Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670

www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Surface expressions of the Ghawar structure, Saudi Arabia

Salih Saner*, Khattab Al-Hinai, Dogan Perincek
The Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Received 27 May 2004; received in revised form 5 December 2004; accepted 10 December 2004

Abstract
The Ghawar anticline is approximately 225-km long and 25-km wide in the subsurface, but the surface structural expression is not obvious.
Identifying subtle structural imprints in the young Mio-Pliocene sedimentary cover is therefore of great importance in developing a structural
growth model for the Ghawar field.
The Ghawar area, between the Jafurah sand desert to the east and the Rubayda (Dahna) sand deserts to the west, is characterized by a
rougher topography when compared to the surrounding, rather smooth, flat areas. This rough geomorphology of the structure can also be
noticed on the satellite images. A geomorphologic elevation map of the area and a subsurface structural contour map of the top Arab-D
(Upper Jurassic) reservoir reveal very similar geometric shapes.
Calcareous sandstone deposits of the youngest Hofuf formation (Mio-Pliocene) cap the structural highs along the axis of the anticline and
spectacular fractures, caves, mesas, and monumental geomorphologic features have developed in the escarpments. Fractures in the Dam
formation (Middle Miocene) are not as conspicuous as in the Hofuf formation, but indigenous fractures are clearly recognized in this
formation. A match between the directions of some topographic lineaments and projected surface traces of subsurface faults from seismic
cross sections can be observed. However, at the field locations, faults have yet to be defined on the surface.
Surface indications suggest that the structure has been active until the present day. Elevations of a bedding plane on the Shedgum plateau
reveal a 0.258 dip angle, which cannot be distinguished on the surface by the human eye. The movements that occurred during the 4 million
years since the Pliocene period reveal an average tilting of 0.068 per one million years.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction manifestations. The N–S trending Kuwait Arch is a

basement horst with about 100 m of topographic expression
The Ghawar field, the largest oil field in the world, is a (Carman, 1996). The Dammam structure, the first oil
structural trap in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia discovery of Saudi Arabia, is a salt dome where distinctive
(Fig. 1). Approximately 25 km wide and 225 km long circular Eocene age rocks are cropping out through the
Ghawar anticline forms the southern part of the 400 km long surrounding Quaternary desert sand and sabkha deposits
En Nala uplift axis which was first identified by Steineke (Tleel, 1973; Weijermars, 1999).
and Kock in 1935 during surface mapping in the area Previous studies suggested that the Ghawar structure
(Arabian American Oil Company Staff, 1959). The En Nala was initiated in the Jurassic and remained active during
and some other parallel arches are believed to be basement the deposition of Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments
uplifts reactivated since the Precambrian (Ayres et al., (Arabian American Oil Company Staff, 1959; Ibrahim et
1982), whereas some oilfield structures are of salt doming al., 1981). Plate movements and related tectonic stresses
origin (Edgell, 1991). Basement uplifts and salt domes in prevalent during Hercynian and Alpine orogenesis stages
this region are differentiated with positive and negative appear to be responsible for structural developments
gravity anomalies, respectively (Edgell, 1992). Regardless (Billo, 1983; Akbar and Sapru, 1994; Grabowski and
of their origins, some structures may exhibit surface Norton, 1995; Hooper et al., 1995; Marzouk and El Sattar,
1995). Wender et al. (1998) highlighted four stages of trap
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C966 3 860 3872; fax: C966 3 860 3685. development in the Ghawar field: (1) Carboniferous
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Saner). (Hercynian), (2) Early Triassic (Zagros Rifting), (3) Late
0264-8172/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Cretaceous (Early Alpine Orogeny), and (4) Tertiary (Late
doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.12.006 Alpine Orogeny).
658 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670

N
ZA
GR 0 50 100 km
OS
CR
IRAN US
IRAQ Za H
ZO
Basra gr NE
os
Fo
Shiraz re
KUWAIT la
nd
Kuwait
R

En Nala Axis

Jubail
u
b
a

Qatif
y

Fadhili
d
a

Dammam
ARABIAN
D

Abqaiq
e
s

GULF
e

Jaf
rt

BAHRAIN
Shedgum Doha
ura

Plateau
Khuraish GHAWAR
Hofuf
h D

(Al Hassa) QATAR

Abu Dhabi
Riyadh
es
ert

Haradh
SAUDI
UNITED ARAB
ARABIA
EMIRATES

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of the Ghawar oil field and Zagros tectonic belt in the Arabian Gulf area.

