effects on plant physiology (Dixit et al. 2015). Pollution of heavy metals is a global
concern. Many metallic elements are necessary for growth of plants and animals,
but they are required in low concentration; if their amount in soil exceeds above the
threshold value, it causes toxicity. Heavy metal toxicity in plants is a function of the
bioavailability of these elements in the soil solution. According to Comprehensive
Environmental Response Comprehension and Liability Act (CERCLA) USA, the
permissible limit of some heavy metals Ar, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg and Ag in water is 0.01,
0.05, 0.01, 0.015, 0.002 and 0.05 mg/l, respectively (Chaturvedi et al. 2015).
According to Indian standards, the standard for soil heavy metal is 3–6, 135–270,
75–150, 250–500, 300–600 mg/kg for Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn (Dixit et al. 2015).
Heavy metals are naturally occurring element in soil. The naturally occurring
heavy metals have a great adsorption capacity in soil, whereas heavy metals from
anthropogenic sources are soluble and mobile and thus have a higher bioavailability
as compared to naturally occurring heavy metals (Olaniran et al. 2013). Heavy
metal accumulation in soil consequently in food items can pose health risks to the
human beings. Many recent studies conducted at national and international levels
reported heavy metal contamination in the soil and food crops. Agricultural soils
have become a big reservoir of heavy metals due to extensive uses of different agro-
chemicals like fungicides, herbicides and phosphate fertilizers, organic manure and
decaying plant and animal residues (Uwah et al. 2011). Table 13.1 below shows
sources of some important heavy metals.
Table 13.1 Important heavy metals and their sources

Metal Source References
Arsenic Mining, pesticides, smelting ores Wahab et al. (2015) and Bissen and
Frimmel (2003)
Cadmium Fertilizer, pesticide, wielding, mining Nagajyoti et al. (2010)
Chromium Dyes and paints, steel fabrication Barakat (2011) and Cervantes et al.
(2001)
Copper Copper polishing, mining, paint, plating, Dixit et al. (2015), Nagajyoti et al.
printing (2010) and Salem et al. (2000)
Mercury Batteries, paint, paper industries, rock Fashola et al. (2016) and Ali et al.
weathering, coal combustion (2013)
Lead Electroplating, batteries, coal combustion, Fashola et al. (2016), Nagajyoti
mining, paint industries, water pipes et al. (2010) and Ali et al. (2013)
Nickel Electroplating, porcelain enamelling Fashola et al. (2016)
Zinc Brass manufacturing, mining, oil refining, Gumpu et al. (2015)
plumbing
3 Effects of Heavy Metals
Though some heavy metals have biological functions in living organisms, majority
of them have no biological function and are extremely toxic even at very low con-
centration (Fashola et al. 2016). These heavy metals bind with protein sites by dis-
placing original metals from their natural binding sites and thus causing toxicity.
Research has indicated that deterioration of biological macromolecules is mainly
due to binding of heavy metals to DNA and nuclear proteins (Flora et al. 2008).
In humans, heavy metals lower the energy levels and damage the functioning of
vital organs such as the brain, heart, kidney, lungs and cause deterioration of physi-
ological activities (Mupa 2013). They are also responsible for muscular and neuro-
logical degenerative processes that imitate diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and
muscular dystrophy; long-term exposure can also lead to cancer. One such example
of heavy metal toxicity was the “Minamata disease” caused by mercury poisoning
in Japan. Lead is a heavy metal which can leach into drinking water and enter food
items. Children are highly susceptible to lead and mercury, exposure of lead and
mercury in children during their growing years leads to reduced intelligence and
impaired development (Wuana and Okieimen 2011). Plants require some heavy
metals for their growth and development, but their excess amount becomes toxic.
Plants are capable of absorbing the heavy metals; they absorb toxicants either
directly from the atmosphere through leaves or from soil and water through roots
(Gaur et al. 2014). The excess amount of heavy metals in soil, water and air may
lead to various direct or indirect effects on plants and human being. Direct toxic
effects include inhibition of the cytoplasmic enzymes and damage to cell structure
due to oxidative stress. Indirect toxic effects include replacement of essential nutri-
ents at cation exchange sites of plants. Loss of fertility in plants, yield and food
production. Destruction of chlorophyll pigments (Pichhode and Nikhil 2015). Some
heavy metals have adverse effects on soil microorganisms. Heavy metals and micro-
organisms have a strong affinity; many of the heavy metals disrupt the normal meta-
bolic functioning by competing with the essential elements due to their similar
chemistry with the essential elements like similar size, charge and oxidation state.
Secondly heavy metals pose a restriction on the biodegradation of majority of
metallothionein which then accumulate and are harmful for the cells (Ahluwalia
and Goyal 2007). Heavy metals have significant effect on soil environment also. It
disturbs the buffering capacity of the soil. Heavy metal-contaminated soil limits
plant habitat due to toxicity resulting in ecological, evolutionary and nutritional
problems as well as severe selection pressure (Abdul-Wahab and Marikar 2012).
Table 13.2 shows the hazardous effects of heavy metals on all life forms.
The entire bioremediation process can be studied under micro-remediation
(remediation technique using microorganisms) and phytoremediation (remediation
of soil and water by using plants) strategies.
Table 13.2 Effects of heavy metals on different life forms

Heavy
metal Human Plants Microorganisms References
Arsenic Brain damage, Cell membrane Enzyme deactivation Wahab et al.
respiratory disorder, damage, inhibition of (2015) and
skin cancer growth, interferes Bissen and
with critical Frimmel
metabolic processes, (2003)
loss of fertility in
plants and fruit yield,
oxidative stress
Cadmium Bone disease, Chlorosis, plant Denaturation of Nagajyoti
emphysema, kidney nutrient content proteins, nucleic acid et al. (2010)
and lung disease, decrease, growth damage, and Fashola
prostate cancer, inhibition and transcription et al. (2016)
testicular atrophy, reduced seed inhibition and
anaemia germination inhibition of carbon
and nitrogen
mineralization
Chromium Chronic bronchitis, Delayed senescence Elongation of lag Barakat
emphysema, Wilting, chlorosis, phase, i.e. slow (2011) and
headache, skin reduced growth, growth, inhibition of Cervantes
itching liver and oxidation stress, growth and oxygen et al. (2001)
lung disease, renal biochemical lesions uptake
failure, cancer and
loss of reproductive
ability
Copper Abdominal pain, Oxidative stress and Cellular function Dixit et al.
headache, vomiting, retarded growth disruption and (2015),
anaemia, liver and inhibition of enzyme Nagajyoti
kidney damage, activities et al. (2010),
metabolic disorder Fashola et al.
(2016) and
Salem et al.
(2000)
Mercury Blindness, deafness, Inhibition of Denaturation of Fashola et al.
dizziness, loss of photosynthesis, nucleic acids and (2016), Ali
memory, kidney enhanced lipid proteins, inhibition et al. (2013)
problems and peroxidation, of enzyme activities and Wang
reduced immunity inhibition of plant et al. (2012)
growth and yield
Lead Neuronal damage, Reduced Inhibition of enzyme Nagajyoti
hyperactivity and photosynthesis and activities and et al. (2010),
high blood pressure, growth inhibition, transcription Fashola et al.
insomnia (lack of inhibits enzyme (2016), Wuana
sleep), reduced activity and oxidative and Okieimen
fertility stress (2011) and
Mupa (2013)
(continued)
Table 13.2 (continued)
Heavy
metal Human Plants Microorganisms References
Nickel Cardiovascular Decreased Cell membrane Fashola et al.
diseases, kidney and chlorophyll content, disruption and (2016) and
lung diseases, chest inhibition of oxidative stress Chibuike and
pain and shortness of enzymatic activities Obiora (2014)
breath, nasal cancer and reduced nutrient
uptake
Zinc Gastrointestinal Affects Decrease in biomass Chibuike and
irritation, kidney and photosynthesis, and growth Obiora (2014)
liver failure, lethargy inhibition of growth inhibition and Gumpu
and metal fume rate, chlorophyll et al. (2015)
fever, prostate cancer reduction and
reduced germination
4 Bioremediation by Microorganisms
Microorganisms are considered as most cosmopolitan organisms as they have the

ability to thrive in wide range of environmental conditions due to their amazing
metabolic ability. Further, they are highly versatile in their nutrition uptake, which
that this property makes them very useful for decontaminating the immediate envi-
ronment. Rock-bottom and economic growth requirements (such as carbon dioxide
and sunlight) and the advantage of being utilized simultaneously in for multiple
technologies (e.g. biofuel production, carbon mitigation and bioremediation) make
microorganisms a perfect candidate for many environment-friendly technologies
that may be useful for remediation of soil and water (Kumar et al. 2015). In due
course of development, these microorganisms have developed substantial array of
mechanisms (extracellular or intracellular) to survive the contaminations led by the
heavy metals in soil and waterbodies (Kumar et al. 2015). The microbes that are
responsible for acting as an agent for bioremediation are called as bioremediators.
Bacteria, archaea and fungi are considered as the classic prime bioremediators
(Strong and Burgess 2008). Classic bioremediators are those that can convert, mod-
ify and then utilize the converted product to obtain energy and biomass (Tang et al.
2007) and thereby cleaning up the environment and restoring the original natural
conditions (Demnerova et al. 2005).
Bacteria, microalgae and fungi employ several methods to decontaminate the
soil, and these modern techniques are considered to be more efficient than the con-
ventional techniques. The older conventional techniques for removal of heavy metal
toxicity includes hydroxide precipitation, carbonate precipitation and sulphide
precipitation, chemical oxidation or reduction, lime coagulation, ion exchange
(using resins, starch xanthate, etc.), reverse osmosis, solvent extraction, evaporation
recovery, cementation, adsorption (involving use of activated carbon), electrodepo-
sition, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis (Rich and Cherry 1987; Ahalya et al.
2003; Gray 1999; Ahluwalia and Goyal 2007). These conventional methods are also
able to remove heavy metals but up to a limited extent. But once the heavy metal
concentration reaches the range of 1–100 mg/l, these conventional processes
become ineffective (Nourbakhsh et al. 1994). Furthermore, the conventional meth-
ods are less efficient and require high expenditure of energy and reagents (Ahalya
et al. 2003), have low metal uptake selectivity, generate pernicious wastes or sludge
(Ahalya et al. 2003; Ahluwalia and goyal 2007) and bear high investment and regen-
eration cost (Oboh et al. 2009). So, for more efficient removal of contaminants,
introduction of new approaches and techniques that are sustainable becomes a must
phenomenon of the era. The main reasons behind the need for enforcement of new
technologies are to reduce the heavy metal contamination content below its permis-
sible limit. According to Khan et al. (2008), the contamination beyond the permis-
sible limit in aquatic environment can lead to direct toxicity to aquatic life forms
and human beings too. Therefore, the need of the hour is to look for better technolo-
gies that are much efficient and capable of removing heavy metal toxicity to satisfy
the requirements (Sheng et al. 2004). Moreover, the modern and new technologies
to be introduced for removal of heavy metal contamination should be cost-effective
and consistent and are able to reduce the contamination to such levels that are
acceptable to natural field conditions (Kumar et al. 2015).
Among all different kinds of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae or
microalgae, it is the microalgae that possess immense capability to remediate the
contaminated waterbodies. Moreover, these microalgae are thought to be more
superior to the prevalent physicochemical processes used for eradication of heavy
metal toxicity (Kumar et al. 2015). Microalgae are fresh and marine water dweller
organisms that can photosynthesize in very similar way as land plants does. They
are considered to be the world’s largest group of organisms in terms of biomass that
can photosynthesize and thus are responsible for at least 32% of global photosyn-
thesis (Priyadarshani et al. 2011). They are well equipped with proper and system-
atic molecular mechanisms that have the ability to discriminate the essential heavy
metals from non-essential ones (Perales-Vela et al. 2006), and as being the renew-
able natural biomass, they exhibit distinct affinities towards different kinds of heavy
metals. This distinctive ability makes them eligible for acting as biosorbent materi-
als (Doshi et al. 2006; Mallick 2002). According to Monteiro et al. (2012), living
and non-living microalgal biomass have the ability to remove the heavy metal con-
tamination present at very low concentration. These microalgae are also having the
affinity for polyvalent metals and so can be efficiently employed for cleaning waste
water containing dissolved metal ions (de Bashan and Bashan 2010). Apart from all
these capabilities, they are very eco-friendly and user-friendly too and can be estab-
lished easily in polluted area as well. Table 13.3 shows heavy metal removal effi-
ciency of different microalgae (living and non-living) at different pH.
Table 13.3 Shows heavy metal removal efficiency of different microalgae (living and non-living)
at different pH
Metal Organism pH Type of biomass References
Copper Anabaena cylindrica 4.0– Live Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Copper Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 5.5 Cells without cell Macfie and Welbourn
(Cu2+) wall (2000)
Copper Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 5.5 Cells with cell Macfie and Welbourn
(Cu2+) wall (2000)
Copper Ceratium hirundinella 4.0– Non-living Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Copper Ceratium hirundinella 4.0– Live Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Copper Aulosira fertilissima 5 Non-living Singh et al. (2007)
(Cu2+)
Copper Aulacoseira varians 4.0– Non-living Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Copper Aulacoseira varians 4.0– Live Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Copper Asterionella formosa 4.0– Non-living Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Copper Asterionella Formosa 4.0– Live Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Copper Anabaena spiroides 4.0– Live Tien et al. (2005)
(Cu2+) 5.0
Mercury Chlorella 7 Non-living Inthorm et al. (2002)
(Hg2+) vulgarisCCAP211/11B
Mercury Chlorella vulgaris BCC 15 7 Non-living Inthom et al. (2002)
(Hg2+)
Mercury Chlamydomonas reinhardtii 6 Non-living Tüzün et al. (2005)
(Hg2+)
Iron (Fe3+) Chlorella vulgaris 2 Non-living Romera et al. (2006)
Nickel (Ni2+) Aulosira fertilissima 5.0– Non-living Ferreira et al. (2011)
5.5
Nickel (Ni2+) Arthrospira (Spirulina) 5 Non-living Singh et al. (2007)
platensis
Nickel (Ni2+) Chlorella spp. Live Doshi et al. (2006)
Nickel (Ni2+) Chlorella spp. Non-living Doshi et al. (2008)
Lead (Pb2+) Microcystis novacekii 5 Non-living Ribeiro et al. (2010)
Lead (Pb2+) Oscillatoria laetevirens 5 Live Miranda et al. (2012)
Lead (Pb2+) Pseudochlorococcum 7 Live Shanab et al. (2012)
typicum
Lead (Pb2+) Spirogyra hyaline Non-living Kumar and Oommen
(2012)
Zinc (Zn2+) Arthrospira (Spirulina) 5.0– Non-living Ferreira et al. (2011)
platensis 5.5
Zinc (Zn2+) Planothidium lanceolatum 7 Live Sbihi et al. (2012)
(continued)
Metal Organism pH Type of biomass References
Zinc (Zn2+) Chlorella vulgaris 5.0– Non-living Ferreira et al. (2011)
5.5
Zinc (Zn2+) Desmodesmus pleiomorphus 5 Non-living Monteiro et al. (2009)
4.1 Mechanism of Uptake of Heavy Metals by Microalgae
The common pathway taken by microorganisms such as microalgae to remove

