FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH
Subjective study manual for the students of B.COM
Prepared By:
SYED SHAHID ABBAS SHERAZI
Contact Info
Mobile: 0302-2286057
Email: [email protected]
References; Text books of entrepreneurship
Wren & Martin
ICAP Book
Self research from the internet
Preface
The purpose of this study manual is to enable you to understand the Functional English and its major concepts. The test of student’s
ability to master a range of knowledge and skills required for modern professionals.
This study manual is thorough, up to date and having plenty of theory and knowledge for proper understanding of Functional English.
This manual has been written specifically for the students of M.COM, MBA, B.COM (Hons), and BBA keeping in view the course
contents as per syllabus of Punjab University and Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan.
We do hope that this manual will serve the purpose and useful to the students of Commerce. Any suggestion for the improvement of
the study manual shall be welcomed with thanks and open arms.
Finally, I owe a great intellectual debt to those who taught me and created in me the zest to seek and transmit knowledge and my
honorable parents.
Special Thanks;
TO MY HONOURABLE PARENTS AND MY RESPECTABLE TEACHERS
Lecturer,
Syed Shahid Abbas Sherazi (M.com, B.com)
Functional English
Functional English is usage of the English language required to perform a specific function.
This is typically taught as a foundation subject as a good command of English is often
required for academic study and career progression.
Letter
A character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of
an alphabet.
Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb in
combination. Generally, a phrase is used in the sentence as a single part of speech. In this
section we will be concerned with prepositional phrases, gerund phrases, participial phrases,
and infinitive phrases.
What is Grammar?
The word ―Grammar‖ has been derived from French word ―gramaire‖ or Latin word
―grammatical‖ or Greek word ―grammatika‖ which means ―relating to letter‖
―Grammar is the system of rules by which words are formed and put together to make
sentence‖ or grammar is the relationship between words and the structure of sentence‖
Word
A single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with others (or
Sometimes alone) to form a sentence and typically shown with a space on either side when
written or printed.
Sentence
Sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate, conveying a
statement, question, exclamation, or command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more
subordinate clauses.
Types of sentences according to Function
Declarative Sentences
A declarative sentence simply makes a statement or expresses an opinion. In other words, it
makes a declaration. This kind of sentence ends with a period.
Examples of this sentence type:
―I want to be a good writer.‖ (makes a statement)
―My friend is a really good writer.‖ (expresses an opinion)
Imperative Sentences
An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. It usually ends with a
period but can, under certain circumstances, end with an exclamation point.
Examples of this sentence type:
―Please sit down.‖
―I need you to sit down now!‖
Interrogative Sentences
An interrogative sentence asks a question. This type of sentence often begins with who,
what, where, when, why, how, or do, and it ends with a question mark.
Examples of this sentence type:
―When are you going to turn in your writing assignment?‖
―Do you know what the weather will be tomorrow?‖
Exclamatory Sentences
An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses great emotion such as excitement,
surprise, happiness and anger, and ends with an exclamation point.
Examples of this sentence type:
―It is too dangerous to climb that mountain!‖
―I got an A on my book report!‖
Learning about the different types of sentences and punctuation will help students become
better writers by enabling them to convey various types of information and emotion in their
writing.
Types of sentences according to structure
Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains only one independent clause.
An independent clause is a group of words (with a subject and a verb) that
Expresses a complete thought. E.g I drink coffee.
I drink coffee is an independent clause. It contains a subject (I) and a verb (drink),
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These clauses are joined
by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.
A coordinating conjunction is a word that glues words, phrases, or clauses
together. E.g She cooked and he cleaned.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and an independent clause. A
subordinate clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not express a
complete thought. E. g I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast.
I washed the dishes is an independent clause. After I ate breakfast is a dependent adverb
clause modifying the verb washed. I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast is a complex
sentence.
Compound-Complex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least
one subordinate clause. e. g I would have purchased the cheese that you like, but it was
too expensive.
I would have purchased the cheese and it was too expensive are both independent
clauses. They are being joined by the conjunction but.
The Parts of Speech
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech:
1. the verb,
2. the noun,
3. the pronoun,
4. the adjective,
5. the adverb,
6. the preposition,
7. the conjunction, and
8. the interjection.
What is a Noun?
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Example
Aslam, Pen, Peshawar etc.
Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is
closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a
combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive
through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the
opposite of a abstract noun.
1) The judge handed the files to the clerk..
2) The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board
Its further classified into the following nouns.
Proper Nouns
Proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the
week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy texts
and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common nounIn
each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
Allama Iqbal, Quaid-e-Azam, Pakistan. America..
Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense --
usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A
common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
Aslam.Jawad.Asima,pen.house.bazzar etc.
.Collective Noun.
A collective noun is the name of a number of persons or things, taken together and
spoken of as one whole: For example crowd, army, team, family, nation, committee,
parlimament or a class.
1. The police arrested the thief.
2. A herd of cattle is passing.
Material noun.
A material noun is the name of a matter or substance of which anything is made, For
example, Silver, Iron, Gold, Cotton, Milk, Rice etc
1. This table is made of steel.
2. Milk is a complete diet.
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through
your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words
in the following sentences are all abstract nouns: Examples,
1) Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
2) Asima is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun that you can count with both a singular and a
plural form.
1) We painted the table red and the chairs blue...
2) Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun that you could (or would) not usually count
which does not have a plural form. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a
sentence.
1) Dawood discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the
plural verb "are."
What is a Verb?
A verb is used to show an action or a state of being and give us information about subject
is called verb. Such as: jump, run, cook and drive. Rashid bites his victims on the neck.
The verb "bites" describes the action Rashid takes..
There are three types of verbs:
action verbs,
linking verbs, and
helping verbs
ACTION VERBS:. Action verbs are words that express action (ex: give, eat, walk, etc.)
or possession (have, own, etc.). Action verbs can be either
transitive or
intransitive.
TRANSITIVE VERBS
A transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action of the verb. This noun is
called the direct object.
EXAMPLE: Asima raises her hand. (The verb is raises. Her hand is an object receiving the
verb’s action. Therefore, raises are a transitive verb.)
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
An intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect object. Although an intransitive verb
may be followed by an adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action.
EXAMPLE: Asima rises slowly from her seat.
(The verb is the word, rises. The words, slowly from her seat, modify the verb. But there
is no object that receives the action.)
HELPING VERBS
Helping verbs are used before action or linking verbs to convey additional information
regarding aspects of possibility (can, could, etc.) or time (was, did, has, etc.).They are
also called auxiliary verbs. The main verb with its accompanying helping verb is called
a verb phrase. E.g is, am , are, has, have.
Subject and Predicate
The subject is the agent of the sentence in the active voice; it is The person or thing that does the action of the
sentence, and it normally Precedes the verb
The predicate tells about that subject and predicate is a part of sentence. The dog ran. The dog is
the subject of the sentence, because the sentence is telling something about that dog.
What is a Pronoun?
A proper noun is a word which is used to name a specific person, place or thing.
There are several types of pronoun including
1. the personal pronoun,
2. the demonstrative pronoun,
3. the interrogative pronoun,
4. the relative pronoun,
5. the reflexive pronoun, and
6. the intensive pronoun.
Personal Pronouns:.
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate
person, number, gender, and case. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she,"
"he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
Possessive Personal Pronouns A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is
acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The
possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs."
A demonstrative pronoun
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and
"these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those"
refer to things that are farther away in space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are
used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these" and "those" are used to refer
to plural nouns and noun phrases.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who,"
"whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever,"
"whomever," "whichever," and "whatever").
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The
relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever,"
"whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.
Reflexive Pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun which refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves,"
"yourselves," and "themselves."
.
Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are
identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
What Is An Adjective?
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying
words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
Mrs. Naheela papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.
The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.
The coal mines are dark and dank.
The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.
What is an Adverb?
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An
adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as
"how," "when," "where," "how much".
The Six Types of Adverbs
1.Adverbs of Manner:‖ Adverbs of manner provide information on how someone
does something. For example: ―Jack drives very carefully‖.
.
2.Adverbs of Time‖ Adverbs of time provide information on when something happens.
For example:‖ We'll let you know our decision next week‖.She visited her friends last year
.
3.Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency provide information on how often
something happens. For example: ―They usually get to work at eight o'clock‖.
4.Adverbs of Degree:‖ Adverbs of degree provide information concerning how much of
something is done. For example: ―They like playing golf a lot‖. She'll attend the meeting as
well.
5.Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment provide a comment, or opinion about a
situation. For example: ―Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the concert‖.
What is a Preposition?
A preposition is a word which links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a
sentence.
The book is on the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
What is a Conjunction?
You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example: I
ate the pizza and the pasta. Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-coordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or
"yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the
nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent
clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because,"
"before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when,"
"where," "whether," and "while."
What is an Interjection?
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically
related to any other part of the sentence. You usually follow an interjection with an
exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct
quotations’. g Ouch, that hurt!, Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today, Hey! Put that down!
