Cloud Formation Processes
I. Introduction differing feedback processes of clouds
must be factored into numerical climate
The goal of this module is to review models to more accurately diagnose and
general processes in the atmosphere predict earth’s climate and anticipate
leading to cloud formation. Suggested potential changes that could impact us
references for further study will be listed all.
in a future list of training sources.
The first question we should ask is: what II. Required elements for cloud
is a cloud? As defined by the World formation
Meteorological Organization (WMO),
it’s primarily “a hydrometeor consisting Clouds consist of many tiny droplets
of a visible aggregate of minute resulting from the condensation of water
particles of liquid water or ice, or both, vapor (gaseous state) into liquid water or
suspended in the free air and usually ice (solid state). They form when the air
not touching the Earth’s surface.” is cooled to its dew point. This is
Thus, clouds are the visible considered its condensation or saturation
manifestation of ongoing atmospheric point. Refer to suggested student activity
processes and as such are a useful (Appendix 1) at the end of this module.
diagnostic tool.
The first requirement for cloud
Why is it important to understand these formation is moisture. This moisture is
atmospheric processes leading to cloud constantly recycled through the earth-
formation? It’s important, because there atmosphere system by means of the
are several time scales on which these hydrologic cycle (figure 1). Moisture in
processes occur. this cycle exists normally in the 3 states
of water: solid, liquid, and vapor.
First, by understanding these processes,
we are in a position to better anticipate
short term weather changes such as the
development of thunderstorms as
opposed to steady precipitation.
However, clouds also have an impact on
the longer term climate system in ways
we do not totally understand at this time.
For example, cloud cover leads to both
scattering and reflection of incoming Fig -1 Hydrological cycle and moisture in the
solar radiation, with expected cooling as atmosphere (graphic courtesy of NOAA’s NWS
jetstream program.
a result. However, clouds also trap
outgoing terrestrial radiation, by
The primary way to cool the atmosphere
absorbing and re-emitting it downwards,
is through upward vertical motion or
thus warming the atmosphere. These
lifting of air. Thus the second
requirement for cloud formation is a PV = rT P = Pressure
source of lift, via the following or V = Volume
processes: P = (rT)/V T = Temperature
r = constant
-- Fronts associated with low pressure
systems This equation states that pressure is
-- orographic or mountain barriers proportional to temperature and
-- convection inversely proportional to volume. Thus:
-- convergence (forced coming together
of airflow) when pressure decreases (increasing
altitude), the temperature decreases,
Figure 2 shows the impact of this but the volume increases (expansion).
vertical motion or lift and the resulting
cooling process. Similar to a hike in the So where does the heat “go” when the
mountains, it is cooler the higher one air cools in figure 2? The heat is used up
goes up in the atmosphere (within the in the work required for the atmospheric
troposphere). The rate at which the air cube to expand against its neighboring
will cool with increasing altitude in the molecules (as one ascends in the
free atmosphere is referred to as the vertical, there are fewer molecules to
lapse rate (lapse or decrease of restrict the cube, thus expansion).
temperature with height).
In figure 2, if the dew point (moisture)
The lapse rate of unsaturated (dry) air is remains constant, the temperature of the
approximately 5.4°F/1000 feet air cools with increasing altitude
(9.8°C/1000 meters). Thus, ideally, if (decreasing pressure) leading to cloud
you were to rise in one of the cubes in formation as we approach saturation.
figure 2, there would be a 5.4°F decrease Actually, in the atmosphere, 100%
in temperature for each 1000 feet relative humidity is not required
increase in altitude of the cube. because moisture condenses on nuclei
(e.g. sea salt, dust, pollution, etc) as the
humidity approaches saturation.
This condensation upon nuclei also leads
to a process of atmospheric cleansing.
When atmospheric pollutants form the
nuclei upon which condensation occurs,
then the pollution will be precipitated
out of the atmosphere with rain or snow.