heavy metals from solutions include (i) use of viable microorganisms in accumula-
tion or precipitation of metals in extracellular space; (ii) cell-surface sorption which
can be accomplished with both the community of microbes, i.e. living as well as
dead microorganisms; and (iii) and the accumulation of heavy metals in intracellu-
lar spaces that requires microbial activity (Cossich et al. 2002). Here, both living
and dead cells are more or less much efficient in metal accumulation, but the main
difference lies in the mechanism that they involve. So, the mechanism of remedia-
tion with the help of microalgae could be mainly listed into two categories: (i) bio-
accumulation by living cells and (ii) biosorption by non-living, nongrowing biomass.
This first process (comprising bioaccumulative uptake) forms the principle involv-
ing the process for detoxification of waste materials (e.g. biological fluidized beds
employing continually growing biofilms) (Kumar et al. 2015). On the other hand,
the dead (heat-killed, dried, acid and/or otherwise chemically treated) cells can
accumulate heavy metal in much a similar way, rather to greater extent as compared
to the growing or resting cells (Aksu 1998).
Although both living and non-living biomass have the potential to accumulate
the heavy metals in them, the living biomass have much interesting mechanism of
the same due to different barriers provided by cell walls, plasma membrane, cell
organelles, etc. (Kumar et al. 2015). Initial barrier provided by cell wall of microal-
gae stands to be less effective as the wall comprise mainly of polysaccharides, pro-
teins and lipids, which offer several functional groups (e.g. carboxyl, –COOH;
hydroxyl; –OH; phosphate; –PO3; amino; –NH2; and sulfhydryl–SH) that provides
net negative charge to the wall. This galaxy of negative charges proves profitable for
the positively charged cations such as cadmium, chromium, copper, etc. (Chojnacka
et al. 2005). Much in the similar way, the plasma membrane also provides the sec-
ond barrier to the heavy metals. In microalgae there exist two kinds of transport
proteins, that is, Group A and Group B transporter proteins, where Group-A trans-
porters {such as NRAMP (natural resistance-associated macrophage proteins), ZIP
(Zrt-, Irt-like proteins), FTR (Fe transporter) and CTR (Cu transporter) families}
help in moving metals inside the plasma membrane and Group-B transporters {such
as CDF (cation diffusion facilitator), P1B-type ATPases, FPN (FerroPortiN) and
Ccc1 (Ca (II)-sensitive cross-complementer 1)/VIT1 (vacuolar iron transporter 1)
families} help in the exocytosis of excess metals (Blaby-Haas and Merchant 2012).
Apart from these two ways of uptake of heavy metals by microalgae, some more
ways are possible such as ion exchange concept (very similar to the concept of cell
wall uptake), sequestration and compartmentalization in vacuoles (Monteiro et al.

2012) and sequestration to the chloroplast and mitochondria (Perales-vela et al.
2006; Shanab et al. 2012).
Microalgae being apt for the bioremediation are widely used in the environment,
but the expertise exhibited by other microbes such as bacteria and fungi cannot be
overlooked or underestimated. In environment, different types of contaminants are
present in intermingled nature. So, the contaminants that exist in coordination with
others are called as co-contaminants, for example, association of PAH (polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons) with heavy metals (Liu et al. 2017). Different of microbes
are thought to be used in treatment of these co-contaminants such as bacteria and
fungi. Some commonly found bacteria that are used for PAHs and heavy metals
bioremediation are Bacillus, Escherichia and Mycobacterium. They have the capa-
bility to breakdown the PAHs such as anthracene, naphthalene, phenanthrene,
pyrene and benzopyrene in the presence of heavy metals and can diminish the
repression brought about by some heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, Cr and Pb occurring
together with PAHs (Table 13.4).
4.2 Factors Affecting Microbial Bioremediation
The efficiency of bioremediation depends on many factors including the chemical

nature and concentration of pollutants, the physicochemical characteristics of the
environment and their availability to microorganisms (Fantroussi and Agathos
2005). The rate of degradation of contaminants by bacteria is more or less retarded
due to less frequency of interaction between them. In addition to this, microbes and
pollutants are not uniformly spread in the environment. The controlling and opti-
mizing of bioremediation processes is a complex system due to many factors such
as existence of microbial population capable of degrading the pollutants, the avail-
ability of pollutants, availability of contaminants to the microbial population and
environmental factors such as the soil type and texture, temperature and pH, the
presence of oxygen and other electron acceptors and nutrients (Abatenh et al. 2017).
4.3 A
dvantages and Disadvantages of Bioremediation
by Microbes
Microorganisms are found naturally in the environment whether it is beneficial or

non-beneficial. And the beneficial microorganisms are necessary for sustaining the
natural connectivity of the food chain. In nature they exist as simple organisms, with
less labour intensive to culture and are cheap due to their natural role in the environ-
ment (Abatenhet al. 2017). According to Dell anno et al. (2012), microorganisms
used for bioremediation are environment-friendly and helps in maintaining
Table 13.4 Microorganisms, especially fungi and bacteria, capable of remediating heavy metals,
oils, dyes, pesticides and many hydrocarbons
Microorganisms Compounds References
Penicillium chrysogenum Monocyclic aromatic Pedro et al. (2014)
hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, and Abdulsalam et al.
ethyl benzene and xylene, phenol (2013)
compounds
P. alcaligenes, P. mendocina and P. Petrol and diesel polycyclic Safiyanu et al. (2015)
putida P. veronii, Achromobacter, aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and Sani et al. (2015)
Flavobacterium, Acinetobacter
Pseudomonas putida Monocyclic aromatic Safiyanu et al. (2015)
hydrocarbons, e.g. benzene and and Sarang et al.
xylene (2013)
Phanerochaete chrysosporium Biphenyl and triphenylmethane Erika et al. (2013)
A. niger, A. fumigatus, F. solani and Hydrocarbon AI-Jawhari (2014)
P. funiculosum
Coprinellus radians PAHs, methylnaphthalenes and Aranda et al. (2010)
dibenzofurans
Alcaligenes odorans, Bacillus Phenol Singh et al. (2013)
subtilis, Corynebacterium
propinquum, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Tyromyces palustris, Gloeophyllum Hydrocarbons Karigar and Rao
trabeum, Trametes versicolor (2011)
Candida viswanathii Phenanthrene, benzopyrene Hesham et al. (2012)
Cyanobacteria, green algae and Naphthalene Hesham et al. (2012)
diatoms and Bacillus licheniformis and Lin et al. (2010)
Acinetobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp., Aromatic hydrocarbons Hesham et al. (2012)
Ralstonia sp. and Microbacterium sp.
Gloeophyllum striatum Striatum pyrene, anthracene, Yadav et al. (2011)
9-metilanthracene,
dibenzothiophene lignin,
peroxidase
Gloeophyllum striatum Striatum pyrene, anthracene, Yadav et al. (2011)
9-metilanthracene,
dibenzothiophene lignin,
peroxidase
Fusarium sp. Oil Hidayat A and
Tachibana (2012)
Alcaligenes odorans, Bacillus Oil Singh et al. (2013)
subtilis, Corynebacterium
propinquum, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
Bacillus cereus A Diesel oil Maliji et al. (2013)
(continued)
Aspergillus niger, Candida glabrata, Crude oil Burghal et al. (2016)
Candida krusei and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae
B. brevis, P. aeruginosa KH6, B. Crude oil El-Borai et al. (2016)
licheniformis and B. sphaericus
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P. putida, Diesel oil Sukumar and Nirmala
Arthrobacter sp. and Bacillus sp. (2016)
Citrobacter koseri and Serratia Diesel oil, crude oil Kehinde and Isaac
ficaria, Pseudomonas cepacia, (2016)
Bacillus cereus, Bacillus coagulans
B. subtilis strain NAP1, NAP2, NAP4 Oil-based based paints Phulpoto et al. (2016)
Myrothecium roridum IM 6482 Industrial dyes Jasin et al. (2012,
2013, 2015)
Pycnoporus sanguineus, Industrial dyes Yan et al. (2014)
Phanerochaete chrysosporium and
Trametes trogii
Penicillium ochrochloron Industrial dyes Shedbalkar and
Jadhav (2011)
Micrococcus luteus, Listeria Azo dyes Hassan et al. (2013)
denitrificans and Nocardia atlantica,
Textile
Bacillus spp. ETL-2012, Textile dye (Remazol black B), Yogesh and Akshaya
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus sulfonated diazo dye, Reactive (2016) and Das et al.
pumilusHKG212 Red HE8B, RNB dye (2015)
Exiguobacterium indicum, Azo dyes effluents Kumar et al. (2016)
Exiguobacterium aurantiacums,
Bacillus cereus and Acinetobacter
baumannii
Bacillus firmus, Bacillus macerans, Vat dyes, textile effluents Adebajo et al. (2017)
Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella
oxytoca
Cunninghamella elegans Heavy metals Bahobil et al. (2017)
Pseudomonas fluorescens and Fe 2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Mn2+ and Cu2 Paranthaman and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Karthikeyan (2015)
Lysinibacillus sphaericus CBAM5 Cobalt, copper, chromium and Peña-Montenegro
lead et al. (2015)
Microbacterium profundi strain Fe Wu et al. (2015)
Shh49T
Fumigatus, Paecilomyces sp., Cadmium Soleimani et al.
Paecilomyces sp., Trichoderma sp., (2015)
Aspergillus versicolor,
A. Microsporum sp., Cladosporium
sp.
Geobacter spp. Fe (III), U (VI) Mirlahiji and
Eisazadeh (2014)
(continued)
Bacillus safensis (JX126862) strain Cadmium Priyalaxmi et al.
(PB-5 and RSA-4) (2014)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, U, Cu, Ni, Cr Sinha et al. (2011)
Aeromonas sp.
Aerococcus sp., Rhodopseudomonas Pb, Cr, Cd Sinha and Paul
palustris (2014) and Sinha and
Biswas (2014)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Heavy metals, lead, mercury and Chen and Wang
nickel (2007), Talos et al.
(2009) and Infante
et al. (2014)
sustainability in the environment by destroying the contaminants, thus maintain the

