',.'. ". ~ '".

AIRFRAME FUEL SYSTEMS

..l
,"'.,
""~
"

,,\

"'. \-

Licence By Post
~i' I .

~~'--'-'

The staples in this book can eatICb

. fingen. Notsuitable for amall
children. Care when bandlin

licence By Post-@-copyr;lg
 AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for

study/training purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you

MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer's handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority
(the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local
procediires, recording, report writing, documentation- etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the
-~delinesas specifiedby th~_~uiprnent manufacturer, your
company, national safety authorities and national government.s-.--
 ACKNO~EDGEMENTS

With a special thank you to:

'*' AIRBUS INDUSTRIE

for their permission to reproduce drawings.

 CONTENTS

Page

Chapter 1 Fuel Tanks

Fuel systems 1
Flexible tanks 3
Rigid tanks 5
Integral tanks 7

Chapter 2 Refuelling, defuelling and draining

Open orifice fuelling 13
Pressure refuelling 14
Defuelling 18
Draining 20

Chapter 3 Engine fuel feed systems

Basic system 25
Large commercial aircraft system 26

Chapter 4 - Fuel jettison systems

Systems 38
Types of fuel 41
Fuel contamination 42
Fuel trim systems 44

Chapter 5 Indication systems

,... Mechanical methods
Electrical/ electronic methods
46
49
Moving coil instrument 56
Ratiometer instrument 59
Electronic system 60
Ultrasonic system 62
~---

-"---~---"---

Answers to self assessment questions 68 -- ..

_.,._-~._---

•.. •.........

--,
•..
... •.....•....•....
--:: '~~~;; '.'."'' -'~'. '--='~-
-'-'.

-,'
- -
"-,'

'- -
,'-..-------

----
.
---.

...... , ... _-_ ..

----~.-.

_~------
 HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

In this book we shall examine the subject of fuel systems on aircraft. We shall
spend some time looking at modern large commercial aircraft, but we will also
consider older and smaller aircraft. As with all licence study it is important
that you understand the basics of the system, from that you will be able to
answer logically any examination questions.

The book is divided up to follow the natural flow of the subject. At intervals
there are Self Assessment Questions (SAQs), the idea of these is to let you
explore the subject further before progression onto new material. Answers to
questions are at the end of the book, along with some suggested activities and
,..... exercises. All this is designed to help you understand, but don't forget, for FS
students, if you need help your tutor is at the end of the 'phone.

The book is divided into chapters and study time for the entire book should be
around 6 to 8 hours.

Objectives

At the end of your study of this book you should be able to:

./ Describe a range of fuel storage and delivery systems.

./ Develop ideas of fuel transfer and any associated problems.
./ Analyse fuel leakage and determine aircraft serviceability.
./ Have an understanding of fuel jettison systems.
./ Be able to describe fuel indication systems and trace faults on both
"'" mechanical, electrical and digital systems.
 AIRCRAFr FUEL SYSTEMS

Introduction

Before we start it might be a good idea to define what is meant by 'an aircraft
fuel system'.

SAQ 1

Can you describe what constitutes an aircraft fuel system, where does it start
and at what point does it change to the engine fuel system? (Remember the
answers are in the back of the book).

A fuel system consists of various sub systems and these can be grouped as
follows:

Storage system - We need some means of storing the fuel prior to it being
used by the engines. Generally we tend to store fuel in the wings, but as we
shall see that is not always the case.

Refuel/defuel/drain system - We need some way of getting the fuel into the
tanks and at the same time removing the entrapped air. Sometimes (generally
for maintenance reasons) we need to remove the fuel from the tanks. Even
after a complete defuel, there are still puddles of unusable fuel left in the
tanks and if we need to enter the tank (for inspection purposes for example),
we need some means of draining that fuel away.

Engine fuel feed system - The whole point of having fuel on the aircraft is to
successfully and without any problems deliver it to the engines for burning.
Although engines will 'suck' fuel (they usually have a pump), we provide
booster pumps to ensure positive flow. And naturally we must provide the
pipework necessary to get the fuel to the engine.

At engine shut down (or during an emergency) we might need to cut the fuel to
the engine and so a series of shut off valves are provided for this reason.

Jettison system-=-_J!J~_n'tstructurallypossible to land an aircraft at its all up

weight (on long distance flights aircraft will take-off heavtsrtrrarrthey are
allowed to land), it needs to be considerably lighter.

During-flight fuel is burned-and aircraft weight.falls; If a seriotismalfuI].<:!ion

--;0---

causes a return to base just after take-off the aircrew need to 'remove' some of
the fuel (and hence reduce the weight of the aircraft). This they do through a
jettison system.

- 1 - -----_._----------.

------------------------==
-- ----------------~
 It is worth noting that due to environmental and cost concerns, aircraft do not
often jettison fuel, they will usually opt for an overweight landing - with
special checks to be carried out by you afterwards.

Indication system - Both the flight-deck crew and engineers require

information about the quantity of fuel on board. An assortment of possible
systems are available for use both mechanical, electrical and electronic. Most
aircraft employ numerous systems to provide back up.

""""",,

-- --------- -- - - - - - - ---~---- ---------- -------~

 Chapter 1

STORAGE SYSTEMS

Fuel, for the conversion of heat energy in the jet engines, is stored in tanks
within the aircraft. On some aircraft it may be stored in external tanks and on
some military aircraft it may be delivered via in-flight refuelling. Tanks may be
either flexible, rigid or integral.

FLEXIBLE TANKS

Also called 'cell' or 'bag tanks'. They are made of fuel resistant polymer
materials and are designed to fit snugly inside specially designed
compartments of the airframe. They do have several limitations and as such
are not seen much today, but you still need an understanding of them, as
they are still used.

Usually placed within the wing structure, and due to the flexing of the wing
the tank is made slightly larger than the volume in which it is placed. This
ensures the wing section, not the tank, takes the stress loads of flight. In
addition, the weight of the fuel in a full tank is taken by the wing structure
and not the bag.

Bag tanks are constructed from thin rubber/synthetic rubber and usually one
of the following materials is used:

Hycatrol - A green coloured Hycar based synthetic rubber available in two

thickness', 0.020" (0.5mm) lightweight and 0.040" (lmm) standard.

Flexelite - A red or black Flexsyn material which is synthetic based and

similar to Hycar. Also available in two thickness', the standard 0.045"
(1.14mm) for tanks with capacity greater than 100 imperial gallons (454.61),
,.... and lightweight 0.020" for tank with capacity below 100 gallons.

Marlite - A blue coloured material of a two ply Nylon and Terylene fabric
impregnated with a fuel resistant barrier. This is by far the most common
material as it has properties that means it does not deteriorate between 100°C
and -6Q<>-C.--AlsD, due to the fact that no 'fuel-extractable' elements are used,
these tanks always retain their dimensional stabilHY.TliiSremoves the need
for stabilising processes that are required in the synthetic based tank
fabrication. Usually only available in the one thickness, 0.020".
--- .. -.