Ghawar structure is recognizable from satellite images 2. Stratigraphy

(Halbouty, 1980). This is the evidence of Late Tertiary
tectonic activity deforming the young sedimentary cover. The Ghawar field and adjacent areas are covered by
Therefore, structural traces are expected to be apparent in mainly Miocene and Pliocene age sedimentary rocks
the surface formations of Mio-Pliocene age. Study of (Fig. 2). Dam and Hofuf are the only formations cropping
surface structural elements provides important information out in the area. A lithological columnar section for these two
for interpreting the subsurface structural model and formations is shown in Fig. 3.
development. Extrapolation of outcrop fracture data to
subsurface was applied successfully in some oil fields 2.1. Dam formation (Middle Miocene)
elsewhere (Mercadier and Makel, 1991).
The aim of the surface studies in the Ghawar area is to The Dam formation crops out in the eastern and southern
investigate structural features cropping out in the field, to areas of the Ghawar field where relatively deep erosion has
establish a correlation between the surface and subsurface taken place. Well exposed sections are seen in quarries which
structural features, and to produce information helpful in provide material for the manufacture of cement in the area
developing new structural models of the multi-reservoir (Fig. 4A). The Dam formation mainly consists of light gray
zones for the field. limestone and marl approximately 90 m thick. A marly upper
 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670 659

THICKNESS (m)

LITHOLOGY
AGE FORMATION DESCRIPTION

QUATERNARY Sand, silt, and gravel

KHARJ 28 Lacustrine limestone, gypsum, gravel

95
HOFUF
Calcareous massive sandstone, marl

MIO-PLIOCENE

DAM 91
Limestone and marl

HADRUKH 84 Sandstone, limestone

EOCENE DAMMAM 33 Limestone, dolomite, marl

Fig. 2. Generalized stratigraphic column of the Mio-Pliocene sequence in the Ghawar area (after Powers et al., 1966).

interval forms a peculiar hummocky geomorphology, which oasis. Outcrops along the western side of the Abqaiq-
resembles marl heaps covering the area (Fig. 4B). Commonly Haradh road are well exposed. Loose sandy and muddy
these heaps are capped by a thin duricrust. Stromatolitic algal lithologies are generally capped by duricrusts, which slow
growths, molluscan, pelletoidal and foraminiferal calcar- down erosion. In the lower 19 m interval, a conglomerate
enites and argillaceous limestones are the principal carbonate contains quartz, various igneous rock fragments, and
facies identified within the formation. metamorphic materials originated from the basement
The Dam formation conformably overlies the early complex of the Arabian Shield, and limestone gravels
Miocene age Hadrukh Sandstone. In the absence of the from Paleozoic—Mesozoic formations (Fig. 4C). Today
Hadruk, it lies unconformably on Eocene age Rus and gravel-covered plains are mostly formed as a result of desert
Dammam formations (Al-Sayari and Zotl, 1978). The Dam erosion of the Hofuf formation, where the heavier
formation represents a marine transgression extending constituents remained as residual or lag gravels. Above
120 km inland from the present coastline to the northern the conglomerate is an 18-m thick yellowish, calcareous,
end of the Ghawar structure depositing pinnacle reefs on the massive sandstone which forms prominent ledges, cliffs,
higher parts, calcarenites in surrounding high-energy areas monumental features, and caves (Fig. 4D). The yellowish
and muds in quiet lagoons. To the west of this paleo- massive sandstone interval is succeeded by a 49-m thick
coastline, a continental sequence was deposited equivalent fluvial sequence. Alternating light gray meandering river
of the Dam and Hofuf formations (Powers et al., 1966). channel sandstone and red mudstone (flood plain deposits)
are recognized in the fluvial sequence (Fig. 4E). The
2.2. Hofuf formation (Mio-Pliocene) uppermost 9 m interval of the Hofuf formation is blocky and
nodular, heterogeneous sandy limestone (Fig. 4F). This
The Hofuf formation (approximately 95 m thick) forms nodular zone was described as a conglomerate sequence in
the plateaus and mesas to the west-northwest of Al-Hassa previous studies, and based on Lymneae and Chara fossils,
660 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670

Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphic sequence of the Hofuf and Dam formations (modified after Powers et al., 1966; Al-Sayari and Zotl, 1978).

either a Late Miocene or Pliocene age was given (Powers et natural scenery. To the east of this field, one of the largest
al., 1966). oases in the world, the famous Al-Hassa oasis, extends from
A gradual transition from the Dam formation to the the Ghawar highlands eastward to the Al Jafurah sand desert
Hofuf formation can be observed locally (Fig. 5A). where karst springs give life to the oasis. The elevation of
However, in some localities the Hofuf formation starts this oasis is around 130–160 m above sea level rising to
with incised channel sandstones on the Dam formation 290 m on the Shedgum Plateau.
(Fig. 5B). These contact relations indicate a contemporary An escarpment extends for 150 km between Abqaiq and
deposition of carbonates and deltaic clastics within the Haradh, where small isolated wadis eroded into the scarp
basin. Highly calcareous (50%) sandstone is further (less than 500 m long) have no connection with larger wadi
evidence of a predominantly calcareous basin. systems. These features are recorded as genuine evidence of
the marine origin of the escarpment by Al-Sayari and Zotl
(1978). A marine transgression during the Plio-Pleistocene
3. Geomorphology reached to this region and played an important role in
formation of scarps and caves in the area.
The Ghawar oil field is characterized by a rough The extent of the marine transgression during the Plio-
topography when compared to the surrounding rather Pleistocene coincides with that of the Middle Miocene
smooth flat areas called the Jafurah sand desert to the east, transgression which is marked by the marine sediments of the
and the Rubayda (Dahna) sand deserts to the west. In the Dam formation (Powers et al., 1966). The locality of these
northern and northeastern part of the Ghawar field, two coastlines seems to be connected with the position of the
escarpments, caves, mesas, and plateaus form beautiful Ghawar anticline, which runs parallel to the escarpment.
 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670 661

Fig. 4. Lithological properties of the Dam and Hofuf formations: (A) a fresh outcrop of the Dam limestone in a quarry and a crossing mineralized natural
fracture; (B) typical hummocky morphology of the Dam Formation is resulted by alteration and erosion of the upper marly interval; (C) a fining upward
lenticular conglomerate forms the lowermost interval of the Hofuf formation; (D) yellowish calcareous massive sandstone interval of the Hofuf formation is
prominent with ledges, scarps and monumental geomorphologic features; (E) red mudstone—sandstone interval of the Hofuf formation contains meandering
river channels, red flood plain siltstones and some mud cracks, which are evidences for fluvial deposition; (F) the top-most limestone interval of the Hofuf
formation has blocky or nodular appearance that obliterates textural properties.

The uplift of the anticline probably formed a barrier to the geological aspects in the vicinity of Jabal Al-Qarah caves.
transgression front along this line. Erosion of the horizontally bedded Hofuf formation created
NW or NNW trending joint systems at Jabal Al Qarah extensive geomorphologic features in the area (Fig. 5).
have been exploited by wave-cut gorges. The caves of By contrast, the flat lying Shedgum plateau, shows a
marine origin were later modified by fluviatile erosion distinct absence of well-defined stream channels over its
(Al-Sayari and Zotl, 1978). The cave, Ghar An Nasab, at the interior. The presence of broad, shallow sinkholes and the
eastern side of Jabal Al-Qarah is more than 1.5 km long, has permeability of the underlying rocks suggest that alteration
developed along mainly rectangular crossing joints and due to infiltration is far more important than run-off erosion.
shows many branches. Hussain et al. (2001) studied general Capillary water in a prevailing warm and semiarid climate
662 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670