cycle of nature. Moreover, the contaminants that are destroyed by these microorgan-
isms are not simply transferred to different environmental media. Further, they are
nonintrusive, potentially allowing for continued site use. According to Kumar et al.
(2011), they are relatively easy to implement in ground-level experiments. Thus, the
use of microorganisms stands to be the most effective way of remediating natural
ecosystem from a number contaminates and acts as environment-friendly options
(Singh et al. 2013). Although there are many advantages of using microorganisms
for remediating the natural environment from various heavy metal contaminants,
the benefits are limited to those compounds that are biodegradable in nature. In
addition to this, not all compounds are susceptible to rapid and complete degrada-
tion (Abatenh et al. 2017). Also, there are some concerns that the products of bio-
degradation (in some cases) may be more persistent or toxic than the parent
compound (Abatenh et al. 2017). In nature, biological processes are often highly
specific and the site factors are quite important requisites. Important site factors
required for success includes the presence of metabolically capable microbial popu-
lations, suitable environmental growth conditions and appropriate levels of nutrients
and contaminants (Abatenh et al. 2017). A very high-profile research is needed to
develop and engineer bioremediation technologies that are appropriate for sites with
complex mixtures of contaminants (solids, liquids or gases) that are not evenly dis-
persed in the environment. Contaminants may be present as solids, liquids and
gases.
5 Phytoremediation
An unequalled and rapid emerging branch of bioremediation that fits best as eco-
friendly approach and employs natural properties of plants for removal of contami-
nants from soils is phytoremediation (Oh et al. 2014). This phytoremediation
process has gained its importance due to its cost-effective, efficient and
non-invasive way of decreasing the pollutants from water and soils (Mojiri 2012)
without showing any negative effect on the environment. This technology is widely
applicable in remediating inorganic contaminants such as heavy metals and radio-
nuclide, as well as organic contaminants such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, chlo-
rinated solvents, etc. (Wang et al. 2003; Oh et al. 2013a, b). The urge for the
enforcement of this process is due to continuous contamination of heavy metals
beyond its threshold limit which is harmful to all forms of life (Gaur et al. 2014;
Dixit et al. 2015; Tak et al. 2013). Earlier it was natural sources which were domi-
nating over anthropogenic sources for heavy metal pollution, but nowadays due to
rapid urbanization and industrialization, the anthropogenic sources of pollution left
the natural sources way beyond the expectations. Industries that are energy inten-
sive has been established for power an electricity production such as thermal power
plants, coal mines, etc. pose to be major sources of anthropogenic pollution (Rai
et al. 2007). Many large agrochemical industries such as chlor-alkali industries
release large amount of range of heavy metals into the lakes and reservoirs thereby
deteriorating the water quality (Rai et al. 2007). Different standards have been set
for different heavy metals in water as well as soil to regulate its concentration.
According to Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability
Act (CERCLA), USA, the maximum permissible concentration of heavy metals in
water was given as 0.01 for Ar, 0.01 for Cr, 0.02 for Hg, 0.05 for Cd, 0.05 for Ag
and 0.15 for lead (mg/litre) (Chaturvedi et al. 2015). Similarly, according to Indian
Standards, the maximum concentration should be 3–6 for cadmium, 75–150 for
nickel, 135–270 for copper, 250–500 for lead and 300–600 for zinc (in mg/kg)
(Nagajyoti et al. 2010). Phytoremediation proves to be very modern and cost-
effective technology as compared to old conventional techniques, viz. vapour
extraction, soil washing, thermal desorption, etc., that leads to other problems such
as air and groundwater pollution (Oh et al. 2013a, b). Among the conventional tech-
niques, onsite management or excavation and then dumping of the same waste con-
taining heavy metals pose to be a great threat as it just changes the site of
contamination and are often act as a reason for hazard associated with transporta-
tion throughout the path of travel to dump area (Tangahu et al. 2011). There are
chemical technologies and physical methods too that help in remediating the heavy
metal contamination, but they are technically difficult to use and are too expensive
and generate large volumetric sludge thereby contributing pollution to the environ-
ment again (Rakhshaee et al. 2009). On the other hand, phytoremediation stands to
be very useful as it uses sunlight as its energy source and natural green plants for
remediation of soil contaminants which can be done in situ. Moreover, this process
has least or no secondary contaminants as it immobilizes them, thereby preventing
their entry into the groundwater thus protecting the soil profile and enhancing the
quality of soil and prevents the soil resources (Oh et al. 2013a, b). According to
some workers, phytoremediating plants could metabolize large and highly toxic
substances into small and non-toxic ones, but this capability greatly varies from
species to species (Oh et al. 2013a, b). Phytoremediating plants have variable capa-
bilities due to difference in their growth rates, their biomass, depth of root zone and
their potential to transpire groundwater into the atmosphere (Oh et al. 2013a, b).
Besides all the advantages, phytoremediation has some shortcoming as it takes a

long time to remediate the soil contamination and is limited by the climatic, geo-
logical conditions and the type of soil of that area.
Worldwide, dedicated research is going on to find different ways for remediating
heavy metals from soil and water, and till date the phytoremediation process proved
to be the best technique and only sustainable alternative to all kinds of remediation.
Different plants species have been used to evaluate the phytoremediation capability
of plants by varying the type of plant species, properties of medium (pH adjustment,
fertilizer) (Prasad and Freitas 2003) and addition of chelating agent such as EDTA
(Ginneken et al. 2007), etc. Tables 13.5 and 13.6 enlist some phytoremediating
plants that can be used for phytoremediation of heavy metals (Table 13.5) and
hydrocarbons (Table 13.6).
6 D
ifferent Processes of Uptake of Heavy Metals by Plants
in Contaminated Soils
Plants are the amazing creation of nature being always help in bringing up the envi-
ronment to stabilize itself by various means. Much on the same way, various plant
parts absorb heavy metal contaminants present in soil and water leaving the envi-
ronment pollution-free. Root, shoot and leaves accumulate the metals inside their
tissues by many different processes leading to decontamination of important abiotic
resources such as soil and water. The urgency of the process is due to the nasty
property of heavy metals off being long time persistent and its non-biodegradable
nature which increases the threat to human beings and other animal’s health (Gisbert
et al. 2003). Figure 13.1 depicts various areas of plants for uptake, absorption and
evaporation of contaminants. Various processes are involved in the process of phy-
toremediation which are discussed below.
6.1 Phytoextraction
Phytoextraction is the process of absorption of soil contaminants by plants where it

stores or concentrates them in the shoots and harvestable parts of the root. Nickel,
copper and zinc are the best members to be absorbed by plants, and over 400 plants
can absorb them easily, and they can be “removed permanently” from the soil and
water (Etim 2012; Upadhyay et al. 2019). The plants that are selected for this pro-
cess exhibit excellent property to produce high biomass. But, according to Evangelou
et al. (2007), most of the metal accumulating plants are generally found to be slow
growing and are having very low capacity to produce considerable amount of bio-
mass. So, the plants with these properties are supposed to discourage the process of
phytoextraction as it wholly and solely depend on tissue metal concentration and
Table 13.5 Table showing phytoremediating plants capable of heavy metal uptake
Name of plant Metal Process References
Cerastium arvense (field Cadmium Uptake/accumulation Institute for
chickweed) environmental research
and education (2003)
Claytonia perfoliata (miner’s Cadmium Uptake/accumulation Institute for
lettuce) environmental research
Lupinus albus (white lupin) Arsenic Rhizoaccumulation Esteban et al. (2003)
Vicia spp. (vetch) Nutrients/ Uptake McCutcheon and
metals schnoor (2003)
Thlaspi caerulescens (alpine Cadmium, Hyperaccumulation McCutcheon and
pennycress) zinc, nickel schnoor (2003)
Solidago hispida (hairy Metals Hyperaccumulation McCutcheon and
goldenrod) schnoor (2003)
Gleditsia triacanthos (honey Lead Phytoextraction García et al. (2003)
locust)
Populus tremula (Aspen) Lead Extraction McCutcheon and
schnoor (2003)
Viola spp. (violets) Metals Phytoextraction/ Institute for
hyperaccumulation environmental research
Water bloom/algal bloom Metals Uptake Rai et al. (2007)
(Microcystis sp.)
Reed (Phragmites australis; Metals Uptake Bragato et al. (2006)
Phragmites karka) and Vymazal (2007)
Water fern, water velvet Metals Uptake Rai et al. (2007)
(Azolla caroliniana, Azolla
pinnata)
Bulrush/cattail (Typha Metals Uptake Manios et al. (2003) and
latifolia, Typha angustata, Hadad et al. (2006)
Typha domingensis)
Poplar trees (Populus Metals Uptake Robinson et al. (2000)
deltoids)
Pond weed/curly leaf pond Metals Uptake Fritioff and Greger
weed (Potamogeton natans; (2006)
Potamogeton crispus)
Parrot’s feather Metals Uptake Lesage et al. (2007)
(Myriophyllum spicatum)
Umbrella plant (Cyperus Metals Uptake Qian et al. (1999)
alternifolius)
Duckweed (Lemna minor) Metals Uptake DeBusk et al. (1996)
biomass production (Chaney et al. 2007). Different species of plants differ in their
capability of concentrating metals in them, and the species that can accumulate
100 mg kg−1f cadmium (Cd), 1000 mg kg−1 of arsenic (As), cobalt (Co), copper
(Cu), lead (Pb) or nickel (Ni) or >10,000 mg kg−1 of manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn)
are considered as hyperaccumulator plants. There are several steps that are
Table 13.6 Table showing some phytoremediating plants capable of hydrocarbon accumulation
Canadian wild rye Hydrocarbons Rhizodegradation/ McCutcheon and Schnoor
(Elymus canadensis) accumulation (2003)
(Red fescue Festuca Hydrocarbons Rhizodegradation McCutcheon and Schnoor
rubra) (2003)
(Tall fescue) (Festuca Pyrene, PAHs Rhizodegradation/ Christensen-Kirsh (1996)
arundinacea) and NPK phytoextraction and McCutcheon and
Schnoor (2003)
English ryegrass Hydrocarbons/ Rhizodegradation/ McCutcheon and Schnoor
(Lolium perenne) nutrients uptake (2003)
(Yellow sweet clover) Hydrocarbons Rhizodegradation Christensen-Kirsh (1996)
Melilotus officinalis and NPK and McCutcheon and
Schnoor (2003)
Switchgrass (Panicum Hydrocarbons Rhizodegradation McCutcheon and Schnoor
virgatum) (2003)
Mulberry (Morus PAHs and PCBs Rhizodegradation McCutcheon and Schnoor
rubra) (2003)
Phytovolatilization
Phytodegradation
Phytoextraction
Phytostabilization
Rhizofiltration
Fig. 13.1 Different methods of remediation of heavy metals contamination in soil by plants.
(Modified from Oh et al. 2014)
necessary for hyperaccumulation of heavy metals by plants which includes absorp-