All three of these materials will have a protective and supportive layer around
them. This is often made from a fabric impregnated with rubber. This makes
them more durable but great care is still needed when handling them. As they
are flexible they will require supporting in the wing structure, particularly
when they are empty. Figure 1 shows some examples of the most common
supporting methods.
 TANKBAY LINING

STUDS

REMOVE BY SECURE BY
'PEELING' PUSHING

t t
'~-~~\~1'
~. SECURING' REMOVING
CAMBERED STUDS

Fig. 1 FLEXIBLE TANKS - FITTING METHODS

Given the importance of retaining fuel in the tanks and the ease of damage to
these fragile components, installation of flexible tanks requires some very
careful handling. Figure 2 shows some simple guidelines and the AMM will
specify the exact procedure, but in general:

1. Ensure both the workspace where the tank is folded and the aircraft
cavity are spotlessly clean.

2. Make sure that all protruding rivets, fasteners, brackets etc, in the tank
cavity are protected with rubber tape.

3. Fold as laid down in the AMM.

4. Cover the cavity aperture edges with rubber or tape to prevent damage
to the tank as it is dragged/pushed through.

5, Remove all your own personal lose objects from your pockets, as you are
about to enter a tank area. (A standard precaution with all tank work).

SAQ 2
-------~-----

Can you list some of the advantages and disadvantages-offleXible tanks? --

 1. 2.
INSPECT TANK FOR FOLD TANK
DAMAGE. PLACE AS STATED
ON TABLE IN THE
PROTECTED
WITH THICK
BLANKETOR
SIMIlAR

\i

3. 4.

\
PASS THROUGH TANK ASSESS
HOLE SUITABLY PROTECTED
WITH RUBBER EDGING
REMOVE SECURING
I' "'\ STRAPS AND
.
; -, !; .,-I' UNFOLD
'I ~ "PV'
.,
~ .~ I 'T,r' /

\ 7~111
\
/ /)
i-- --=--;;.1
i

l'
Fig. 2 TANK PREPARATION FOR FITTING

RIGID TANKS

These remove some of the problems associated with flexible tanks, but they
tend to be heavier, and aircraft weight is always a problem.

Figure 3 shows a typical rigid tank assembly. Tanks are usually constructed
from aluminium alloy and sealed during the fabricating process. Sometimes
tanks are fabricated from glass-reinforced plastic or even steel. Larger tanks
----~nemlally have internal baffles to prevent fuel surge (movement from one part
of the tank to another during aircraft manoeuvres). They will have cut-outs in
them to allow for normal fuel movement within the tank.

Each lank IS designed such that it fits into aspec-ific space within the.;__
airframe with clearance to allow for attachments, pipe connections etc. As
with flexible tanks they need to have the' appropriate connections for refuel
and fuel feed.

Each tank will have its own pumps and hence electrical connections. As the
tank is metal it must be electrically bonded to the aircraft structure via a
bonding point.

- 5"~

---_._-----~-----~
 PLATES FOR
INTERNAL
FInINGS

Fig. 3 TYPICAL RIGID FUEL TANK

Some rigid tanks (as well as some flexible tanks*) have an additional external
covering that is designed to swell when in contact with fuel. When wetted by
the fuel it will swell and, with a small leak, seal the tank. This tends to make
the tank self-sealing, though it has had limited success.

* When flexible tanks are covered with a self sealing membrane their
flexibility is considerably reduced and they are handled more like rigid
tanks.

-- Due to their weight penalty and poo-rspace-utilisation rigid tanks are not often
used on commercial transport aircraft.

'Ex!ernal' tanks as fitted to military and some light civil aircraft, are
essentl81lyrIgId tanks. YDu may also see-figid tanKslltted- inside a cracHe--and--------
loaded into a freight bay, to increase an aircraft's range.

The B747, for example, had this facility in the early days, but not many
operators used it. It has subsequently been removed.
INTEGRAL TANKS

With the increase in design awareness, need for separate tanks in aircraft has
largely been removed, and integral tanks used instead. Integral tanks are
areas, usually within the wing, in which the actual load bearing structure
(usually front spar, rear spar and 2 ribs without lightening holes) is sealed to
form the tank.

The advantages of integral tanks are that they are easily maintained (truth is,
once you've cured your maintenance induced leaks they will remain leak free
for a long time - often until the next maintenance check). Integral tanks are
cheaper and save that all-important commodity on aircraft - weight.

Figure 4 shows a typical wing structure of a large aircraft showing two integral
tanks in the wings with an additional integral tank in the wing centre section.

During manufacture a 'seal plane' is established during wing construction to

ensure the fuel stays in the. Figure 5 shows the process.

Firstly all surfaces are cleaned very carefully, and then joined together with a
fuel resistant (Polysulphide based) sealant as an interfay. This is a two-part
mix that cures with chemical reaction, not air. After the joint has been closed
(riveted up), a fillet seal is applied, which, in addition to sealing, helps transfer
the structural loads from one member to the next.

ACCESS DOOR Rla ACCESS

13 PLACESt HOLE {TYPICALI

ACCESS TO
DRyaAY
CENTtR WING
TANK ACCESS DOOR

-- ~~-----~~~~~~ - ----------~-

Fig. 4 TYPICAL INTEGRAL TANK LOCATION

- =-aoj
--~
Following on from this and before the fillet is fully dry one, or often two, brush
coats are applied, again with the next layer being applied just as the previous
ones goes tacky. Finally a protective barrier coat is applied; this dries quickly
and allows the manufacturing process to continue without contaminating the
slower curing sealant underneath. These sealants can take three to four
weeks to reach full strength.

• I

,.. • I

lbo
.~~ . . ~.
.
.,
.
CLEAN APPLY RIVET REMOVE
SURFACES SEALANT UP EXCESS SEALANT

APPLY FINAL OVERCOATS OF SEALANT

FILLET

Fig. 5 TANK SEALING

The same principles apply any time repairs are carried out in tanks that break
the seal plane (of course always consult the SRM).

A word of caution about fuel resistant sealants. They all contain harmful
substances in their activators. Either, Manganese Oxide or Strontium
Chromate. Both are lethal and specific handling instructions must be followed
when using these products.

Integral tanks have a series of access panels often under the wing; these allow
access for rework or inspections. They require attention to sealing. Also at
various positions inside the tank we would expect to find baffle plates and fuel
dams. These are all designed to stop the fuel from 'surging' during aircraft
manoeuvres and keep the fuel nearer the boost pump inlets.

The surge problem is more common on thin wing sections, and as a solution,
the fuel may-be sentfr~-integral~tankto a collector1ank via.a.fuel/ nQ_air
valve. The purpose of this valve is to energise a solenoid when air is detected
going into the collector tank (this might happen at extreme attitudes) to stop
the air going in.

The engines are fed from the collector tank so they continue to receive fuel.
Not a very common system but one that is still in use on some aircraft today.

-8 -
 Integral tanks do have their drawbacks, and these are cost of initial
fabrication and subsequent repair is quite expensive, particularly in man-
hours. They are not crash resistant in that they can rupture and spill fuel in
the event of a crash. Also structural failure may lead to significant fuel
spillage - the Air France Concorde crash for example.

{Incidentally the rework for Concorde's tanks involves Kevlar plates' within the
tank, tethered but essentially free. If a major crack or failure now appears in the
tank (wing) skin, because the plates are essentially lose the failure is not
transferred to them, they remain intact. Fuel starts to leak out of the hole in the
tank and the differential pressure which is thus created forces the Kevlar plate
against the side of the skin and hopefully reduces the leak to a controllable
trickle. Watch out for these being fitted in other aircraft integral tanks.

SAQ 3

What are the aims offuel storage and what methods can we use to store fuel on
the aircraft?

Leak Assessment

Tanks should always be kept fuelled to a certain level, as this helps prevent
leaks caused when the sealant (or tank bags themselves) dry out. Providing
this is done, tanks seldom leak, but do occasionally.

In line service about the only dealing you will probably have with tanks is
filling them up, and even that job is often contracted out to the fuel supplier-
for major operators anyway. However, sometimes tanks do leak and we have
to be able to assess this leak and take the appropriate action.