Complement:
Complement is a word which completes the verb. It is similar to the subject Because it is
usually a noun or noun phrase; however, it generally follows the Verb when the sentence is in
the active voice.
Examples of complements:
John bought a cake yesterday. (What did John buy?)
Jill was driving a new car. (What was Jill driving?)
He wants to drink some water. (What does he want to drink?
The Noun Phrase
The noun phrase is a group of words that ends with a noun. It can contain
Determiners (the, a, this, etc.), adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
Glass of milk-one glass of milk, two glasses of milk …
What is Tense?
Tense (noun): a form of a verb used to indicate the time, and sometimes the continuation
or completeness, of an action in relation to the time of speaking. Time).
Tense is a method
that we use in English to refer to time—past, present and future. Many Languages use
tenses to talk about time. Other languages have no tenses, but of course they can still talk
about time, using different methods. So, we talk about time in English with tenses.
Mood
Mood of the verb is the manner in which the action or condition conceived or intended. In
English there are several types of mood and these are as follows;
1) Indicative mood
Inductive Mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be positive
or negative. The indicative mood is used to make factual statements, ask questions, or
express opinions as if they were facts. Any verb tense may be deployed in the indicative
mood. E. g I like coffee. I do not like coffee.
2) Interrogative mood expresses a question. Why do you like coffee?
3) Imperative mood
Imperative mood expresses commands or requests or ask someone to do something. It
indicates that the speaker desires for the action expressed in the sentence to take place
expresses a command. E. g Sit down!
4) Subjunctive mood
Subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possible. E. g The President
ordered that he attend the meeting.
Article
An article is a word or group of words used to indicate a noun and to specify a noun’s
function. In English, articles are placed before nouns. The English articles are a, an, and the,
and they fall into two categories: definite and indefinite.
Definite Article
The definite article indicates a specific place, person or a thing. THE is called the definite
article. Example: Where is the dog? (a specific dog)
Indefinite Article
The Indefinite article indicates a common place, person or a thing. A and AN are indefinite
articles, meaning that the nouns following them are nonspecific.
Example: Do you have a book? (any book) I want an apple. (any apple)
Determiner:
A determiner is a word that determines noun use. it is a word such is “a, the, this, each,
some, either, my, and, your,” that appears before any descriptive and decides the kind
of reference that a man has.
There are three classes of determiners:
1. Pre-determiner:
Pre-determiner comes before a determiner. or in more technical Word Pre-determiner a
word which proceeds and qualifies another determiner, as ―both, dose in, both my hand‖
Examples: (all, both, half, double, twice, three, one-third etc)
1. All this money
2. Both my hand.
3. Half this milk.
2. Central determiner:
Central determiner comes in the center of a pre-determiner, such as ―an, the, those‖
Examples:
1. All those work.
2. Both these sisters.
3. Post-determiner:
These are items which follow determiner but proceed adjectives, such as ―other, two,
first,‖
There are three types of post-determiner (1) Cardinal Numerals (2) Ordinal Numerals (3)
Quantifiers.
Examples:
1. Cardinal Numerals (One, two three……..)
2. Ordinal Numerals (first, second, third…..)
3. Quantifiers. (Many, few, several, much, little,)
Clause
A clause is a combination of words containing a subject and a verb.
Mr. Jones announced that he had resigned. (noun direct object)
I must leave when the bell rings. (adverb)
When I will be leaving is not yet clear. (noun subject)
The test that I just took was easy. (adjective)
1. Noun Clauses
When a dependent clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause. Most noun clauses
are used as subjects, as direct objects, as subject complements, and as objects of
prepositions. Note the following:
What he told us is very convincing. (subject)
He believes whatever is told to him. (direct object)
This is what he told me. (subject complement)
Give it to whoever opens the door. (object of the preposition)
2. Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause modifies or limits or points out a noun or pronoun. The normal
position for an adjective clause is immediately following the noun or pronoun it modifies:
I like a man who has plenty of initiative.
The car is one that you can be proud to drive.
Adverbial Clauses
An adverbial clause may come before, after, or in the interior of a main clause, but they
are used like adverbs; they describe the action of the main clause by telling certain things
about it.
Time (when, before, after, since, while, until, as)
You must not talk while you eat.
Manner (as, as if, as though)
Place (where, wherever)
We parted where the paths separated.
Participle:
Participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or a noun. Participles are
also used to make compound verb forms.
1. The breaking news caused great disturbance.
2. The broken heart can never be mended.
Past participle:
Past participle is the form of a verb (typically ending in –ed), which is used in forming perfect
and passive tenses and sometimes as an adjective.