Fig. 5. Geomorphic features in the Ghawar area: (A) mesa hills represent uneroded Hofuf formation sitting on the Dam formation with a gradual contact; (B) a
steep scarp displaying a channel sandstone in the Hofuf formation, which is incised in the Dam formation; (C) monumental geomorphic feature formed by
uneroded Hofuf formation horizontal beds; (D) mushroom shaped Hofuf outcrop topped by a duricrust and display radial fractures on sides; (E) a monumental
block standing upright after a severe wind erosion in the desert conditions; (F) a cave developed along a fracture in the Hofuf formation.

developed a massive carbonate-enriched duricrust that Work by the Arabian American Oil Company Staff
retards the surface erosion. (1959) showed a predominance of carbonate rocks in the
Mio-Pliocene over the En Nala axis, and deposition of
softer marly rocks on the flanks. This has resulted in
4. Comparison of topographic and structural maps topographically low features such as Wadi Faruq on the
west, and gravel plains on the east, which are assumed to
Today an almost horizontal Mio-Pliocene Hofuf for- have resulted from more rapid erosion of the softer rocks
mation exists on the structural highs, but it is eroded in the in the synclinal areas. However, here in this study we
structural low areas. This reveals a pattern which is contrary have observed that the carbonate rocks on structural highs
to conventional folds where the youngest formations are and softer rocks on flanks, do not belong to the same
normally eroded on anticlines but preserved in the time-stratigraphic unit. Soft rocks to the east are mainly
synclines. Middle Miocene age (Dam formation), whereas hard rocks
 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670 663

AIN
DAR

SHEDGUM

UTHMANIYAH

HAWIYAH

HARADH

Fig. 6. A topographic map (left) and a top Arab-D structure map (right) of the Ghawar field (after Arabian American Oil Co. Staff, 1959) show a marked
resemblance, which indicates active growth during post-Pliocene times.

on structural highs are Mio-Pliocene age (Hofuf More effective erosion in synclines than anticlines formed
formation). a surface topography, which resembles the subsurface
The Hofuf formation forms prominent mesa hills about structural maps of the field. High-resolution elevation data
25 km to the east of the Ghawar oil field, such as in measured during 3-D seismic survey was used to construct a
the town of Hofuf. Erosion is more extensive in the detailed topographic contour map of the area. This map and a
structurally lower areas than the higher areas along the subsurface structural contour map of the Arab-D reservoir
crest of the anticline. The observation of more extensive are shown in Fig. 6. A comparison of the two maps provides
erosion in synclines than anticlines may conflicts with the an evidence that the structure is active until the present day.
general expectation for geographic locations where water-
runoff erosion is of concern. However, wind erosion is the
dominant erosion mechanism in the Ghawar desert 5. Shedgum surface anticline
conditions and it is more effective in the areas where
rock weathering is widespread. Rainwater infiltrating in The Shedgum plateau is surrounded by escarpments of
the porous and permeable Hofuf formation starts flowing the Hofuf formation except in the north, where the slope is
laterally towards synclines, when reaches to underlying gradual. The uppermost limestone unit of the Hofuf form-
impermeable marls of the Dam formation. Seasonal water ation forms the topographic surface of the plateau
accumulation is probably the cause of weathering in (Fig. 7). This resistant unit resembles a turtle back and
synclines and wind transport of disintegrated grains is the protects the area from erosion. The bedding plane and the
cause of erosion. Rocks at higher elevations remained un- topographic surface both appear horizontal. However,
eroded, because of less weathering effect of infiltrating elevations on the plateau indicate a water-divide extending
water. NNE-SSW, which agrees with the subsurface structural axis
664 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670

Fig. 7. An East–West schematic cross-section across Shedgum plateau showing structure, lithology, and geomorphologic relations of the Hofuf formation.