Any signs of external leakage on the wing structure of a flexible tanked

,... aircraft is serious as this may indicate that dangerous levels of fuel have
already collected in the wing structure. This obviously requires immediate
attention.

Integral tanks have 'allowable' leaks (see figure 6). The correct procedure for
leak assessment is stated in the AMM. In general clean the area no fuel is
present. Allow a penocroT15 minutes to pass, then carry out the- assessment.
Where these leaks are and what you do about depends on the AMM. Where
there is a wet area or stain the AMM may designate the area depending on the
size---Gfthe stain rlwet area. - -
---~ ---

- 9 -

--- .. _----------~~~--~
 As a guide only, running leaks are not permitted anywhere. Areas around
engine hot sections and turbine containment areas are not allowed any leaks
at all. Other open areas, that have good ventilation, can have seeps or stains.
If a leak is outside the limits it needs repair, and this can often be a temporary
external repair.

This type of repair requires regular inspection and would have to be

permanently fixed as soon as possible. This involves a trip to the hangar and
entry gained into the tanks.

o
o

~
o
o
o
~o~L'
o UP TO
o 1.5 INCHES

STAIN SEEP

o
o
~- 4-6 INCHES ---.j

RUNNING LEnK
HEAVY SEEP

Fig. 6 LEAK INDICATIONS

Working Inside Tanks

Occasionally we need to get access inside tanks to find and fix leaks. Also
during scheduled maintenance we may need to enter the tank area to carry
_____~out wing~tructural inspections. Fuel is hazardous so we have to take
precautions when involvedwith fuelana-rueI systems.-A:s nifunterrnrree-
engineers we need to find a way of minimising the risk to ourselves and
others.
 SAQ4
Write down the precautions that you would want to carry out before entering a
fuel tank? Answer below.
1. Empty the tank of all fuel, this will involve draining - discussed later in
the book.
2. Open several access panels and if possible vent the tank (provide a
supply of fresh circulating air).

3. Ensure the tank atmosphere is not explosive - there are devices

available that can tell you this information by sampling the air.

4. Ensure sufficient oxygen - if there is not then breathing apparatus is

required.
I""- 5. Ensure you have a 'permit to work' inside tanks and that you do not
suffer from claustrophobia. The Permit to Work is a new piece of
industrial legislation that requires that all confined space working be
controlled to reduce the risk. The permit basically formalises these
guidelines. It was introduced by the Factories Act.

6. Wear correct clothing including tank suits. Ensure shoes clothing etc
has no sharp edges to damage the tank.

7. You must have a fully trained safety person present outside the tank
who is in communication with you at all times. He/she also needs to be
aware of where to get help, should the need arise.

8. Inspection lamps, torches and any other equipment taken into the tank
must be flameproof and spark proof.

9. Finally you need to be strict on the 'normal on-aircraft' precautions, no

food, drink, eating, smoking. Wear rubber shoes and correct protective
clothing etc.

That concludes the section on fuel storage, perhaps now is a good time to stop
JO[~ while and consolidate what you have learnt. The answers to the following
questions are all to be found in the text. -----

------ --------'
 Exercises

1. Name the three types of storage system.

2. List the precautions when fitting 'bag' tanks?

3. Where are integral tanks fitted and how are they fabricated?

4. What is the purpose of the 'permit to work'?

Suggested Practical Work

Take a look at the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) for your aircraft and
study the fuel tanks section. Find out how the tanks are sealed and any
sealing repair that you may be required to perform.

If you can (thinking safety here) have a look at the inside of the tanks, and
note the construction and the sealing techniques.

""",,"",,

b;,L~ u_
_-~ -12 --
E:~'
~-

£-- --------
 Chapter 2

REFUEL, DEFUEL AND DRAIN SYSTEMS

SAQ 5

List the types of refueling systems you have seen. Decide what they had in
common and what differences they had.

We now have our fuel tanks constructed, sealed and working fine. Quite
clearly then we need some way of being able to get the fuel into the tanks and
distribute it for maintenance reasons or for flight. We can categorise fuelling
systems into two broad bands:

* Open orifice fuelling (also called over-wing or gravity fuelling).

* Pressure refuelling or under wing fuelling.

Open Orifice Fueling

Sometimes referred to a 'over-wing' or 'open vent' refuelling, this method of

fuelling an aircraft is essentially the same as the way we fill our cars with
petrol on the garage forecourt (although a bit more refined I hasten to add).

OVERWING FUEUlNG
POINT

LOCKING
HANDLE

--------
-FUELLING PORT-

Fig. 7 OVER WING FUELLING POINT

- 13 -

----- - - ---
On the top surface of the wing (or fuselage in some cases) there is a filler cap
and port (see figure 7). Lifting the tab on the cap allows the tanks to vent,
thus removing any trapped air pressure. The cap is then removed (by twisting
the tab or operating a lever). This opens the refuel orifice. This may be
connected to pipework delivering the fuel to all tanks or, more often, directly
into the individual tank. The cap should be connected with a lanyard to the
structure and often next to the port is a bonding point.

Great care needs to be exercised when using this method of refuelling to avoid
spillage. Fuel spillage is potentially environmentally harmful and as such is to
be avoided. In fact in the United States, heavy fines are imposed when fuel
spillage occurs.

Additionally you need to be careful when open orifice refuelling to prevent

contamination of the fuel - by rain, if raining - by fine debris, if a gale
blowing.

Other potential pitfalls with this method include the danger of walking on the
top surfaces of the wings. The possibility of damage to the wing from that
activity, filler caps and fuelling hoses hitting the surface. Also there is an
increased risk (and therefore engineer awareness) of fuel imbalances
developing between the tanks. Closing the cap is an important task and
failure to do so properly could have serious implications for the safety of the
flight. On some aircraft closing these caps requires a duplicate inspection.

By far and away the biggest draw back is that of time to refuel. The B7 47 has
the option of over-wing fuelling, but using this method would require a
staggering 8 hours to completely fill the aircraft at the maximum delivery rate
possible. Because of this reason another system was developed and we shall
discuss that next. You may still see over-wing refuel points on large aircraft,
but it has been my experience that they are never used and actually cause
more engineering issues through leakage than there value is. This might be
the reason why on the B777 there are no over-wing points.

Pressure Refueling

This is a system of refuelling where fuel under pressure [max 50psi (345 kPa))
is supplied from a bowser, tanker, or refuelling pumping vehicle. (It is quite
common at airports to-have the fuel pumped underqroundt-a-uehiele connects
into the ground connection and pumps the fuel into the aircraft). The bowser fuel
hose is connected to the refuelling point (figure 8). From this single point there
are a series Qf interIl-~pipes Jh?:t!ake the fuel to the various tanks. The fuel is
controlled into each specific tank by energising solenoids-in the refuel valves~~---

You may hear this type of refuelling described as closed line and it offers
significant advantages over the open orifice method and these are:

- 14- - - - - -

----- ---~~--=
 Higher pressures and flow rates, giving rise to shorter refuel times.
*
* Less risk of spillage.
Ability to fill any tank with any desired quantity of fuel using the
*
aircraft on-board systems.
* Reduced risk of fuel contamination.
* Better access. Fueling points may be accessed from the ground.
* Reduced risk of fire.