tion and transportation of metals across the membranes of root cells followed by
uploading of metals into xylem for its transportation and then the translocation of
these metals to the shoots and thus sequestration and detoxification of metals within
plant tissues (Yang et al. 2005). According to Rascio and Navari-Izzo 2011, the
plant epidermis, its trichomes and cuticle are the favourable lodging sites for detoxi-
fication of metals, and in several instances, the subsidiary and stomatal cells are
protected against metal toxicity.
Since this process generally indulge in accumulation of metals in lower concen-
tration due to inefficiency of plants to produce larger biomass, therefore these
hyperaccumulator plants discourages their adoption in larger scale or for commer-
cial purpose. But few plants with metal tolerable capacity can be thought to be
effectively used for commercial scale (Saifullah et al. 2009). However, these species
have an inherently low ability to absorb metals but can accumulate higher concen-
trations of metals if grown in the soils treated with chemical amendments to increase
metal phytoavailability and plant uptake (Meers et al. 2005).
6.2 Phytostabilization
Sites with high concentration of contamination of heavy metals are difficult to

remediate. So, this level of contamination is so much so that the phytoextraction of
metals from such soils would take a considerably longer period of time which is
neither economical nor suitable. In such cases if remediation technology is not
applied quickly and effectively then, these could be a major source of metal disper-
sion into the environment. The risk posed by such soils can be decreased by using
plants to stabilize or immobilized the metals in the soil (Marques et al. 2009). Such
process of immobilization of soil contaminants by accumulating or precipitating it
with the help of root and its exudates within rhizospheric region, to limit its spread
to the food chain is called as phytostabilization. In the process of phytostabilization,
plants readily immobilizes the metals present in the rhizospheric zone thereby leav-
ing them less bioavailable and less toxic to plants, animals and humans or retain the
metals in the roots by restricting their translocation to above-ground parts (Mendez
and Maier 2008; Wong 2003). This technology is quite useful in treatment of lead
(Pb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) (Etim,
2012).
The main mechanism of phytostabilization is the precipitation and adsorption of
heavy metals near the rhizospheric zone where these metals are converted into less
soluble forms like carbonates and sulphides of metals, metal complexes with organic
compounds, metal adsorption on root surfaces and metal accumulation in root tis-
sues (Mendez and Maier 2008; Wong 2003). The presence of plants in metal-
contaminated soils promotes heterotrophic microbial communities which may, in
turn, promote plant growth and participate in metal stabilization. Metal-tolerant
plants with the capacity to keep the metals out of metabolic sites (shoots) are the
best candidates for phytostabilization. Although such plants have developed mecha-
nisms to restrict the metals in the rhizosphere or roots, even then concentration of
metals in shoots must be monitored (Mendez and Maier 2008). Among many phy-
toextracting plant species the Cynodon dactylon was found to be the best accumula-
tor of As in roots and thus a promising candidate for phytostabilization and have
wide adaptations in Pb- and Zn-contaminated soils also (Leung et al. 2007).
Moreover, the mycorrhizae (interaction of fungi with the roots of higher plants) play
an important role in stabilization by binding the metals with hyphae, and some
mycorrhizae like ericoid and ectomycorrhizal fungi colonizing in Cynodon dacty-
lon can modify the rhizosphere by excreting organic acids and thus stabilizing met-
als in the rhizosphere (Meharg 2003). Vetiveria zizanioides, Sesbania rostrata, herb
legume and Leucaena leucocephala have been successfully grown in metal-
contaminated soils for metal stabilization (Shu et al. 2002; Zhang et al. 2001). This
phytostabilization technique is effective only when the phytoextraction method is
not efficient (Sabir et al. 2014), and the efficiency of this process can be enhanced
by performing and applying soil amendments like zeolites, beringite, steel shot and
hydroxyapatite (Lothenbach et al. 1998).
6.3 Phytodegradation
Breakdown of organic contaminants by plants either internally through its meta-

bolic pathway with the help of secreted enzymes or externally by root exudates and
incorporation of these contaminants into plant tissues (Trap et al. 2005). This pro-
cess is mainly used to degrade complex organic molecules and convert it into sim-
pler forms in soils, groundwater medium and sledges. Some complex organic
compounds that are reported to be degraded by this process are tetra-chloroethane
by poplar species, 2, 4-dichlorophenol by Brassica, benzotriazoles by Helianthus,
trifluralin and lindane by rye, gasoline by pothos, diesel and heavy oil by grasses
native to California (Newman and Reynolds 2004).
6.4 Rhizodegradation (Phytostimulation)
Disintegration of contaminants in the soil through the activity of microorganisms,

enhanced by the presence of root zone, is known as rhizodegradation (Tangahu et al.
2011). According to USEPA, 2000, the rhizospheric region contains at least 100
times more number of microbes as compared to non-rhizospheric region. This pro-
cess mainly helps in remediating organic hydrocarbons such as petroleum hydrocar-
bons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinated solvents, pesticides,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes
(EPA 2000).
6.5 Phytovolatilization
In phytovolatilization contaminants such as selenium, mercury, arsenic, etc. that are

absorb by the root of the plants are converted to more simple forms and are then
volatilized through stomata of the leaves to the atmosphere. In phytostabilization
metals are assimilated into organic compounds which are volatile in nature and
ultimately released into atmosphere as biomolecules (Marques et al. 2009).This
process is primarily used for removal of mercury (Hg) contamination from the soil
along with other metals such as Se and As. During the course of development,
molecular technology reveals the presence of a gene that is responsible for reducing
mercuric ion into elemental mercury through enzyme mercury reductase (Rugh
et al. 1996). The gene, merApe9, has been introduced into Arabidopsis thaliana
which ultimately volatilizes large amounts of Hg into the atmosphere (Rugh et al.
1996). Although the advantage of this process is that the mercury ion can be easily
transformed to the less toxic elemental form, unfortunately the disadvantage associ-
ated with it is much greater as there is huge probability of recycling of mercury by
precipitation and thus its accumulation in lakes and oceans with pose a great threat
to aquatic life forms (USEPA 2000). A very similar phenomenon is observed in case
of selenium. Brassica juncea has been shown to volatilize Se into the atmosphere
through assimilation of Se from the soil into organic seleno-amino acids, seleno-
cysteine and seleno-methionine which later can be biomethylated to form the vola-
tile compound dimethylselenide (Banuelos et al. 1993; Terry et al. 2000). These
processes have not gained much importance as the probability of recycling of vola-
tile metallic compound is very high.
Thus, different plant species employing different processes of uptake of heavy
metals from metal-contaminated soils can be depicted in Table 13.7 which shows
plant species remediating different heavy metals by different mechanisms.
7 Advantages and Limitation of Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation have some significant advantages in terms that they help in reduc-
ing the heavy metal ion concentration either by changing its form or by reducing
them to low levels with the help of inexpensive biosorbent materials (Rakhshaee
et al. 2009). According to Rodrigues (2005), there are various methods that are used
for phytoremediation which lead to degradation of heavy metal contents in soil.
Moreover, phytoremediation shows its transparency towards lowest remediating
capacity, that is, a cost-effective method accompanying least expensive approach
for remediation of the environmental media, mainly appropriate for large sites con-
taining relatively low levels of contamination (Ginneken et al. 2007). Furthermore,
the phytoremediation technology can also be used for remediating wide range of
toxic metals and radionuclides and are equally useful for detoxifying organic as
well as inorganic contaminants to a level that are acceptable to the society and
Table 13.7 Plants species with different processes for heavy metal remediation from contaminated
soil
Phytoremediation
Plant type Metal Mechanism References
Sedum alfredii H Phytostabilization Pb and Induction of Anjum et al.
Cd glutathione (2012), Gupta et al.
biosynthesis that bind (2010) and Sun
metals in roots et al. (2007)
Athyrium wardii Phytostabilization Pb and Root retention of Zou et al. (2011)
Cd metals
Ceratophyllum Phytoextraction Cd Production of Mishra et al. (2009)
demersum phytochelatin for metal
binding in shoots
Activation of cysteine
synthase, glutathione-S-
transferase, glutathione
Pteris vittata Phytoextraction As Increased colonization Leung et al. (2007)
Exploring more soil
Sedum alfredii Phytoextraction Zn Metals loaded into leaf Yang et al. (2005)
sections and protoplast
Imperata Phytostabilization Cd, Fibrous root system Peng et al. (2006)
cylindrical, Zn, retaining the metals
Miscanthus Cu, Pb
floridulus
Cynodon dactylon Phytostabilization As, Zn, Binding with hyphae Leung et al. (2007)
Pb of mycorrhizae
Release of organic
acids
environment (Liu et al. 2017; Mwegoha 2008). Vivid researches on phytoremedia-

tion technique also help in improving the soils that are enriched with high alumin-
ium and soil level (US Department of energy 1994). Although phytoremediation is
good, reliable and cost-effective technique, it can be very a time-consuming pro-
cess, i.e. it may take several growing season for completion of the process (Mwegoha
2008). It may take weeks to months for excavation and disposal of wastes, or it may
extend up to several years to accomplish process exquisitely (Tangahu et al. 2011).
Once the process is done, the by-products or the intermediate formed during the
remediation process, which is either organic or inorganic in nature, may be cyto-
toxic to plants itself (Mwegoha 2008).
8 Mechanism of Uptake of Heavy Metals in Plants
Accumulation of heavy metals in small quantities is essential for plant growth and
metabolism; however, at higher concentration they stand to be potentially toxic to
plants and thus the soil ecosystem (Nagajyoti et al. 2010). Living organism absorbs
heavy metals directly or indirectly, and the over-accumulation of metals ultimately