(Fig. 8). Elevations on E–W cross sections reveal a 0.258 Halsey also incorporated lineament orientations in his
slope, which cannot be distinguished by human eye on the interpretations, and he pointed out that the Haradh-
surface. This is further evidence of structural growth Dammam area shows strong peaks in the NNW sector.
continuing until the present day.
A 0.258 dip angle of the Pliocene bedding reveals 6.1. Hofuf formation fractures
approximately 0.068 tilting for each one million year.
Based on this estimation, Jurassic beds (150 million years) Since fractures in the Hofuf formation are particularly
are expected to have 98 dip in the subsurface. In fact, the slope well developed, a fracture survey in the area was undertaken
of the structural flanks at Arab-D level is about 5–88, reaching to determine fracture orientations with respect to the
a maximum of 108 in some places. In this case, a constant Ghawar structural trend and contribute additional data to
uplift rate has been assumed. However, varying rates of the structural model of the Ghawar field.
structural growth are suggested by truncation of some In the escarpments of the massive yellowish calcareous
sediments, which indicate episodes of more rapid uplifting. sandstone interval of the Hofuf formation, about 10–20 m
high fractures are spaced at 15 m intervals. Subsequent
weathering and erosion caused large openings and even
6. Surface fractures cavings (Fig. 5F). Al-Sayari and Zotl (1978) explained the
enlargements and cave developments as a result of sea-wave
Anticlines contain a complex pattern of joints, but erosion and salt water weathering during the Plio-Pleistocene
usually there are two dominant directions of extensional transgression. Vertically less continuous layer-dependent
jointing. One set is nearly parallel to the axis of the fractures are also seen where layering is apparent. Usually
structure (axial joints); the other set is at right angles to the these secondary layers are 0.7–1 m thick, and joint spacing
axis (cross-axial joints). These orthogonal joints are present transecting these beds is around 1 m. Fracture orientations
in all anticlines, even those with very low amplitude. Unlike usually indicate the existence of two sets of joints. Some
drag folds, compressional folds usually contain conjugate highlights regarding the Hofuf fractures are as follows:
shear joints, especially on the flanks of the structure.
General geometrical fracture characteristics in the Middle † Fractures are not seen in the western escarpments of
Eastern oil fields were defined by Nurmi et al. (1993). In our the Shedgum plateau because erosion is not deep
study, orientations and other deterministic features of the enough to reach to the massive calcareous sandstone
surface fractures in the Ghawar field were measured to interval (Fig. 7).
interpret their origin and development mechanisms. † Fracture directions in the Hofuf formation outcrops are
Spectacular fractures and monumental geomorphologic inconsistent, and not proper for establishing a meaningful
features have been developed in the Hofuf escarpments. For fracture pattern. Although two sets of joints are dis-
example, the famous Jabel al Qarah caves, which are tinguishable in each outcrop in the Ghawar field, no
attractive tourist locations in the area, are developed along agreement was observed even between orientations of
such NE and NW trending joints and fractures. Geologists joints measured at proximal outcrops.
find these caves ideal for fracture distribution analysis to † Most fractures perpendicular to the outcrop surface
interpret tectonic stress directions. Al-Sayari and Zotl, 1978 penetrate the outcrop 5–10 m deep, but do not continue
recorded that the most prominent joint set strikes northwest, further. Fracture opening decreases with depth. Weath-
and another less prominent set strikes northeast. Halsey, 1980 ering, drying and shrinkage are possible causes of these
also measured two sets offractures in the Hofufformation and fractures. Around a mesa hill in Fig. 9A, fracture
related them with the SW trending Zagros stress. directions impart a radial scatter in a rose diagram.
 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670 665

Fig. 8. Topographic map of the Shedgum plateau. Plateau surface corresponds to a bedding plane, and elevation contours on the plateau also represent the
stratum contours of a structural map.