EARTHING
CROCODILE
CLIP

STANDARD
HOSE
CONNECTOR

GROUNDING LUG

REFUELLING
HOSE

HOSESEALING CAP

Fig. 8 PRESSURE REFUELING CONNECTION

Operation of the system is fairly simple. Firstly we require a power supply to

operate the various valves and indications, this can be provided from the
aircraft 400Hz supply or even off the aircraft battery. Usually power to refuel
systems is removed--When the aircraft becomes airborne,--preventing
inadvertent fuel transfer. This power supply goes to the refuel panel, which is
usually located with the refuel connectors we have already described. Usually
these componenis--are-llicatc-d behjnd 9 panel close to the mainplane, check
the AMM for details. ---

SAQ 6

What ATA chapter of the maintenance manual will you be looking in for refuel
information?

- 15 -

- - --~---~~---'
Figure 9 shows a typical refuel system, consisting of the pressure connectors
and the refuel panel. Figure 10 shows a typical refuel valve. To operate the
refuel system we require power as explained earlier.

With power available, and the refuel panel door fully open, the indications on
the refuel panel will show. (they may go through a BITE check first). The dust
cap is removed from the fuelling point and hose end. The aircraft bonding clip
is connected to the refuelling hose and the hose connected to the aircraft
fuelling point via the quick release bayonet type connector.

The action of connecting the hose to the aircraft opens both the valve on the
aircraft refuelling point and the fuelling hose.

With the bowser pumping the pressure will open the non-return valve and put
fuel pressure into the system that supplies all the tanks (sometimes called a
rear gallery).

FUELING QUANTITY
PRESELECT UNIT TEST BUTTON
FUELING QUANTITY (EXAMPLE) OVERfILL
YAI.VI
(REPEATER) INDICATOR
(Z LOCATIONS) -
9 ....
RESET
SWITCH

IIO.Z Mill tlllTEI WIII5 T IIO.S MIN 110.4 MIN

..... ..eJ-c
,
-- ....c±c
--,.
UfT .....
-
0:" C-:re .J" ___In-U_' eFc ..-0

~ e ~ ~ @ @ ~~ ~ ~

Fig. 9 REFUELLING CONTROL PANEL

This fuel comes to the inlet of the refuel valves (figure 10). It is now allowed to
pass through the upper removal check valve and, because the diaphragm has
calibrated holes in it, is felt on both sides of the diaphragm.
The strong spring in the refuel valve body holds the valve shut. If we now
'select' a particular valve open by operating the switch on the refuel panel, the
solenoid will energise. This allows the fuel on one side of the diaphragm to be
ported back into the tank through the lower removal check valve. This ports
faster than the calibrated holes allow it to fill so the fuel pressure now moves
the diaphragm, and hence the refuel valve poppet moves to the open position.

Fuel now flows into the specific tank until such time as fuel pressure is
removed or the solenoid is de-energised. Once there are some valves open, and
this is indicated on the refuel panel with (blue) lights coming on, the valve
position switch is moved and the pressure from the bowser can be increased.
Don't forget to reduce it though before shutting off. Notice the fact that on this
aircraft the diaphragm assembly can be removed, without removing the body.
The diaphragm assembly is the most likely to fail and so it is very useful to be
able to change this without defueling the tank.

•
REAR SPAR--" REMOVAL CHECK VALVE

INLET

OVERRIDE
SCREW
R£TAINER

VALVE
POSITIO
SWITCH

REFUEl, VALVE CLOIED

REAR .AR-_~ REMOVAL CHECK VALVE

INLET
OVERRIDE
&CREW
RETAINP

VALVE
P'OIlTION
SWITCH

REFUEL VALVE c.EN

Fig. 10 REFUEL VALvE-----~~~

The gallery may have restrictors installed at certain locations to allow all
tanks to be filled at the same time. Care still needs to be maintained to ensure
an imbalance doesn't develop (we do not want more fuel on one side of the
aircraft than the other as this would up-set the aircraft's C of G).

17 -
Sometimes additional refuel points are provided to increase the speed of the
fuelling operation.

Refuel valves can be mechanically operated but they are normally solenoid
operated, using the fuel pressure to open. This type of refuelling requires
overfill protection to prevent tank rupture or fuel spillage.

Also with some swept wing/ delta wing aircraft care has to be taken that when
refuelling / defuelling so as not to put the C of G outside the range between
the main gear and the nose gear.

Defueling

There are times when we need to defuel an aircraft for maintenance reasons.
Tank entry should be kept to a minimum to reduce the risk of introducing
foreign objects that could travel down the fuel lines and block the engine fuel
feed system. So we only go into the tanks when we absolutely have to - it's a
fairly unpleasant job anyway.

Figure 11 shows a typical defuel system. With the bowser connected, we de-
seat the non-return valves, and then turn the defuel handle, on new aircraft
this is often a switch selection on the refuel panel. This connects the forward
gallery (in the drawing) to the refuel points. We now use the engine fuel feed
boost pumps to provide fuel to the forward gallery and through the defuel
valve to the bowser.

BYPASS
REFUEL VALVE (2)
STATION\
(2)

\
OVERRIDEI
JETTISON
'BOOST PUI'lP (2)
, ............-\1......, • " PUI'IP (4)
JETTISON
\ REFUEL PUI'IP (2)
VALVE (6)
JETTISON
NOZZLE
VALVE (2)

Fig. 11 .DEFUE~YSTEM

Once the bowser has positive flow the pumps on the bowser can be selected to
suck. Thoughtful consideration has to be given as to where you are taking fuel
from to prevent imbalances developing.

- 18 -
 SAQ 7

Consider how we could use a combination of the refuel and defuel systems to
transfer fuel for maintenance activity?

Refueling/ Defueling Precautions

Refuelling/ defuelling an aircraft can be a very dangerous exercise as it is

highly combustible and fuel flow will cause a build up of static electricity -
which could cause a spark if the correct bonding has not been carried out. It
can also be a costly exercise if fuel is spilt as it is expensive as well as any
legal financial penalties that might exist.

Taking sensible precautions means that all refuelling/ defuelling can be

carried out with little risk:

* Ensure the correct grade of fuel is used (see LBP books on module 15).
Check the bowser drivers log book to ensure that the required dip
checks have been carried out on that particular batch of fuel. This will
also give you to the specific gravity of the fuel.

* The aircraft needs to be bonded to earth, ideally through a purpose built

bonding line but CAAIPs provides an alternative for 'field' operations.

* The bowser must also be bonded to earth and this is often done through
the tyres or a bonding chain/lead hanging underneath.

* The bowser and aircraft need bonding together. A bonding lead is reeled
out from the bowser to the aircraft and connected to the earth point,
which is often (but not always) near the refuel point.

* Refueling hose is bonded to aircraft.

* The aircraft (and bowser) must be in a designated refuel area that could
contain spillage in some manner.

* No smoking or naked lights - fairly obvious I would hope.

* Aircraft power should not be connecfedToftdisconnected during the

refuel process. APU's if running should be left running for the duration.

----*-----Ensure fire cover, be that-provided by the .airportfire.service or through __ ~

your individual hand held C02 or Dry Power extinguisher. As a point of
note you must not refuel in a hangar unless you have additional fire
cover available.

------------ -
* No radio or radar transmissions during the operation.

* No refueling during an electrical storm.

* Cleanliness is vital with all refueling components to prevent fuel

contamination.

Draining

So far we have considered only defuelling an aircraft for maintenance

purposes. Prior to entering a tank for leak rectification or inspection the tank
will need to be defueled and drained completely. The reason is fairly simple,
the only way fuel can be removed from a tank during a defuel operation is via
the boost pump, the inlet of which are never located right at the bottom of the
tank. This will mean that a portion of fuel (typically about 20 gallons - 901) is
left in the bottom of the tank. This has to be removed by draining.

Additionally light aircraft are often without boost pumps in the tanks and they --.../
have to be defueled and drained completely from the drain ports.