leads to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) followed by apoptosis (Shi
et al. 2004). These heavy metals are initially encountered by the macromolecules such
as proteins. So, to understand the real mechanism or the pathway taken by the heavy
metals to get absorbed inside the tissues, we need to search for the proteins that bind
these metals or metal ions to it. In fact, these heavy metal-binding proteins are encoded
by specific genes. If these genes are properly searched out and thorough analysis is
done, then it would be the answer to the mechanism of action of the heavy metals.
According to Trivedi and Ansari (2015), the expressed sequence tags (ESTs) analy-
sis is the best technique that would help to elucidate the sites of accumulation or hyper-
accumulation of the heavy metals. With the help of biotechnological techniques and
immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography or IMAC, the metal ions are finally
immobilized (Trivedi et al. 2003). Following the immobilization of the heavy metals,
it initially binds with the cell walls or the membrane, which acts as an ion exchange
agent of comparatively low selectivity. Further, the transport systems, with activation
and deactivation of intracellular high-affinity binding sites, help in the uptake of these
metals across the plasma membrane through secondary transporters such as channel
proteins and/or H+ -coupled carrier proteins (Chaney et al. 2007). These transporters
act through a series of signalling events like phosphorylation cascades, hormones,
mitogen-activated protein kinases and calcium-calmodulin systems (Shi et al. 2004).
In the last few years, extensive studies have been done on membrane transporter
genes, and few membrane transporter gene families have been identified. After their
identification they are characterized by heterologous complementation screens and
sequencing of ESTs and plant genome studies. Many cation transporters have been
identified in recent years, most of which are Zn-regulated transporter (ZRT),
Fe-regulated transporter (IRT), natural resistance-associated macrophage proteins
(NRAMP), Al-activated malate transporter (ALMT), cation diffusion facilitator
(CDF), P-type ATPase (heavy metal associated), yellow stripe-like (YSL), copper
transporter and nicotianamine synthase (NAS) (Guerinot 2000; Williams et al.
2000; Talke et al. 2006; Memon and Schroder 2009; Maestri et al. 2010). Once these
heavy metals enter the plant tissues, the subsequent movement of metal takes place
through the plant sap with the help of root pressure and by the process called tran-
spirational pull (Robinson et al. 2003). Further the responsibility of transporting
these heavy metals to the shoot parts are completed by the xylem cells. Since heavy
metals at its higher concentration inside the cell become very much toxic to plants,
they start an enzymatic process catalysing oxidation reduction reactions and thereby
alter their chemistry from toxic to non-toxic forms. Two such examples are reduc-
tion of Cr6+ to Cr3+ in Eichhornia crassipes (Lytle et al. 1998) and reduction of As5+
to As3+ in B. juncea (Pickering et al. 2000). Besides this, some of the intracellular
metals are detoxified by some different mechanism such as they either binds to low
molecular mass organic compounds or they may get localized in the vacuoles as a
metal-organic acid complex, or they may bind to histidine itself (Persans et al. 1999;
Kramer et al. 2000). Heavy metal concentration in the cytoplasm can be regulated
in many ways, and among many metals, Zn shows most diversified ways in regulat-
ing its concentration, which involves sequestration in a subcellular organelle to low
molecular mass organic ligands, low uptake across the plasma membrane and pre-
cipitation as insoluble salts and active extrusion across the plasma membrane into
the apoplast (Brune et al. 1994). There have been many investigations done in dif-
ferent disciplines of science to understand the mechanism of accumulation and tol-
erance of heavy metals. Finally, the molecular and genetic engineering technologies
led to the well understanding of mechanisms of heavy metals in plants. Furthermore
the information, of mechanism of remediation, the rate-limiting steps for uptake,
translocation and detoxification of metals in hyperaccumulating plants can be
thought to be used in the development of many transgenic plants with increased
resistance and uptake of heavy metals and thus improving the applicability of the
phytoremediation technology (Yang et al. 2005).
9 Remedial Technologies for Metal-Contaminated Soil
In today’s era of scarcity of land under farming and the invariable increase in popu-
lation size, there is always an urge of fertile land for cultivation and clean water for
irrigation. Thus it has become very important for remediating the contaminants
from soil and water by generating certain remediation technologies.
Remediation technologies can be classified according to (1) the nature of action
that is applied on the metals immobilization or extraction, (2) the location where the
process is applied in situ or ex situ and (3) technology type, i.e. containment/disposal
methods, or chemical, physical, thermal and biological treatments or monitored
Technologies for remediation of metal contaminated soil
Metal immobilization and Policies for the Site of metal extraction

its isolation remediation
In-situ Ex-situ Location of In-situ Ex-situ

remediation extraction extraction
Solidificatin, Soil washing,

stabilization and physical separation,
vitrification, Solidificatin, Electrokinetics, soil chemical extraction,
stabilization and Technologies for
chemical redox, flushing and biological extraction,
vitrification, treatment of soil
phytostabilization, phytoextraction thermal treatments
biological chemical redox, and electrokinetics.
stabilization
Fig. 13.2 Shows certain remedial technologies which can be useful in removal of metals from the
metal-contaminated soil. (Taken from: Dermont et al. 2008)
natural attenuation (Dermont et al. 2008). Figure 13.2 shows certain remedial tech-
nologies which can be useful in removal of metals from the metal-contaminated soil.
10 Conclusions
Bioremediation is a powerful tool available to clean up contaminated sites. However,

other applications are relatively new, and many other applications are emerging or
being developed. Bioremediation occurs when the microorganisms can biodegrade
the given contaminant and the necessary nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, elec-
tron acceptors and trace elements. This process can be aerobic or anaerobic depend-
ing on the microorganisms and the electron acceptors available. This process may be
natural (intrinsic bioremediation), or it may be enhanced by man (engineered biore-
mediation). Regardless of which aspect of bioremediation that is used; this technol-
ogy offers an efficient and cost-effective way to treat contaminated groundwater and
soil. But the effects for increasing the scope and efficiency of phytoremediation and
for developing phytoremediation systems for sites contaminated with multi-contam-
inants are urgently necessary. Although some companies have started their business
in phytoremediation, phytoremediation has not been fully commercialized. Further
research is still needed, and the priorities on phytoremediation for the future should
focus on establishing stable and efficient phytoremediation systems through finding
more efficient remediating plants and microbes, monitoring current field trials to
obtain thorough understanding, developing microbe-plant combination systems and
using genetic engineering technology. Phytoremediation are expected to be used as a
vital tool in sustainable management of contaminated soils. Contaminated site man-
agers should consider phytoremediation when evaluating remedial alternatives.
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Chapter 14
Wastewater Treatment Through
Nanotechnology: Role and Prospects
Vivek K. Chaturvedi, Ankita Kushwaha, Shweta Maurya, Nazish Tabassum,

Himani Chaurasia, and M. P. Singh
Abstract Water is a most crucial and limited resource on the Earth, which has
contaminated due to the addition of heavy metals, pathogens, pesticides, and many
organic and inorganic substances. Currently, the research has been focused on the
sustainable remediation approach for waste reclamation. Therefore, an affordable
technology of wastewater treatment could tackle the problem of water.
Nanotechnology is an efficient, affordable, effective, and durable method for water
treatment. Nanomaterials have several properties such as specific surface area, high
reactivity, high degree of functionalization, size-dependent properties, etc., which
make them appropriate materials in wastewater treatment. The present chapter com-
prehensively describes the characteristics of different nanomaterials and their role
in the restoration of aquatic ecosystem.
Keywords Nanotechnology · Environmental pollution · Wastewater · Nanofiber

membrane · Nanoadsorbents · Fullerenes
1 Introduction
Nanotechnology is an emerging technology of the twenty-first century used to solve

the problem of water shortages and water pollution (Mueller and Nowack 2008).
Nanotechnology provides new opportunities in technological developments for bet-
ter wastewater treatment over the traditional physical, chemical, and biological pro-
cess. Nano is derived from a Greek word which means “dwarf.” Nanomaterials are
employed for the expulsion of toxic materials and wastages from water; therefore it
plays a major role in the abstraction of water contamination (Amin et al. 2014).
V. K. Chaturvedi · A. Kushwaha · S. Maurya · N. Tabassum · M. P. Singh (*)

Centre of Biotechnology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies (IIDS), University of
Allahabad, Allahabad, India
H. Chaurasia
Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India

228 V. K. Chaturvedi et al.
Water pollution is one of the main crises causing negative impact on plants and
human health. Therefore, amplification of technologies for the betterment of the
environment is the major need of the hour. Nanotechnology atop the traditional
approaches propounds up to the minute opportunities in the technological upgrada-
tion for better wastewater technology scheme by employing antimicrobial nanoma-
terials (Pendergast and Hoek 2011). In this chapter, we enlighten the issue of fresh
water and the cost-effective techniques of nanomaterials along with its interactions
with several related biological systems (Theron et al. 2008) to treat the wastewater.
The Earth is the only planet of solar system where water (97%) exists (Grey et al.
2013; Pradeep 2009). However, due to its unprecedented utilization, mismanaged
remediation of wastewater and high pollution level causes the water unfit for drink-
ing and other agriculture activities. In a report of WHO, it was assumed that by
2025, half of the world’s population will be living in water-deficient areas (WHO
2015). The water contains a number of toxic metals such as Hg, Cr, Pb, Co, Ni, As,
and Ag, which damage the human health as well as the environment (Mishra et al.
2018; Theron et al. 2008; Yadav et al. 2017). Various traditional techniques are
available for the treatment of wastewater, i.e., through a chemical and physical
agent such as chlorine and its derivatives, ultraviolet light, boiling, low-frequency
ultrasonic irradiation, distillation, reverse osmosis, water sediment filters, activated
carbon, etc. This traditional technique of pollutants’ removal from wastewater as
well as drinking water suffers many disadvantages such as high cost, uses and dis-
posal, and high energy requirement. So, there is an urgent need for the treatment of
wastewater in a cost-effective and sustainable manner (Table 14.2).
Nanotechnology is a branch of nanoscience in which nanometer scale (1–100 nm)-
sized particles are studied. Nanoparticles (NP) play an important role in willingness
to numerous pollutants which is challenged to the environment due to their non-
biodegradable and toxicity nature (Fig. 14.1) (Theron et al. 2008). Recently, a vari-
ety of approaches have been developed for the synthesis of high-quality nanoparticles
(Kumari et al. 2015), nano-ovals, nanobelts (Fu and Wang 2011), and nanorings or
other nanostructures. Nanostructured materials such as magnetic nanoparticle, car-
bon nanotubes, silver-impregnated cyclodextrin nanocomposites, nanostructured
iron zeolite, carbon-iron nanoparticles, photocatalytictitania nanoparticles, nanofil-
tration membranes, and functionalized silica are able to treat the heavy metals, sedi-
ments chemical effluents, charged particles, and other pathogen like bacteria,
viruses, as well as fungi (Table 14.1) (Amin et al. 2014; Chaturvedi et al. 2018).
Nanoparticles (NPs) are one dimensional structure with less than 100 nm
(Amin et al. 2014) in size. Different type of nanoparticles are used for wastewater
treatment but among them, metal oxide nanoparticles like titanium dioxide (TiO2),
zinc oxide (ZnO), and cerium oxide (CeO2) show high reactivity and photolytic
properties against wastewater. They act as a good adsorbent for water purification
because they have a large surface area and their affinity can be enhanced by using
various functionalized groups (Lu et al. 2016). ZnO nanoparticles have been used
14 Wastewater Treatment Through Nanotechnology: Role and Prospects 229
Fig. 14.1 Nanotechnology based wastewater treatment
to get rid of arsenic from water (Muñoz-Fernandez et al. 2016). Ag NPs has high
antibacterial activity so that it fixed to filter materials for treatment of water waste.
It is cost-effective and considered as the best NP for water purification. Several
investigators reveal about fabricated nanostructured ceramic membrane contain-
ing zinc oxide and titanium involving in degradation of photo catalytically pollut-
ants and check the growth of microorganisms (Reinhart et al. 2010). Since
nanoparticle-based wastewater treatment has high in demand, its usage cost should
be managed according to competition in the market (Crane and Scott 2012). A
number of nanomaterials such as nanocatalysts, nanostructured catalytic mem-
branes, biomimetic membrane, nanosorbents, bioactive nanoparticles, and molec-
ularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are also used for removing toxic metal ions,
disease-causing microbes, organic and inorganic solutes from water waste (Anjum
et al. 2016).
2 Role of Inorganic Nonmaterials in Wastewater Treatment
Inorganic nanomaterials are made of up inorganic compound which is used in the

wastewater treatment (Fig. 14.2). Here, we described different type of inorganic
nanomaterials and their role in a wastewater treatment.
Table 14.1 Summary of the removal of heavy metals from wastewater