† There are many cubic blocks along scarps moved away displacement along the fractures was observed. Their
from the main outcrop body on a slippery material of the orientations usually indicate the existence of two sets of
upper Dam formation. Fractures limiting these blocks are joints. Although they are mostly open, occasional calcite or
extensional due to gravity sliding (Fig. 9B), and difficult to gypsum-filled fractures were also encountered. Indigenous
differentiate from those formed structurally. tectonic fractures measured at a fresh road-cut indicated two
† Erosion of material along fractures formed tall upright main sets, one trending N98E and the other showing a
standing pillars or mushroom shaped remnants. N778W direction (Fig. 10).
Radial extensional fractures are very common in pillars
due to uniaxial load of the overlying beds (Fig. 5D).
6.2. Dam formation fractures
In general, fractures observed in the Hofuf formation are
planar or slightly irregular, but at the same time many of Fractures observed in the Dam formation are less
them are very irregular due to erosion and caving. No block conspicuous than those developed in the Hofuf formation.
666 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670

Fig. 9. Nontectonic fractures: (A) fractures developed perpendicular to outcrop surface in Hofuf formation are apparent at the ledges and diminish inward, they
change direction as scarp direction changes; (B) fracturing due to gravity sliding on marly surface in the Hofuf formation; (C) radial fractures on a marl mass
caused by a heave effect of swelling clayey material underneath the duricrust surface; (D) temperature origin multidirectional fractures.

Compared to Hofuf formation fractures, the Dam formation differentiate and to analyze dominant, crossing, and oblique
fractures are indigenous joints, which can be seen in fracture directions.
the quarries. Dominant fractures, in a quarry close to No fractures exist in the marly upper interval of the Dam
Shedgum anticline, strike N58W (Fig. 11A). In many places formation. Usually marl masses are capped by hard
well-developed fracture traces can be observed on clean duricrusts, which are cut by surficial non-tectonic local
horizontal bedding surfaces exposed among marl masses fractures. Some radial duricrust fractures occurred as a result
(Fig. 11B). A plan view of this outcrop helped to of clay swelling underneath the marl masses (Fig. 9C).

Fig. 10. Indigenous 33 tectonic fractures measured at a fresh outcrop in the Hofuf formation indicate two main sets, one N98E and the other N778W direction.
 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670 667

Fig. 11. Deep seated Dam formation fractures: (A) fractures in a quarry close to Shedgum anticlinal axis and rose diagram of 39 measurements showing
dominant natural fractures strike N58W direction; (B) clean bedding surface showing the dominant fractures parallel to the long axis of the photo, crossing
fractures perpendicular and an oblique fracture in the lower right corner.

W E
20.00 16.00 12.00 8.00 4.00 0 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00
%

Landsat-image lineaments

W E
20.00 16.00 12.00 8.00 4.00 0 4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00
%

Topographic lineaments

Fig. 12. Landsat image showing major lineaments in the Ghawar and surrounding areas, rose diagram of 413 Landsat-image lineaments, and rose diagram of
504 lineaments measured from topographic maps.
668 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670

Some outcrops of either Hofuf or Dam formations shows compilation of major lineaments identified in large
display polygonal fractures on the surface, which are scale images. The satellite-image lineaments indicated
probably due to temperature variations in desert conditions N558W and N358E direction major trends. Lineaments on
(Fig. 9D). These fractures also do not reveal any orientation. topographic elevation maps yielded a very strong direction
peak between N308W and N408W.
The investigation of the relationship between surface
7. Lineament interpretation lineaments and structure was the main concern in lineament
survey. To the northeastern edge of the Shedgum plateau,
Geomorphic lineaments are mapped and statistically elongated hills trending N308W (Fig. 13A) match with
analyzed to interpret the geological phenomena that created deep-seated faults observed in seismic sections, which cut
them. Lineaments in the Ghawar field were studied from the entire sediments up to surface (Fig. 13B). Subsurface
two data sets (Fig. 12): (1) satellite images and (2) vertical faults in seismic sections show vanishing offsets
topographic maps. A small-scale Landsat image in Fig. 12 towards the surface. The match between topographic