There is yet another use for the drain ports, and that is taking fuel samples.
We shall discover later in the book the problems that water can have in tanks.
Water is denser than fuel so sinks to the bottom of the tank. Opening the
drain port will allow it to be removed and then sampled.

So what is a drain port? Figure 12 shows a typical drain port. They are located
at the bottom of the fuel tank. For sampling reasons the primary poppet is
pushed up, this de-seats and allows the fuel from the very bottom of the tank
to be removed into a container. During the defuelingj draining operation I've
described the primary poppet valve is removed, this allows the secondary
poppet to seat and prevents fuel spillage. A tool is now inserted to allov: the
secondary poppet to de-seat and the fuel to flow away - into a container.

~V/lt---FUE~SUMI'
O"AIN VALVE

lOWER
WING
Sit-IN

.
~ ~--_._._------..se.atNG~-. _._+,~~~~-=4S:o;;ECft°~'AAV

SPRING

PRIMARY
'ACI(ING~~
POPPET

LowER
WING
SKIN

Fig. 12 DRAIN VALVES

Venting

As we put the fuel in (or take it out) or even as the engines use the fuel during
flight, we have to allow air into and out of the tank. Failure to do so could cause
the tanks to explode during refuelling operations or even worse cause a vacuum
when the engines are running and thus starve them of fuel.

When allowing tank venting we need to think carefully as we are moving highly
explosive air from a tank to the outside atmosphere. Also when allowing air into
the tanks the last thing we want is contamination enter the venting system.

Figure 13 shows a typical venting system, the purposes of which is to:

* Balance the air pressure within the fuel tanks with ambient air.
* Allow for thermal expansion of the fuel/fuel air mixture in the tanks.
* Protect the tanks from excessive internal pressures.

VENT~, ~
CB
'

'NBOARp SuRGE

PRESSURE
lA!t(
~RESET
I HANDt..E

ACCESS POOR W
I
,
rl~
"
----.-l/l'
fLOAT ACTUATE D
bBAUf VAlyE (6)
ft..A/lE
ARRESlED
DUIN

RE.. 1Er
vA.. VE ' "

fUE. VENT fLOAT yA' yE (/)

Fig. 13 TANK-VENTING SYSTEM

The- vent system -described -uses the top hat.etringer.isections ofthe wing to
--'"'------
transfer air to the surge tanks. Here there are two valves, one inward and one
outward with a flame arrester attached.

Let's consider first the refuelling cycle. As fuel is added through the refuel valves,
this displaces air. We provide 'holes' in the 'top hat' stringer sections that go to
make up the wing structure. These stringer sections are sealed in the same way
as integral tanks are.

---~----

---~~-- --- -~-------

The air is now able to pass along the stringer section and out to the surge tank.
The surge tank has an outlet that is protected by a stack pipe. The volatile air
fuel mixture from the surge tank is now forced overboard via a flame arrester and
the outlet.

As fuel in the tank continues to rise we need to stop it from entering the 'top hat'
stringer section via the same hole that the air was going through. We do this via
way of a float valve (see figure 14). Air is allowed to pass unhindered through the
open valve. As the fuel rises it lifts the float and closes the hole.

TANK

VALVE
SEAT

AIR IN
VALVE
AIR OUT

Fig. 14 FLOAT VALVE

MOUNTING
FLANGE

MAGNET
AnACHED
TO FLOAT
-
TOP REED
SWITCH

......~ - FLOAT

·--·-13~-

-'..!- - READ SWITCH

TUBE ASSEMBL Y

Fig. 15 FLOAT SWITCH

 Overfill Protection

Open line refuelling presents no problem in terms of venting or overfilling. If we

allow the pressure refuel system to overfill we will cause possible spillage or tank
or pipework rupture. Both obviously need to be avoided and protection is
provided for this.

The most basic form of protection is that of a float switch (see figure 15). As the
level of fuel rises to the level of the float switch, the float rises and the reed
switch breaks the electrical signal to the refuel valve, de-energising the solenoid
and hence closing the valve.

A more sophisticated method is where we use the content indications to work out
when the tank is nearly full and close the valves automatically. As the fuel level
approaches a pre-set 'full' indication the Fuel Quantity System removes the
,-., power to the refuel valve. This is called Volumetric Top Off (VTO).

Due to the cost of wasting fuel, large aircraft usually employ both systems. The
first line of defence is the VTO system. Should that fail fuel is allowed to travel
up the vent lines (in a controlled manner as some of the vent lines will have been
plugged with float valves) and into the surge tank. A float switch is fitted in here
and after an amount of fuel has flowed in, the switch will break all refuelling
power.

The fuel In the surge tank should not spill out, as a stack pipe protects the
outlet.

That concludes the section on refuelling, defuelling and draining. We have

covered quite a lot of ground and perhaps now is a good time to stop for a while
and consolidate what you have learnt. The answers to these questions are all to
be found in the text.

Exercises

1. What are the two types of refuelling systems?

2. What is the purpose of the venting system?

3. Explain how and when you might use a drain valve?

4. List the precautions associated with a refuel/ defuel operation-.---.

5. What is the recommended maximum flow rate for a pressure re-fuel and
over wing fuelling systems?

~-_._--_.... _--
... _ ~ - - - -
... _-----
Suggested Practical Work

Take a look at the AMM for your aircraft; study the systems we have just
discussed here in principle. Many manufacturers do things differently and an
understanding of various methods helps your overall understanding of the
subject.
If you do not normally get involved with refuelling yourself then tag alongside an
engineer next time they are refuelling an aircraft. See how the various figures for
the different tanks are set; ask to see the bowser drivers log book. Witness the
precautions we have discussed in action. Often I find it easier to remember
something once I have been involved with it.

If sampling is being carried out ask to be allowed to get involved. Check the
sample your self.

"",,"",,

- 24 ..
 j

,: ..." ., ... , f"."'·,' .~ ~.",.'

.j
1

Chapter 3

ENGINE FUEL FEED SYSTEMS

So far in our logical path through the aircraft fuel system we have managed to
get the fuel into the tanks safely and we now have to deliver it to the engines.

SAQ 8

Consider what requirements you would specify for an engine fuel system if you
had to design one?

A Basic System

Whatever type of tank we have fitted the principle for delivery of fuel to the
engine(s) is the same. Let us first consider a very basic system. Figure 16 shows
a very basic fuel delivery system not dissimilar to that fitted to the small Cessna
high wing aircraft.

TO ENGINE

,.....
."...

Fig. 16 A SIMPLE SYSTEM - LIGHT AIRCRAFT

Due to the fact that the tanks are higher than the engine and the aircraft is
designed for moderate manoeuvres only, the fuel can be gravity fed from the
tanks to the engine.----~-~--- -~-.---_

The tank selector valve is used to allow the fuel to be taken from either, or both
. ---------the tanks. This allows the pilot tocontrol the fuel and balance the aircraft.

Obviously even a simple aircraft can find itself inverted at times. Providing a
collector tank, below the engine often compensates for this unusual attitude.
Under normal operation this tank has fuel simply forced through it by the gravity
action above.

- 25 -
Under inverted flight a float valve closes the inlet and now fuel is fed to the
engine from the collector tank by gravity. The collector tank is small and relies
on the pilot righting the aircraft before too long.

Now let us consider an equally simple aircraft fuel system, but the tanks are
positioned lower to the enginej's, or even below the engine/so

A low wing light aircraft obviously cannot use gravity to move the fuel. The fuel
needs to be pumped from the tanks to the engine/so

The engine fuel pump does provide a degree of 'sucking' from the tank, but a
positive pressure is required to keep the fuel flow at an adequate level and to
prevent cavitation* in fuel lines and components.