Removal of
heavy metal
Zero valent ions from
S.N. iron (ZVI) water Summary References
1. Z-nZVI Pb(II) More than 96% of the Pb(II) was removed Kim et al.
from 100 mL of a solution containing 100 mg (2013)
Pb(II)/L within 140 min of mixing with 0.1 g
Z–nZVI
2. nZVI Cd(II) Simultaneous removal of cadmium and nitrate Su et al.
in aqueous media by nanoscale zero valent iron (2014)
(nZVI) and Au doped nZVI particles
3. K-nZVI Pb(II) More than 96% of Pb(II) was removed from Zhang et al.
aqueous solution using K-nZVI at an initial (2011)
condition of 500 mg/L Pb(II) within 30 min
under the conditions of 10 g/L of K-nZVI, pH
5.10, and a temperature of 30 °C
4. Ferragels Cr(VI) and Quick removal of Cr(VI) and Pb(II) from Ponder et al.
Pb(II) aqueous solution using supported nZVI (2000)
(“Ferragels”). The result indicates supported
nZVI, while oxidizing the Fe to goethite
(R-FeOOH) reduced the Cr to Cr3+ and the Pb
to Pb°
5. nZVI Cd(II) They reported NZVI for the removal of Cd(II) Boparai
(conc. range 25–450 mg/L). The results et al. (2011)
recommend the competent removal of Cd(II)
from contaminated water
6. P-NZVI Hg(II) and They investigated NZVI supported on pumice Liu et al.
Cr(VI) (P-NZVI) successfully removed Hg (II) and Cr (2014)
(VI) from wastewater. The maximum uptake of
Hg(II) and Cr(VI) onto P-NZVI was 332.4 and
306.6 mg/g, respectively
2.1 Iron Oxide Nanomaterials
Colloidal and particulate forms of iron metals are constitutes in hydroxides, oxides,
silicates, sulfides, or grab to adsorbed on clay, silica, or organic matter (Boparai
et al. 2011). Iron oxides exist in various forms in nature out of which magnetite
(Fe3O4), maghemite (Fe2O3), and hematite (Fe2O3) abide the uttermost prevalent
forms (Ferroudj et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2013). In recent years scientist focuses on
the preparation of iron oxide nanomaterials for wastewater treatment due to their
high surface area to volume ratio and superparamagnetism (Mahdavian and
Mirrahimi 2010; Oliveira et al. 2003; Ponder et al. 2000; Pendergast and Hoek
2011). Furthermore, iron oxide nanoparticles show lesser toxicity, chemical inert-
ness, and biocompatibility and exhibit outstanding potential in consolidation with
biotechnology (Morones et al. 2005; Nakamura and Isobe 2003). For removal of
toxic heavy metals from groundwater, the surface functionalized iron oxide nano-
materials have been used as a nanosorbent. Improvement in iron oxide nanomaterial
Fig. 14.2 Schematic illustration of nanomaterials used in the removal of wastewater treatment
development, along with the achievement of monodisperse, shape formation is vali-

dated on the basis of surface active sites (Li et al. 2016). The removal of water waste
by iron oxide nanomaterials is worked at the micro- or macro-scale level, which
allows nanoparticles to exhibit their reactivity while being complemented by the
adsorbent properties of the accompanying materials. Chitosan is a well-known
example of iron oxide nanomaterial. Chitosan is a natural substance and hydrophilic
in nature and contains active sites along its polymeric chain due to –NH2 groups.
Hence, chitosan regarded as a novel biosorbents for water and wastewater treatment
(Ahmaruzzaman 2008; Ngah et al. 2011).
Iron oxide nanoparticles have magnetic property and can react with a various
functional groups so that researchers approached toward modification of iron oxide
nanomaterials by incorporation of various functional groups. To accelerate iron
oxide nanoparticle stabilizer, electrostatic surfactant and steric polymers had been
used with non-specific moieties and group-specific or highly specific ligands.
Durability and sustainability of iron oxide colloid suspensions could be achieved by
surface modification through the implementation of suitable functional groups, such
as phosphoric acids, carboxylic acid, and amine (Liu et al. 2010). We know that the
in vitro modifications of nanomaterial are medium specific, and a series of the
medium can be needed to introduce functional groups in iron oxide nanoparticle.

For this, a robust protocol is needed to achieve alteration of nanomaterials. The iron
oxide nanomaterials are well dispersed even in industrial application. It should be
noted that the application of iron oxide nanomaterials is related to their intrinsic
properties, which depend on the preparation method and modification mediums
(Neyaz et al. 2014)
Selection of the best method and material for wastewater treatment is a highly
complex and tough task, considering a number of factors, such as the quality stan-
dards to be met and the efficiency as well as the cost. Therefore, the following four
criteria must be considered for preparation of nanomaterials on wastewater treat-
ment technologies: (1) treatment flexibility and final efficiency, (2) reuse of treat-
ment agents, (3) environmental security, and (4) low cost (Xu et al. 2012; Zhang
et al. 2013). Magnetism is a distinctive property that helps in water purification by
influencing the physical properties of contaminants in water. Therefore, for water
treatment and environmental clean-up adsorption procedure, the magnetic separa-
tion has been extensively used. At industrial level wastewater treatment, iron oxide
nanomaterials show promising results because of their low-cost, simple separation,
strong adsorption capacity, and increased stability. The ability of iron oxide nano-
materials to remove contaminants has been demonstrated at both laboratory and
field scale tests (Boparai et al. 2011). Current applications of iron oxide nanomateri-
als in contaminated water treatment can be divided into two groups: (a) technolo-
gies which use iron oxide NMs as a kind of nanosorbent or immobilization carrier
for removal efficiency enhancement (referred to here as adsorptive/immobilization
technologies) and (b) those which use iron oxide nanomaterials as photocatalysts to
break down or to convert contaminants into a less toxic form (i.e., photocatalytic
technologies) (Oliveira et al. 2003; Ponder et al. 2000). Water contamination with
heavy metals not only is a threat to the aquatic organisms but also causes severe
health disorder in humans by accumulation through precipitation and adsorption
and transferring through the food chain. The toxicities of heavy metals may be
caused by the inhibition and reduction of various enzymes, a complication with
certain ligands of amino acids and substitution of essential metal ions from enzymes
(Zhang et al. 2011; Oliveira et al. 2003).
2.2 TiO2 Nanoparticles
Titanium (Ti) is the seventh most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust with signifi-
cant worldwide reserves >600 million tons, with the annual production, approxi-
mately 4.3 million tons titanium dioxide (TiO2) (Wang et al. 2012). Ti has
multifarious industrial applications such as in metal alloying, in aerospace applica-
tions, and in biomedical devices (Ghaly et al. 2011). Food-grade TiO2 ranges in size
from tens to hundreds of nanometres; the typical mean diameter is proximately
200 nm. Approximately, 95% of mined Ti is refined to pure TiO2 by extraction of
Ti-bearing ores along with carbon, chlorine, oxygen, or sulfuric acid. In the current
period, a number of TiO2 nanoparticle aggregates are deployed (i.e., bulk TiO2 prod-
ucts), and industrial trends have been suggested that much higher amount of TiO2
will be deployed in the near future because of its inert nature, somewhat opaque,
and resist fading nature (Kiser et al. 2009). Active and passive depletion of con-
sumer products comprise of nanomaterials (e.g., food additives, pharmaceuticals,
and clothing) cause to excretion of engineered nanomaterials into domestic sewage
(Khin et al. 2012; Malato et al. 2009). A recent study presented the evidence of the
release of synthetic TiO2 nanoparticles from paints on building facades and mea-
sured a significant amount of TiO2 nanoparticles in urban runoff. Basically, three
kinds of nanoparticles (nano-TiO2 nanosilver, and carbon nanotube) have been stud-
ied, in which, nano-TiO2 in WWTP effluents (0.7–16 μg/L) were close to or higher
than the permissible level (1 μg/L) (Kiser et al. 2009; Lu et al. 2016).
Nanocrystalline titanium dioxide shows several activities. It is a photocatalyst
which works in water splitting to produce hydrogen fuel as energy catalyst and
behaves as an environmental catalyst for water and air purification or an electron
transport medium in dye-sensitized solar cells (Chong et al. 2010; Khin et al. 2012;
Pelaez et al. 2012). Water purification by nanocrystalline titanium dioxide worked
as an advanced oxidation process because of its high efficiency and eco-friendliness
with the ecosystem. Photocatalytic decomposition of wastewater by nanocrystalline
titanium dioxide is mainly carried by a series of hydroxylation reactions initiated by
hydroxyl radicals which attack the contaminant present in the wastewater, and water
get purified (Lu et al. 2009; VanGrieken et al. 2009). Scientists made efforts to
increase the photocatalytic activity of nanocrystalline titanium dioxide which
includes the synthesis of mesoporous titanium dioxide (Nakata et al. 2012; Wang
and Lewis 2005); the utilization of different morphologies of titanium dioxide such
as nanowires, nanotubes, and nanospheres (Sun et al. 2011); and surface treatments
of nanocrystalline titanium dioxide (Monllor-Satoca et al. 2011).
2.3 Silver Nanoparticles
The applications of silver nanoparticles are abundant during the recent periods. It is
also applied to an open wound and burn treatment along with wastewater treatment
(Pradeep 2009). The elementary studies exhibit that ~20 ppm silver colloidal solu-
tion (~30 nm diameter) in pure water circumscribed the 100% cure rate for malaria
(Politano et al. 2013). In the wastewater treatment, spherical aggregates of nanopar-
ticles (Pradeep 2009) able to form resin beads were usually employed. Ag and gold
nanoparticles had been widely used for detection of trace level of organic contami-
nants in view of their unique optical properties (Sajanlal and Pradeep 2008). Raman
spectra reveal the optical properties of silver nanostructures (Amin et al. 2014).
Several Ag/Pt, Au/Pt, or Ag/Au bimetallic nanoparticle-based electrodes were stud-
ied for contaminant sensing, monitoring, as well as photocatalysis (Kumari et al.
2015; Zhang et al. 2016). The biocidal activity of silver nanoparticles was deployed
in regard to water purification. The water inhabitable microorganisms like E. coli
become inactivated when reaching in the influence of Ag nanoparticles (Xiu et al.

2011). It has been shown that Ag nanoparticles provoke destruction to the cellular
membrane when it comes in direct contact of the microorganism (Morones et al.
2005). Ag nanoparticle is also used as a disinfectant for surgical masks and textile
fibers. Nanoparticles, derived from noble metals, were also exploited for photocata-
lytic degradation of several water pollutants such as pesticides, dyes, and haloge-
nated organic matters. These metals are able to act as electron sinks, inhibiting the
photo-generated e −/h + recombination, at the time of promotion of surface charge
separation (Pradeep 2009). A number of noble metal-based nanocomposites, e.g.,
Ag/ZnO and Pt/ZnO nanocomposites (Muñoz-Fernandez et al. 2016), Au-CuS-TiO2
nanobelts (Chen et al. 2016), and Ag/AgBr/graphene oxide nanocomposites
(Esmaeili and Entezari 2016), have been developed and exhibited upgraded photo-
catalytic performance against certain organic contaminants.
2.4 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
Carbon-based nanomaterials depend on various factors like size, length, chirality,

and the number of layers in the fullerene cage. The current fabrication techniques
for synthesis of carbon nanomaterial lacks complete exactness and uniformity
between growth conditions. To overcome these problems, scientists modified the
synthesis technique of carbon nanomaterial. The modification takes place in various
factors such as temperature, pressure, catalyst, purity, and physical orientation for
specific applications (Tofighy and Mohammadi 2011). There are various carbon-
based nanomaterials available which are used in wastewater treatment, e.g., acti-
vated carbon, graphene, carbon nanosorbent, and fullerene.
Activated carbon reduced the organic wastes and odor from water and wastewa-
ter treatment (Liu et al. 2012). Carbonaceous nanosorbents are also very effective in
wastewater treatment because toxicity has prevented in water. In 2005 Savage and
Diallo have proposed the incorporation of nanosorbents into traditional packed bed
reactors, but the details of the immobilization strategies have not been presented
(Savage and Diallo 2005). Several types of research show that nanosorbents have
used for the removal of specific contaminants such as trihalomethanes, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, or naphthalene (Chen 2004). Moreover, most of the litera-
ture focuses on the physical properties of nanomaterials and demonstrated that they
are dependent upon aggregation state and solvent chemistry. Various types of impu-
rities such as vapor, biomolecules, and metals adsorb to the surface of nanomaterials
and change the aggregation behavior and thermal and physicochemical properties
of the nanomaterials. Hence, it is necessary to resolve these problems for wide-
spread use of carbonaceous nanomaterials for wastewater treatment. To target the
low concentration contaminant and specific micropollutant, functionalized nanosor-
bents may provide an optimized approach for removal of this contaminant and
improve subsurface mobility (Lecoanet et al. 2004).
2.4.1 Classification of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
The classification of carbon-based nanomaterials (Yu et al. 2011) is mostly based on