Fig. 13. Some topographic lineaments match with the surface traces of deep seated faults. Parallel elongate ridges in the Eastern edge of the Shedgum plateau
(A) match the N358W trending high-angle normal fault trace detected in the seismic section (B).
 S. Saner et al. / Marine and Petroleum Geology 22 (2005) 657–670 669

lineaments and the trace of the fault on the surface infers history. Dips of the flanks of the structure at the surface
that some topographic lineaments are projections of deep Mio-Pliocene and Pleistocene outcrops are calculated to be
seated faults. 0.258. This structure can be recognized on the surface if
Applications of Landsat imagery in lineament studies special attention is given to indications.
and structural interpretation were shown by several authors The youngest beds folded are of Mio-Pliocene Hofuf
(Merin and Moore, 1986; Prost, 1994; Berger, 1994; Sabins, formation. Crestal areas of the anticline are represented by
1997). Lineaments set striking N358E direction, measured topographic high elevations. Geomorphologic elevation
from satellite images in the Ghawar area is parallel to the map and subsurface structural map of the top Arab-D
Zagros tectonic stress direction. These lineaments corre- reservoir are very similar in shape. This excellent match
spond to extensional fractures; however, the trend of indicates the forces that formed the Ghawar structure were
Ghawar anticline does not concur with the Zagros stress very similar during Mio-Pliocene time
direction, and this complicates the interpretation of fracture, So far no fault planes have been observed in the field.
structure axis, and Zagros stress directions interrelations. However, surface projections of some faults, seen in seismic
cross sections, match with topographic lineaments.
Most of the fractures observed in the Hofuf formation are
8. Surface-subsurface structure correlation not related to the structural growth of the Ghawar anticline.
They are generally formed at the edge of deeply eroded
The En Nala axis shows a strong positive gravity but escarpments as a result of gravity and atmospheric
magnetic maps are essentially featureless. Gravity and conditions, and hard to differentiate from structural
structural maps resemble each other (Edgell, 1992). The fractures. More reliable structural fractures are observed
strong gravity anomaly requires the assumption of actual in quarries opened in Dam formation.
basement displacements beneath the En Nala axis. The form Growth of the Ghawar structure was active in the
of the anomaly suggests horst type uplift through a pile of Pleistocene and probably even in the Quaternary. The
sediments. average growth rate, indicated by tilting of the flanks, is
Arab-D is the most important oil reservoir in the Ghawar 0.068 per one million years.
field. Structure map of the top Arab-D shows slightly curved
flanks with dip angles generally varying between 5 and 88,
but in places reaching 108. Acknowledgements
The significance of changes in thickness of the strati-
graphic units is taken as a possible clue to the history of the The authors acknowledge the supports of managements
growth of the Ghawar structure. According to Arabian of the Research Institute of King Fahd University of
American Oil Company Staff (1959), a paleo structure map Petroleum and Minerals, and Saudi Aramco for this study
of the Arab-D member on a late Wasia datum shows a low under KFUPM/RI Project No. 23078. Acknowledgements
but reasonably clear beginning for the Ghawar structure. are also extended to Dr Andrew Mann of Robertson
According to this publication, by Wasia-Aruma unconfor- Research International Ltd. and to Dr Nicolas M. Herrera
mity time the structure was well developed. Some further of KFUPM/RI, who read the manuscript and suggested
growth was indicated in middle Eocene time and during the improvements; and Prof David G. Roberts and Mr John N.
Eocene-Miocene unconformity, and the growth of Ghawar Diggens, who reviewed the manuscript for the Marine and
was completed by Miocene time. These authors interpreted Petroleum Geology Journal.
very minor dips found in the Miocene-Pliocene rocks either
as initial or as the result of solution collapse. However, in
our study, slightly dipping flanks have been proven to be
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