The easiest (and cheapest) way of providing this pressure is to insert a pump in
the line from the tanks to the engine. Usually a single pump is installed after the
selector valve.

* Cavitation is caused by a suction (negative) pressure and can cause

aeration and serious erosion wear on pumps and other components.

SAQ9

If the pump in the system described above were to fail, will fuel get to the engine?
What sort of redundancy could we build into the system?

A LARGE COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEM

As we increase the size of the aircraft, and hence the number of tanks and
engines we need to adopt a different approach, yet one that is founded on the
simple principles discussed above. Figure 26 shows a modern large commercial
aircraft fuel feed system. --
You should notice some similarities to the basic system. These are the boost
pumps, a series of pipe work and cross-feed valves have now taken the place of
the tank selector. Let's now consider each in turn before returning to the 'big
picture'.

- --- - -'------_..._--',.-
Boost Pumps

Figures 17, 18 and 19 shows a typical boost pump and its control circuitry.
Boost pumps are large ac driven using 115v 3 phase supply.

- 26 -
 As with most systems, control is accomplished using 28vdc for safety reasons.

When the pump is selected on the motor turns the helical impeller at high speed
(up to about 10,OOOrpm). Fuel enters the pump through the inlet and is then
moved through the helical impeller and the centrifugal impeller and on to the
outlet.

The fuel inside the pump is also 'leaked' internally to provide cooling and
lubrication.

Boost pumps provide a low-pressure output, as the impeller style pump is more
suited to high volume flow rates rather than high pressures.

Pressures are about 19 to 26psi (131kPa to 179kPa). This pressure is monitored,

using a pressure reed switch and fed through the aircraft systems to provide
flight deck enunciation (warning) of a failed pump.

ELECTRIC
MOTOR

.....
.~

FUEL TANK BASE

FUEL TO ENGINE ~""Q....,"-~ l.;;;~~~

Fig. 17 BOOST PUMP

With reference to figure 18 note the 30 115V 400Hz supply to power the pump
controlled by a 28V"ilcrelay. Note-the similarity of the plunp windings_to th_e_~ _
windings of a 30 generator.

- 27 -
 r--------.....,
:
:
~:iV2 AC BUS~-:---------------""i:
~
r- 3~
~------
n=::
!NO. 1 MAIN AFP
l!IQ9S..! ~~ _ _ _J
I ~ I
L
I
J
P14 MAIN POWER NO. 1 MAIN AFT
CENTER LEFT BOOST PUMP

r ~ ~C~~ ~ --: -Sl0FF NO. 1 MAIN AFT

BOOST PUMP RELAY
I NO. 2 0 O-I-------eo,,~ ON
I 11I0 1 AFT
NO. 4 FWO
I NO. 1 MAIN AFT
I BOOST PUMP I BOOST PUMP
(TYPICAL)
I CONTROL I

Fig. 18 POWER SUPPLIES TO BOOST PUMP

P'AE"'AE
U ... HCi

._~/
OlICHARGI SlOf
OF~
..]LIHI[!::>
_.,.... . . ---
~.

~---- ,

TO MSTER
TEST
o
-/"
tP TO "ASTER
DIll
[i - ---Lm/ PRE SSUIlE
BOOSTPUIlP WARN I NG L! GHT
PRESSURE SW

-----____ Fig. 19. PRESSlJRE SWITCH. LOCATION & CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Boost pumps will normally be fitted on the front and rear spars of the integral
tanks. Sometimes they are housed in dry bays on the wing surface. Bag and rigid
type tanks require additional connections for the boost pump lines.

- 28 -
As we had with the smaller system, we require some level of redundancy.
Normally this is provided by having two boost pumps per tank, each on its own
being capable of delivering sufficient fuel to the engines. Also the same bypass
mechanism is available should both pumps fail. Additionally we can use fuel
from another tank.

SAQ 10

Which tank(s) should be used first by the engines and how could this is achieved?

Cross-feed System

Looking again at figure 26, we notice that there is a series of pipes connecting all
the boost pumps and engines together. This is called the cross-feed manifold, or
sometimes referred to as the 'forward gallery' or 'gallery'. (We saw the 'rear
gallery' in action when we discussed pressure refueling).

Fuel from the boost pumps is pumped out of the tanks and into the cross-feed
manifold. It's motion is now controlled by a series of valves; to move fuel down to
the engine we have to open the Spar valve (also called LP valve and LP cock), that
is controlled by the engine fuel control. This valve is the last part of the airframe
system. From here on the fuel system is considered to be part of the engine.

To move fuel to another engine via the cross-feed manifold, we have to open one
of the cross-feed valves. Lets take this opportunity to develop our knowledge of
valves a little.

Valves

Can be one of three types: Manually actuated; electrically actuated or remotely

actuated via an electric actuator. All these types must provide the following basic
functions:

* Prevent fuel flow completely in the 'off position.

*~ Anowunhindered fuel flow in the 'open' poeitien.c--
* Provide relief, should the pressure in the LP fuel pipe-work become
excessive.
* Indication of valve position, bothremotely to the flight deck and physically
. on the valve itself. (In the case of some light alrcraftthe fuel corntOl valve-is
fitted directly to the control knob, which means fuellines close to, or even
in the cockpit. Not allowed in large CAT [Civil Air Transport] aircraft).

- 29 -
 ACTUATOR
/ ELECUICAL
CONNECTOR

INDEX PLATE

OPERAT IN~
SMAfT",
ACTUATOR
"'OUNTlN~
MOLE (4)

AL I ~N"'ENT
SCREW (J)
AL 1~~~ENT
"'ARKS

INDEX PLATE

YALVE BODY VALVE POSI1l0N

INDICATIONS

6Uf.lU

Fig. 20 REMOTELY ACTUATED ELECTRICALLY

OPERATED VALVE

All the three types of valves are essentially the same; it is the actuation method
that is different. Figure 20 shows a typical remotely actuated electrically operated
valve. Notice the valve body, this is the same on all types of valve and will be
either a butterfly style valve or the 'donut' style of valve. Both have internal
thermal relief, to provide over-pressure relief should (due to thermal expansion)
the pipes become over-pressurised. This fuel is ported back into a tank.

The valve works by a shaft turning in the valve body causing the butterfly to
open or close. How that shaft is turned varies from aircraft to aircraft. Common
on large aircraft is the one pictured; the valve body is buried inside the tank, and
it has an operating link connecting the valve body to a mount plate. The actuator '-'"
is connected onto the mount plate via splined couplings and four location
screws. (Note the bonding lead). This means the actuator, which is the most
likely component to fail, can be changed without the need to drain the tank.

Indication of the valve has to be provided back to the flight-deck.

Figure 21 shows the indication circuitry for a jettison valve which is similar as
-~~~ ~~-
.. n the valve actuators are identical.Tt.Ia.powered bJ[~8Y-dc-"Moving_thes~tchto c---~--:-

open will allow the 28vdc two ways, firstly it goes to the motor (actuator) which
starts to run. Secondly it goes to the indicator via the closed contacts in the
motor (this is not show very clearly - but read on) and will illuminate this lamp.