their geometrical structures. Carbon nanostructures possess particles having tube-
shaped, horn-shaped, spherical, or ellipsoidal. On the basis of the shape, nanopar-
ticles having tube-like shape are called as carbon nanotubes; spheres or ellipsoids
belong to the set of fullerenes; and horn-shaped particles are called nanohorns (Das
et al. 2014). Carbon nanomaterials have been widely used technically as micro- and
nano-electronics, production matter of conductive plastics, gas storage, composites,
displays, textiles, antifouling paints, batteries with improved sturdiness, gas biosen-
sors, etc. (Ramnani et al. 2016).
Fullerenes
Fullerenes are an allotropic modification of carbon discovered by Kroto et al. (1985)

who were later awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1996. A number of atomic
Cn clusters (n > 20), constitutes from carbon atoms on a spherical surface, are con-
sidered as fullerene family (Pyrzyńska and Bystrzejewski 2010; Wang et al. 2012).
One of the best-inquiries of fullerenes is its C60 isoform also called as buckminster-
fullerenes (Das et al. 2014; Lam et al. 2006). A spherical molecule of a fullerene is
comprised of 60 carbon atoms that have great symmetry and are occupied with the
vertices of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons. The diameter of fullerene C60 is 0.7 nm
(Fu and Wang 2011). C60 is a powerful photocatalyst, used in wastewater treatment,
in UV and solar disinfection reactors, and in advanced oxidation process reactors. It
augmented the oxidative processes which destroy a variety of contaminant includ-
ing carcinogens and endocrine disruptors, simultaneously with disinfection
(Tsydenova et al. 2015).
Carbon Nanotubes and Surface-Modified Nanotube (CNT)
CNTs are one of the well-known carbon allotropes with unprecedented virtue rele-
vant for technical implications upon carbon-based nanomaterials. CNT was discov-
ered by the Japanese researcher Iijima (1991). CNTs are specified cylindrical
structures having a diameter of several nanometres, comprised of rolled graphene
sheets (Lam et al. 2006). It varies in diameter, length, chirality, as well as a number
of layers. Based on their structure, they can be classified into two main groups:
single-walled nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWCNTs) (Tasis
et al. 2006). Further a distinct class of CNTs had been introduced by some research-
ers as they have a different framework of double-walled carbon nanotubes
(DWCNTs) (Thostenson et al. 2001). Single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) are of
1–3 nm in diameter along with the length of a few micrometers, whereas multi-
walled CNTs hold a diameter of 5–40 nm and proximately 10 μm length (Bahgat
et al. 2011). CNTs structure prevails upon notable features amidst a privileged
composite of rigorousness, stability, and elasticity in comparison with other fibrous

materials (Kumar et al. 2014; Yu et al. 2011). For instance, in comparison to other
materials, CNTs exhibit considerably higher aspect ratios (length to diameter ratios)
and larger aspect ratios for SWCNTs as compared with MWCNTs due to their
smaller diameter (Pyrzyńska and Bystrzejewski 2010). On the other hand, CNTs
show high thermal and electrical conductivity in comparison with other conductive
materials (Thostenson et al. 2001).
CNTs have shown higher efficiencies for adsorption of bacteria and other micro-
organisms than other adsorbents such as granulated activated carbon (GAC) and
powdered activated carbon (PAC) which are used in the wastewater treatment pro-
cesses (Kang et al. 2008) Several studies reveal that pH level plays an important role
in removing heavy metals contaminant in wastewater through CNTs (Ye et al.
2007). One of the studies demonstrated the efficiency of removal of lead from water
can be augmented by optimizing the pH level. In the case of chromium contami-
nant, it was seen that by maintaining the pH higher than 4, it can efficiently remove
chromium from wastewater. This study deduced that CNTs can behave as an effec-
tive adsorbent for removal of heavy metals from wastewater by increasing the pH,
resulting in decreased protonation of the surface which increases the adsorption
capacity of CNTs (Addo Ntim and Mitra 2011). CNT membranes are considered as
a model water distillation tool. It consists of open-end single empty structure which
is settled upright with resistant filter media. CNT-based membrane shows several
advantages over CNTs such as these membranes are hard-like ceramic membrane
and soft-like polymeric membranes. The second major advantage of CNT mem-
brane is it permits fast infiltration of water. Scientist demonstrated that graphene
membrane produced more precise results than CNTs membranes (Das et al. 2014).
Nowadays, the detection of the pathogen in wastewater is a major challenge due to
the low quantity of some pollutants that are present in water and the high difficulty
of the wastewater mediums. Hence, advanced sensors technologies are used to
detect the pathogen in the wastewater. So, high discrimination and sensitivity, with
fast kinetics, are needed for sensing contaminant detection in wastewater (Savage
and Diallo 2005; Theron et al. 2008; Upadhyayula et al. 2009)
Graphene Nanoparticles
A two-dimensional allotropic form of carbon is known as graphene, constitutes of a

single layer of carbon atoms (Zhao et al. 2011). Graphene is a carbon allotrope like
graphite, carbon nanotubes, and fullerenes (Chen et al. 2012; Gao et al. 2012;
Georgakilas et al. 2012). From the ancient time period, the theoretical studies on
graphene began. The Canadian theoretical physicist P. R. Wallace first explored the
theory of graphene in 1947, while the first graphene samples were described 57 years
later (in 2004) by A. Geim (Dutch-British physicist) and K. Novoselov (Russian-
British physicist), awarded with a Nobel prize in 2010 (Allen et al. 2009) (Table 14.2).
Table 14.2 Potential applications, advantages and disadvantages of nanotechnology in the

wastewater treatment
Nanomaterials/
S.N. nano-objects Application Advantages Disadvantages
1. Carbon Contaminant Highly assessable High production
nanotubes preconcentration/detection, sorption sides, costs, possibly
adsorption of recalcitrant bactericidal, health risk
contaminants, ultralong reusable
carbon nanotubes with
extremely high specific salt
adsorption
2. Nanoadsorbents Point-of-use, removal of High specific High production
organics, heavy metals, surface, higher costs
bacteria adsorption rates,
small footprint
3. Membranes and All fields of water and Reliable, largely More energy
membrane wastewater treatment automated process demand
processes processes
4. Nanometals and Heavy metals (arsenic) and Short intraparticle Less reusable
nanometal oxides radionuclides removal, diffusion distance
media filters, slurry compressible,
reactors, powders, pellets abrasion-resistant,
magnetic
photocatalytic
5. Polymeric Expulsion of organics and Bifunctional (inner Complex multistage
nanoadsorbents substantial metals shell adsorbs production process
(dendrimers) biodegradable, organics, outer
biocompatible, nontoxic branches adsorb
bioadsorbent heavy metals),
reusable
6. Magnetic Forward osmosis, Simple recovery by Stabilization is
nanoparticles groundwater remediation magnetic field required
7. Nanosilver and Point-of-use water Bactericidal, low Nanosilver, limited
nano-TiO2 disinfection, anti-biofouling human toxicity durability nano-
surfaces, decontamination nano-TiO2: high TiO2 requires
of organic compounds, chemical stability, ultraviolet
remote areas, TiO2 very long life time activation
modification for activation
by visible light, TiO2
nanotubes
8. Zeolites Disinfection processes, Controlled release Reduced active
nanozeolites by laser- of nanosilver, surface through
induced fragmentation bactericidal immobilization of
nanosilver particles
(continued)
Nanomaterials/
S.N. nano-objects Application Advantages Disadvantages
9. Nanocomposite Highly dependent on the Increased Resistant bulk
membranes type of composite, e.g., hydrophilicity, material required
reverse osmosis, removal of water permeability, when using
micropollutants fouling resistance, oxidizing
Bionanocomposite and thermal/ nanomaterial,
membranes mechanical possibly release of
robustness nanoparticles
10. Nanofiber The filter cartridge, High porosity, Pore blocking,
membranes ultrafiltration, prefiltration, tailor-made, higher possibly release of
water treatment, stand- permeate nanofibers
alone filtration device efficiency,
Composite nanofiber bactericidal
membranes, bionanofiber
membranes
3 O
rganic Polymer Nanomaterials in Remediation
of Wastewater
3.1 Organic Polymer Nanomaterials
Hazardous and recalcitrant pollutants can be removed from the wastewater through
the process of adsorption, which is the most effective and simplest approach (Wan
et al. 2010). Activated carbon is used for the adsorption purpose, but it is highly
costly and didn’t adsorb the functional group. Therefore, organic polymers have
been used to the uptake of heavy metals. Organic nanosorbents having properties
such as large surface area and polyfunctional groups are highly rigid, and it is easily
regenerate under the mild condition (Jain et al. 2018). The large surface area of nano-
sorbents provides a good contact between the solid sorbent and metal ions. On the
other hand poly functional groups provide a large number of active sites for the
adsorption reaction (Huang et al. 2011). Polyphenylenediamine, organic polymers,
have polyfunctional groups such as amino and imino groups which can effectively
adsorb the heavy metal ions. However, due to their relative small specific area, their
adsorption rate is slow (Huang et al. 2011). In 2006, Huang et al. reported that poly
(p-phenylenediamine) (PpPD) and poly(m-phenylenediamine) (PmPD) were directly
synthesized by a facile oxidative precipitation polymerization and their strong ability
adsorbs lead ions from aqueous solution (Huang et al. 2006). The strong adsorption
of the lead ion on the microparticles makes them suitable adsorbents candidate for
wastewater treatment. Some thiol-functionalized mesoporous silica microspheres
showed the behavior in mercury ion adsorption (Bibby and Mercier 2002), while
humic acid (HA)-coated Fe3O4 nanoparticles (Fe3O4/HA) were developed for the
removal of toxic Hg, Pb, Cd, and Cu from water (Liu et al. 2014). In 2010, Liu et al.
documented that new hybrid polymers were prepared from the ring-opening
polymerization of pyromellitic acid dianhydride (PMDA) and phenylaminomethyl-

trimethoxysilane (PAMTMS) and are capable for the removal of Pb (II) ions from
Pb(II)/Cu(II)-mixed aqueous solution and can be applied to separate and recover the
heavy metal ions from contaminated wastewater (Liu et al. 2010). In 2010, Cai et al.
reported an efficient method for synthesis of poly (acrylic acid) stabilized amor-
phous calcium carbonate nanoparticles (ACC) and their application for removal of
toxic heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. The maximum removal capacities
for Cd, Pb, Cr, Fe, and Ni ions were found to be 514.62, 1028.21, 258.85, 320.5, and
537.2 mg g−1, respectively. The unique characteristic of the ACC nanoparticles in
wastewater treatment involves not only high removal capacities but also decontami-
nation of trace ions (Cai et al. 2010). Zhang et al. (2013) demonstrated that thiol-
modified Fe3O4-SiO2 as a robust, highly effective, and recycling magnetic sorbent for
Hg removal. In 2013, Wang and their coworker developed the rhodamine hydrazide-
modifying Fe3O4 microspheres (Fe3O4-R6G) for detection and removal of mercury
(Hg) from wastewater. The maximum adsorption capacity of the Fe3O4-R6G for Hg
was 37.4 mol g−1 (Huang and Chen 2009; Zhang et al. 2013). In 2016, Chen and their
coworker prepared the magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (MNP) coated with 3-amino-
propyltriethoxy-silane (APTES), and magnetic absorbent was formed (Fe3O4.SiO2-
NH-HCGs) by grafting of different heterocyclic groups (HCG) on amino groups
through the substitution reaction. This magnetic absorbent was used for the removal
of heavy metal cations such as Cu, Hg, Pb, and Cd. Results showed that 96% heavy
metals were removed from the wastewater within 20 min at normal temperature and
have good stability and reusability (Chen et al. 2016). Mahdavian et al. developed
magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles by modification with APTES and acryloyl chlo-
ride (AC). Further, the surface of these nanoparticles was modified by graft polym-
erization with acrylic acid. Then the grafted magnetite nanoparticles were used for
separation of heavy metal cations such as Cd, Pb, Ni, and Cu from the wastewater.
Huang et al. (2011) reported that poly (5-sulfo-1-aminoanthraquinone) nanoparticles
were synthesized by a chemical oxidative polymerization of 5-sulfo-1aminoanthra-
quinone. In particular, a large amount of—SO3− —NH2/—NH—/—N=/=O groups
are added which shows high specific area with fast and strong adsorb ability toward
heavy metal ions from the wastewater (Mahdavian and Mirrahimi 2010).
3.2 Organic Polymer-Supported Nanocomposites
Wang et al. (2011) prepared a multifunctional inorganic−organic hybrid nanomate-