This is another reason to expand our
knowledge of atmospheric physics and
Fig -2 Atmospheric cooling with increasing cloud processes.
altitude (graphic courtesy of NOAA’s NWS
Jetstream Program)
We can see this mathematically from a
combination of the gas laws in the form:
While vertical motion is the primary III. Main atmospheric processes
method of cooling that leads to cloud creating atmospheric lift and clouds
formation, there are two other
atmospheric cooling processes (to be Since cold air (dense) sinks and warm
covered in future modules). air (less dense) rises, clouds that form in
an unstable environment (warm below
These processes are advection and and cold aloft) tend to be lumpy or
radiation, and they can lead to cooling globular in appearance. These clouds
of the lower layers of the atmosphere. will resemble bubbles in a pot of boiling
water.
Advection refers to the horizontal
movement of air or moisture across the These are the cumuliform or convective
earth’s surface. For example, if mild clouds that we are all familiar with and
moist air moves (advects) over a snow are due to the localized nature of the
pack or other cold surface (land or sudden up-drafts and down-drafts of
water), the air may be cooled to its convection.
saturation point from below. This may
lead to fog formation. This pattern On the other hand, a stable environment
occurs over the cold ocean waters off the (cold surface and warm aloft) is
New England coast in the spring and characterized by a more gradual lifting
summer when a warm moist airmass process resulting in extensive areas of
moving over these waters results in layered or stratiform type clouds. These
dense sea fog. clouds last longer than those involved in
convective processes.
Radiational cooling can also cool the
lower layers of the atmosphere on clear, A. Clouds due to lift by fronts
calm and dry nights. As the earth’s
surface cools, it will cool the air in For over three-quarters of the 20th
contact with it. This air may be cooled to century, the low pressure/cyclone
its saturation point resulting in the conceptual model developed by the
formation of late night or early morning Norwegian School of meteorologists has
fog or ground fog. This type of fog dominated weather analysis techniques.
occurs frequently in river valleys. With the advances in satellite and radar
technology, this concept continues to
Thus, to briefly summarize, moisture evolve, but the conceptual model still
and lift are required for cloud forms the foundation for understanding
formation. This lift must cool the frontal lift and cloud formation.
atmosphere sufficiently so it approaches
its dew point or saturation point. In the case of a warm front, both the
warm advancing air and the cold
retreating air are moving in the same
direction. As warm air glides up and
over cold surface air (warm front), the
clouds tend to be layered or stratiform.
As the front approaches, you would
observe a typical progression of clouds B. Orograhic lift clouds
ranging from cirrostratus to altostratus,
then further lowering and thickening to Air flow perpendicular to a range of hills
nimbostratus (figure 3) and steady or mountains is forced to rise up and
precipitation. over the mountains (i.e. the orographic
barrier). As the air rises on the windward
In contrast, cold fronts cause more side of the mountain range (or hills), it
abrupt lifting with more intense cools (expansion) and may eventually
localized vertical motion as the cold and reach its saturation point with clouds
warm air masses collide. This generally forming. The reverse is true as the air
results in cumuliform clouds with descends down the leeward side of the
showery conditions as the cold air mountains. This subsiding air is warmed
undercuts and forces the warm air up. through compression.
Clouds associated with both warm and Subsiding , warming air can hold more
cold fronts are displayed graphically in moisture before reaching saturation. As a
figure 3. However, in both cases, the result, clouds tend to break up to the lee
cold air (being heavier and more dense) of mountains, as depicted in figure 4.
is on the bottom.
Fig - 4 Orographic Lift: In our area, air cools as
it rises over the Adirondacks with clouds
forming. As the air moves down into the
Champlain Valley it warms with clouds breaking
Fig-3 Frontal lift Clouds are generally of the up. (Graphic courtesy of Windows to the Universe,
http://www.windows.ucar.edu)
stratiform layered type (stable) when associated
with warm fronts. Cold fronts are generally
associated with cumuliform clouds (unstable). This process frequently happens during a
Thunderstorms are most likely with cold fronts winter snowstorm, with heavy snow
but can accompany warm fronts. (Graphic Courtesy
of Windows to the Universe, http://www.windows.ucar.edu) along the windward side and lesser
amounts to the lee of the mountains. It is
Figure 3 is a general schematic or referred to as the umbrella or shadowing
idealized model in which the processes effect of mountains.
may overlap on varying spatial and
temporal scales. For example, while the For example, depending upon the
predominant uplift along a warm front is direction of airflow, many times the
gradual, convective processes may also heaviest precipitation falls over both the
occur, resulting in thunderstorms Green Mountains and Adirondacks
embedded within the area of steady (upslope) with lighter amounts of
nimbostratus precipitation. precipitation in the Champlain Valley as
the air moves downslope into the valley.