- 30 -
 r-------,
I
r - - - - - - - - -1 Of"E/'I I
o
I 11111 DC BUS "'0 3 I I
I I
I o--------<lr-------~ I
I RIGHT FUEL I ~~-+----__e~
I .lETTISON NOZZLE ANDI I ~~r- I
I ~~~iS~~>4,J;:'vE I L ..J
L j ~~~,~~~lilLlLE
'12 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT MIGHT NOZZLE VALVE
BREAKER PA/'IEL VALVE SWITCH

TO RIGHT CENlE R
JETTlSO/'I IIAL vr

,----._----.,
I I
I I
I I
TO J,lASHR 01'" TO MASH R TEST
I
L J
RIGHT NOlZLE
VALVE I"'DICATOR LIGHT

Fig. 21 JETTISON VALVE INDICATION AND POWER CIRCUIT

The motor runs and the valve shaft and butterfly operate. When it reaches the
open position the contacts inside the motor are moved mechanically. This causes
the 28vdc supply to be removed from the open coil of the motor and from the
indicator. The motor stops and the indicator goes out. This type of action is quite
common and is called a disagreement indicator. If the indicator stays on, it
means the valve has failed. The electrically actuated variant of the valve is the
same, except now the actuator and the valve body are one unit.

Manual operated valves use a small diameter [about 1/8" (3.2mm)] control cable
from the fuel cock to the valve body, running through fairleads, pulleys etc.
..-~
The last two systems are rare these days, but be aware of the manually operated
type on light aircraft.

SAQ 11

What post installation checks will be requiredufter a remote fuel system actuator
is changed?

Fuel Delivery Pipes (LP)

The engine fuel feed system, and hence the cross-feed system requires a large
amount of pipe-work. Our knowledge of boost pumps now allows us to know that
they move volume rather than pressure so this pipe-work will be designed to take
low pressure high volume flow rates.

- 31 -

---- - --_----C'
 I shall consider a large aircraft system, but smaller aircraft have the same
principle applied but perhaps not so detailed.

Fuel pipes will not be required to handle pressures over 50psi (345kPa) and as
such are made from aluminium alloy and the diameter being large enough to
cope with the flow rates. This is determined by the amount of fuel the engines
need, but typically these pipes are about 2%" (64mm) in diameter.

The pipes are thin walled and as such care needs to be taken whilst handling.
Usually most of the pipe-work is contained within the tanks only venturing
outside the tanks when they need to - pylon areas for example and feed to the
engines.

(27) RETAINING RING

(23) COlJ'lING NUT (25) COUPliNG BODY

(26) fERRUlE ,-

, fERRULE
ENO fLANGE

(25) COUPLING BODY

_<-::1
[27] RETAINING RING ...i
, d'
(28) O-llING
--~\ ~.
.,' ~:~~~ -
\\ " . I
. " .... ,.-,1 .. _,,'

"'i%i ,;P (24) fUEL

~ .. LINE
f~~, (28) O-RING
• I
(23) COUPLING NUT
(26) fERRUlE
(22) fUEL LINE
RIGID COUPLING
(EXPLODED VIEW)

Fig. 22 TYPICAL LP PIPE RIGID COUPLING

When we consider the wing (and hence the tank) we start to see there are some
problems with pipe-work that have to be overcome. A single piece pipe would be
somewhat impractical, certainly if ever it needed changing. We therefore need as
series of connectors and these Yieed to be fuel tight using seals capable-of
withstanding 50psi.

----Secondly, considenng-the.wing.Itself'..a largeamount of flexing j:akes_ plac~_~d

as such the pipes need to be flexible.

Tubular metal construction is really not suited to bending as it kinks, and so the
flexibility required is provided in the couplings. We also need to think of basic
physics as we're intending pumping large volumes of a fluid through the pipes
and this will induce static electrical build up.
 [16] O-RINGS
[17] COUPLING
[9) O-RING
FITTING END (15) COUPLING I J' NUT

~ .. -;ic~i\~
[14) FERRULE
.~- / [10] COUPLING [14] FERRULE

:~~,~C" -s; [~~T) FERRULE \~.:'\;~~~~~

,~.",.., [12) FUEL
LINE

CC. j ....
[21J FUEL
~ . ~::" ~
LINE
.--~~, ·~:~~~r, [18) FUEL
L,····- ,".,-- LINE
J [20) RETAINER
[13) RETAINING HALVES [19) RETAINING
RINGS
RINGS

FLEXIBLE HALF COUPLING FLEXIBLE FULL COUPLING

Fig. 23 PIPE FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

This needs to be prevented and as such all pipes are electrically bonded together
and to the aircraft structure. Figure 22 shows typical examples of pipe rigid
couplings.

There are numerous types of couplings and reference should be made to the
AMM of the aircraft concerned for type and fitting instructions. As a summary
however:

* Ensure the correct seals are fitted and in the correct way.
* Ensure the pipes have no nicks or dents - particularly around the seal
mating surfaces.
* Torque load correctly, to prevent damage and allow the seal LO 'seat'
correctly.
* Ensure correct bonding of the pipes.
* Carry out leak checks after assembly.
* Some airlines insist on duplicate inspections on engine fuel feed leak
checks.

Pipes in Pressurised and Fire RlskAreas

It was mentioned earlier that we try to keep fuel pipes inside tanks, that way if
-they leak the fuel.simply leaks into the taI1~S and is contained.

There are times when the pipes need to be outside of the tanks. To get from the
tank (wing) to the engine for example requires the fuel pipe leave the tank and on
most large aircraft to come through the front spar; through the pylon area (if the
engines are podded under the wing) and into the engine.

- 33 -

. . ._ ~ - _ . - . _ - - - - - -
 Here we might expect to see additional precautions taken to ensure any leakage
does not find its way to the engine hot section. This can include such things as
scuppers and channels to direct the spilt fuel overboard. (The engine has a fire
bulkhead by regulation). Any couplings near the engine would be shrouded with
an overboard drain.

APU SHROUD
DRAIN !lAST

~ FIID

"APU FUEL
SUPPL Y LINE
<TANK TO APU)

~
APU StlROIJD
CEN TER TANK
UPPER SKIN\
~~<L--'
SHR OUD
/DRAIN LINE
CONNECTION
O DRAIN LINE
OUTLET

~BAIN !lAST OIIIlEJ

APU FUEL SUPPLY LINE CONNECTION LOOKING fORWARD

Fig. 24 FUSELAGE PIPELINES

Another time where we must run pipes outside the tanks is [Q get fuel to the
back of the aircraft for tail mounted engines, tail mounted fuel tanks (aircraft
trimming and fuel transfer) or an APU. Here we use a flexible pipe shrouded by a
'normal' aluminium alloy fuel pipe. Any leakage from the flexible pipe is
transferred into the shroud. The shroud is ported to a drain mast and any fuel
accumulation is drained overboard.

A standard 'ramp' check',\T0l.!ld include checking the drain mast for 8.l:1yjpel. See
figure 24.

Remember also that whilst we have been considering engine fuel feed pipes, the
-~ -~-~~- same style of pipe-s arealsofitted to-the-refuel/ defuel gallery:-----~~-------

- 34 --
Water Scavenging
Back to engine fuel feed now. Finally lets consider water in fuel. Water is a big
problem, as we shall discuss in the next chapter, unfortunately no matter how
we try, we can never prevent it from entering the tanks as it is not possible to
manufacturer jet fuel that is completely free of H20. What we seek to do is to
prevent it from building up to unacceptable levels.

As water is heavier than the fuel it will sink to the very bottom of the tank. (refer
back to water drain checks from the sum drain - the lowest point in the tank).

What the designers do is to 'suck' the water from the bottom of the tank and
send it off to the engine for burning. This may sound strange but as the quantity
of water to fuel is low it makes no real difference to the engine performance.

_-_"2- - --'C.-_---.. .