rial (MMS−Py) by immobilization of a pyrene-based receptor (Py) within the chan-
nels of magnetic mesoporous silica nanocomposites (MMS) which is used for the
removal of Hg ions from the wastewater. Polymer-layered silicate nanocomposites
made nanocomposite material catching the attention of both academic and indus-
tries because they exhibit dramatic improvement at very low filler contents (Pavlidou
and Papaspyrides 2008). Eisazadeh (2007) demonstrated the polyaniline (PAn) and
its nanocomposites for the removal of Cr ions from wastewater. Huang et al. (2014)
reported that conjugated polymers based nanocomposites for polyaniline (PAn),

polypyrrole (PPy), and polythiophene (PT) have been widely used in wastewater
purification. Poly (N-ethylaniline)/chitosan composite exhibited the highest removal
ability to Cr (229.8 mg/g) from wastewater. However, other conjugated polymers
such as polyacetylenes, poly(phenylenevinylene) (PPV), poly(p-phenylene) (PPP),
etc. may also be applied as composites in wastewater treatment, but due to the
absence of heteroatom for the functional group, their practical applications are not
reported till date (Huang et al. 2014).
4 P
atented Products of Nanomaterials for Purification
of Water
There are various patented product of nanomaterials that are present such as waste-
water treatment method and wastewater treatment apparatus invented by Yamasaki
et al. (2007) (Table 14.3).
5 Conclusions
In a current scenario, there is a significant need for advanced water technologies to

ensure a high quality of water, elimination of chemical, and biological pollutants
and intensify industrial production processes of wastewater. The universal solvent
water is one the most crucial for all living organisms exist on Earth. Contaminated
water is the major challenge of the current era, and there are several reasons which
are responsible for water contamination. The contaminants contain undesired sub-
stances such as microorganisms and unnecessary elements, as well as chemicals,
that leads to water pollution and water becomes unsafe for all purposes. Untreated
water creates a great threat to living beings and the environment. In this regard,
nanotechnology is one of the ideal technologies to advance wastewater treatment
processes. Various nanomaterials have been developed and investigated success-
fully for wastewater treatment. Nanotechnology has a significant prospective in
magnifying water quality by wastewater management as it profound potential
supremacy such as cost-effective, reiterate, and highly proficient in expelling and
recuperating the pollutants. The efficiency of nanomaterials as anti-pollutant is due
to its size in nano-range which makes it worth working as it has a large surface to
volume ratio, high reactivity, rapid dissolution, and high adsorption. For the devel-
opment of antimicrobial nanomaterials, knowledge of biotechnology is employed
for removal of microbes from water. Moreover, further work is required on develop-
ing cost-effective methods of synthesizing nanomaterials and testing the efficiency
of nanomaterials at large scale for successful field application on purification of
wastewater treatments.
Table 14.3 Some examples of patented products of nonmaterial for the purification of water
Claimed title/patent Nanomaterials claimed
S.N. name Patent No. activity Inventers
1. Wastewater US Micro-nano, Yamasaki et al.
treatment method 20070068869 nanomaterials used to (2007)
and wastewater decompose organic
treatment apparatus compound and
microorganism
2. Process for US Nanomaterial used such Gao et al. (2003)
biochemical 20030010712 as carbon black to induce
treatment of micropores to degrade
wastewater using organic pollutants and
nanomaterials enhance the effect of
biological cleaning of
wastewater
3. Drinking water US20070175196 Nano-alumina fibers Tepper and Kaledin
filtration device shows antimicrobial for (2008)
sterilization of retained
microbes for purifying
drinking water
4. Water treatment by US20080185341 Cation-binding Diallo (2008)
dendrimer enhanced dendrimers, anion-
filtration binding dendrimers, and
organic compound-
binding dendrimers used
in filtration of wastewater
5. Adsorption filter US20060123991 An adsorption activated Braeunling et al.
carbon particles used as (2006)
simple and cost-effective
filters
6. Reduced graphene US20130240439 A nanocomposite is Pradeep et al. (2013)
oxide-based- disclosed comprising
composites for the reduced graphene oxide
purification of water (RGO) an adsorbent
comprising the
nanocomposite and an
adsorbent comprising the
nanocomposite bound to
silica by using chitosan
7. Portable drinking US20100102002 Activated carbon or O’Brien et al. (2013)
water purification nano-filter in portable
device water chamber and
having a very small pore
size
8. Purification of fluids US Nanostructured material Cooper et al. (2008)
with nanomaterials 20080041791 carbon nanotubes
(continued)
Claimed title/patent Nanomaterials claimed
S.N. name Patent No. activity Inventers
9. Water purification US20170203244 A water purification Chen et al. (2017)
device device includes a heavy
metal removal layer
configured to remove
heavy metal ions and
perfluorinated
compounds from
contaminated water
10. Method for US A biological treatment Fujishima and Kurita
biological disposal 20090277832 method and device for Water Industries Ltd
of organic organic wastewater, (2009)
wastewater and whereby the amount of
biological disposal minute organisms which
apparatus reduce the amount of
excess sludge
11. Water purification US Purify and filter water, Badger (2006)
and disinfection 20060151393 particularly brackish
device and method water, so that it is made
potable. The system
includes the use of
physical and chemical
treatment means,
including carbon, reverse
osmosis, and
antimicrobial media
12. Double chamber US 8425771 A portable device for O’Brien et al. (2013)
water purification filtering and purifying
device water comprised of an
outer chamber and an
inner chamber that is
activated carbon bed,
removing any remaining
contaminants before the
potable water exits
through a mouthpiece
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Restauración Del Ecosistema de Humedales PDF

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Atul Kumar Upadhyay · Ranjan Singh

ISBN 978-981-13-7664-1 ISBN 978-981-13-7665-8 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Atul Kumar Upadhyay

1 Restoration, Construction, and Conservation of Degrading

7 Microbes Biology: Microbes in Wetland

About the Editors

Atul Kumar Upadhyay is a scholar in the field of environmental science. He com-

Amrik S. Ahluwalia Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

Mukesh Kumar University Sophisticated Instrumentation Centre, Babasaheb

Avinash Singh Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical

Atul Kumar Upadhyay Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb

Ibha Suhani, Monika, Barkha Vaish, Pooja Singh, and Rajeev Pratap Singh

Keywords Wetland · Wastewater · Constructed wetland · Sustainability ·

I. Suhani · Monika · B. Vaish · R. P. Singh (*)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

1.1 Wetland Type (Ramsar Convention)

Table 1.1 Wetland type and their description

Rivers and Deltas

Wetlands in dry regions

• Characterised by seasonal rainfall.

High altitude wetlands

Shallow lakes and ponds

• Areas of permanent or semi-permanent water with little flow.

• Almost all water in bogs comes from rainfall

Marshes and Swamps

Recommendation 4.7 and amended by Resolutions VI.5 and VII.11 of the

2.1 Himalayan Wetlands

Table 1.2 Classification of wetlands

• Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline • Seasonal/intermittent • Permanent saline/brackish/alkaline • Seasonal/intermittent • Permanent freshwater marshes/pools;

Adapted from Plans et al. (2009)

2.2 Indo-Gangetic Wetlands

2.3 Coastal Wetlands

Wetlands have significant socioeconomic importance like wildlife resource, tour-

3.1 Water Quality

3.2 Flood Control

3.3 Wildlife Habitat

3.4 Recreation, Education, and Resources

4 Growing Threat to Wetland Ecosystem

5 Strategies of Restoration and Conservation

5.1 Use of GIS and Remote Sensing in Wetland Management

Remote sensing data accomplished with geographic information system (GIS) is a

5.2 Specific Techniques for Conservation

Wetland restoration technique involves modification in hydric soil condition, hydro-

6 Preparation Needed Before Starting a Restoration Project

Before beginning a restoration project, pre-preparation step should be needed enlist-

Generally, for treating wastewater, constructed and engineered wetlands are

Atul Kumar Upadhyay, Ranjan Singh, and D. P. Singh

Abstract Phytoremediation is a green strategy of environmental decontamination

Keywords Phytoremediation · Sustainable development goal · Environmental

A. K. Upadhyay (*) · R. Singh · D. P. Singh

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 17

combined interactions of physical, chemical, and biological processes occurred

2 Phytoremediation and Sustainable Development

2.1 Sustainable Development Goal: Practices/Policies

In sustainable development, the major practices to be emphasized are waste man-

3 Basic Practices of Sustainable Development

3.1 Waste Management and Policies

Waste management is the process of reducing contaminants present in wastewater

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Atul Kumar Upadhyay

1 Restoration, Construction, and Conservation of Degrading

7 Microbes Biology: Microbes in Wetland

1.1 Wetland Type (Ramsar Convention)

2.1 Himalayan Wetlands

2.2 Indo-Gangetic Wetlands

2.3 Coastal Wetlands

3.1 Water Quality

3.2 Flood Control

3.3 Wildlife Habitat

3.4 Recreation, Education, and Resources

4 Growing Threat to Wetland Ecosystem

5 Strategies of Restoration and Conservation

5.1 Use of GIS and Remote Sensing in Wetland Management

5.2 Specific Techniques for Conservation

6 Preparation Needed Before Starting a Restoration Project

2 Phytoremediation and Sustainable Development

2.1 Sustainable Development Goal: Practices/Policies

3 Basic Practices of Sustainable Development

3.1 Waste Management and Policies

3.2 Biodiversity, Species Richness, and Policies

3.3 Sustainable Energy Recovery

3.4 Climate Change and Phytoremediation

3.5 Phytoremediation and Society

4 Conclusions and Future Prospects

2 Wetland: Ecology and Types of Wetland

3.1 Acute Wetland Losses

3.1.2 Direct Deforestation in Wetlands

3.1.3 Hydrologic Alteration

3.1.4 Inundation by Reservoirs

3.2 Chronic Wetland Losses

3.2.1 Change in Upper Watersheds

3.2.2 Degradation of Water Quality

3.2.3 Groundwater Depletion

3.2.4 Introduced Species and Extinction of Native Biota

2 I ncreasing Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, Its Impacts,

2.1 Mitigation Techniques

3 Carbon Sequestration in Wetlands

3.1 Forms of Carbon in Wetlands

3.2 Factors Affecting Carbon Sequestration in Wetland

3.2.1 Substrate Availability

3.2.2 Temperature and Oxygen

3.2.3 Global Change Scenarios

3.2.4 Carbon Export

4 Methane Emissions from Wetlands

5 Climate Change Feedbacks

7 Knowledge Gaps and Future Directions

1.1 Wetlands and Methane Emissions

2.1.1 Methanogens in Paddy Soil

2.1.3 Factors Affecting Methane Production

2.2.1 Methanotrophy in Paddy Soil

2.2.2 Factors Affecting Methanotrophs Activity

3 Mechanistic Pathways of Methane Emission

4 Adaptive Measures Controlling CH4 Emission