C. Lift due to convection D. Convergence and lift
We are all familiar with the white cotton Another source of lift, which is really a
ball (cumulus) type clouds on a warm combination of the above processes, is
summer afternoon. This is the process of convergence. When air is forced to
convection. converge or come together (such as at
the center of a low pressure system), it
The earth’s atmosphere is transparent to can only go upward (can’t go into the
incoming solar radiation. Once this ground). An example would be the air
radiation hits the ground, it’s converted flowing inward toward the center of low
to heat energy. As the ground warms, the pressure which is forced to rise.
air in contact with the ground is also
warmed through conduction.
IV. Summary
As the air is warmed, it becomes less
dense, thus it rises (convection). This module has listed both the
However, as air rises it cools, with ingredients required for cloud formation
clouds ultimately forming over the as well as the physical processes
updraft as depicted in Figure 5. The resulting in atmospheric lift.
spacing of these up and down drafts
results in the observed distribution of Understanding the link between these
cumulus clouds. On the edges of the processes and the present climate of a
clouds, cool air sinks to replace the particular area or region is important
warm air rising, thereby completing the when considering the consequences of
convection cell. possible climate change.
Through complex feedback mechanisms,
clouds impact and are impacted by the
climate of a region. For example,
thunderstorms (cumulonimbus clouds)
are rare along portions of the west coast
of the US. This is because the ocean
water is cold and stabilizes the lower
layers of the atmosphere in western
portions of Washington, Oregon and
northern California. Thunderstorms can
occur but are very rare in these areas.
Fig-5 Lift due to Convection results in clouds
and may occur in combination with other forms
of lift (frontal or orographic) with showers or
On the other hand, thunderstorms are a
thunderstorms ultimately developing. (Graphic common occurrence in the Midwestern
Courtesy of Windows to the Universe, US. The Rockies and the Appalachian
http://www.windows.ucar.edu).
Mountains form geographical barriers
that mix cool dry Canadian air (dense
air) with warm moist Gulf of Mexico air
(less dense) causing moist air to rise.
The distribution (and any changes) of
clouds on a global scale will impact
climate. Thus we end this module as we
began, with the assertion that studying
and understanding clouds is important
both regionally and globally.
Appendix 1 – Student Activity
Experiment : Cloud in a Bottle The squeeze represents the warming that
occurs in the atmosphere (less volume so
Source: http://www.weatherwizkids.com/index.htm molecules move faster with warming).
The release represents the cooling that
occurs in the atmosphere (expansion
with more volume thus slower molecular
movement and cooler), a second
requirement for cloud formation –
Materials needed: Cooling due to lift.
2-liter clear plastic pop bottle 3. Remove the cap. Carefully (with
matches (adult assistance adult supervision) light a match and hold
required with matches) the match near the opening of the bottle.
warm water Then drop the match in the bottle and
quickly put on the cap, trapping the
PROCESS: smoke inside.
1. Fill the clear plastic 2-liter bottle 4. Dust, smoke or other particles in the
about 1/3 full with warm water and place air is another aspect that assists in the
the cap on. As warm water evaporates, it condensation of water vapor. Water
adds water vapor to the air inside the vapor readily condenses upon nuclei in
bottle. This is the first requirement in the atmosphere.
cloud formation - Moisture.
5. Once again, tightly squeeze the bottle
2. Tightly squeeze and release the hard and release (you may do this
bottle. Observe what happens? several times). What happens?
Nothing happens. Why? (If some A cloud appears when you release
condensation forms on the bottle just (cooling through expansion) and then the
shake the bottle to remove it). cloud disappears when you squeeze
(warming through compression).
Summary of experiment:
Water vapor (water in its gaseous state),
can be made to condense into the form
of small cloud droplets. Addition of
small particles (nuclei) such as the
smoke enhances the process of
condensation. Squeezing the bottle
causes the air pressure to increase
(warming) then releasing the bottle
causes the air pressure to decrease
(cooling by expansion) with cloud
formation.