BOOST PUMP
INLET

INDUCE PORT

DISCHARGE
PORT

MOTIVE _PO_RT_ --~~"'"'b..t::=t:*~~~--

JET
NOZZLE

Fig. 25 EJECTOR PUMP AND SCREEN

- 35 -

-~----- -----------
Figure 25 shows a typical ejector pump used for drawing off the water. It works
on the venturi principal. When fuel is passed through the venturi it speeds up
and the pressure in the venturi lowers (Bernoulli). Careful design means that it
can actually turn into a vacuum pump drawing fluid (water) through the induced
port. The connection to it goes to the very bottom of the tank, where we expect
the water to collect and hence it sucks any water out and off to the engines.

CENTER WING TANK

NO.2 MAIN FWO
BOOST PU,.,

EJECTOR PUMP TO RIGHT

WING
IlAHIFOLO
TO OUTBOARD BOOST PU,., BYPASS (TYPICAL)
FUELING RECEPTACLE CHECK VALVE
/'- '1~I'_-'- I
~~'
I
-, FUEL
CROSSFEEO
LINE FLOW
NO. 1 ENGINE EQUALIZATION
FUEL SIIUTOFF VALVE
VALVE

'-J
OVERRIDE/JETTISON
P\JIIPS

NO. 1 MAIN
TANK

NO.2
RESERVE
TANK
IT> NO.2 RESERVE TANK
TRANSFER VALVE

Fig. 26 ENGINE FUEL FEED FLOW DIAGRAM

- 36 -
 The motive force of the fuel is provided by the engine boost pumps via the engine
fuel feed system. It is worth noting that the last dregs of centre wing tank fuel
often have to be scavenged out and you might see this type of ejector pump in
use here.

Bringing It All Together

Figure 26 shows a fairly typical large commercial aircraft fuel delivery system.
Notice all the components we have covered so far. Make sure you understand the
working of all the components (go back through the notes and consolidate your
knowledge at this stage if not). Go though the system and make sure you
understand how it works and the function of each component. You should be in
a position, as far as the CAA examination is concerned, to be able to draw and
"'" describe a fuel system and fault rectify.

That concludes the section on engine fuel feed (fuel delivery systems). Now some
consolidation questions the answers to which are to be found in the text.

Exercises

1. What type of pump is a boost pump and why use this particular type?

2. What are the basic precautions associated with connecting fuel pipes?

3. Where are pipes shrouded and why?

4. How is water scavenging carried out?

Suggested Practical Work

Take a look at the Maintenance Manual for your aircraft and study the systems
we have covered here. An understanding of other systems will help your overall
understanding of the subject.

Check the type fuel couplings used on your aircraft, and in particular discover
how they are assembled.
--------
Try and check on the design philosophy for no leak pipes - checkon-whafriifs·-
been said in this book is true on your aircraft.

- 37 -

- - - -~-_._---

----~~----------------~
 Chapter 4

FUEL JETIISON SYSTEMS

It is required that all aircraft have a method of off-loading fuel in case of an

emergency. This has to be done without further endangering the aircraft or it's
occupants and needs to be done rapidly.

Consider an aircraft on its take off run. Shortly after its VI (decision speed) it
suffers an engine failure. The pilot has to take-off as txe] she has insufficient
runway to stop. Once airborne they will want to land again as quickly as
possible. Unfortunately with full passengers compliment and full cargo holds and
full fuel tanks the aircraft is too heavy to land (it could break the undercarriage
and possibly cause significant damage to the aircraft).

It must loss weight (mass) somehow.

The only option of removing weight is to dump fuel. This is called fuel jettison.

Have a look at figure 27, which shows the B777 fuel jettison system. It is typical
of most large aircraft and in fact the Airbus philosophy is very similar.

/
OVORIDEI
JHTISON
P\J1lP (2)

"fUEL JUT! SON

PVIV' Ul

Fig. 27 FUEL JETTISON SYSTEM

Asyouean see from figure 26, and our previouscstudies, the refuel (or rear)
gallery is only used on the ground normally. The designers have utilised this idea
by using the refuel gallery for jettison purposes. Very simply we open two valves
at the ends of the rear gallery and allow fuel in. The fuel is then directed through
----}ettisonnozzles-loc-ated--at the wing tips.--~- ---- --------

In the centre tank the normal boost pump pressure is sufficient to provide the
motive force required. So installed are two jettison valves that are normally
closed. These motorised valves open when 'fuel jettison' is selected.

- 38 -
In the main tanks the normal boost pumps have sufficient power, so additional
jettison pumps are added. When jettison is selected these pumps run. These
pumps are basically larger 'boost' pumps and as such we don't need a detailed
description of their make up and operation.

The principle is the same on the B747 tank jettison system, but, to save weight
only the inboard tanks have the jettison pumps. Fuel is transferred from the
outboard tanks to the inboard tanks by gravity. This is done by having inter-
connecting valves and pipe-work, the valves being activated when the jettison
system is activated.

Control of the Jettison Operation

Jettisoning fuel is fraught with dangers, and needs to be carefully controlled as

the aircraft is already in danger - otherwise it wouldn't be jettisoning fuel.

SAQ 12

What problems can occur with the aircraft in the jettison configuration and how
can they can be resolved?

Selection (and control) of fuel jettison can be accomplished either manually or

automatically. Both require pilot initiation. Figure 28 shows a manual initiated
and controlled jettison system control panel. The top row of switches are for the
main tank jettison pumps, under that we have the selector valves for gravity
transfer and finally the bottom row has the switches that actuate the jettison
valves.

trlIO._
Jlmoooo ~
M) • __

011..-0 ..eo ... out..

1-·1-11-"1 ...·1
9:0 ®:®
1101 ....... , ..... 000. _ _

I ~.:: 11 ::~ I ::: 11 ~:: I

. . . . - HOlZU VAlYU

9r y~~T:-~l ~
aOM IIO\AnoN VAlV1 , ...
-I--tr-----

B (5--
"OM

Fig. 28 FUEL JETTISON CONTROL PANEL

- 39 -

---- - -- ~~---~
The aircrew have to select all these switches to start the jettison process.
Following on from that they have to monitor the contents from the tanks to stop
any imbalances happening and to stop the process at the pre determined level.

In an automatic system the aircrew select a 'fuel remaining' figure on the control
panel. They then simply press the arm jettison button and this puts the jettison
under the control of a fuel systems control computer, in this case the Fuel
Quantity Indicating System (FQIS). What happens now is fully automatically
controlled?

The pumps run and the valves open and fuel level tanks starts to fall, as this
happens the FQIS ensures that the aircraft stays balanced. Also the FQIS has
calculated where the 'fuel remaining' should be and ensures the tanks empty to
that level. We shall discuss FQIS in more detail in the next chapter.

Figure 29 shows the automated system control panel and the CRT displays. The
data comes from the EICAS (Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System) J
computer on Boeing aircraft (ECAM Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor on
the Airbus aircraft). It is much easier for the aircrew to operate.

lUll ![lTlSOh

fUt~ JtTTISOH PANt~ (pS>

_
-Pc
.t\c , .
_r.t .

fUEL SYNOPllC OISPLAY

EJUS DISPLAY

Fig. 29 FUEL JETTISON PANEL AND EICAS DISPLAYS

Jettison Safeguards

Computer systems are usually very reliable, and fuel is rarely jettisoned.
However, errors can happen and the design of a system should allow for
safeguards without adding too much weight to the aircraft.

- 40 -
 To prevent complete jettison of the entire contents, the fuel for jettisoning is
taken from a higher point in the tank than the normal fuel for engine burning.
This is typically done by having a stack pipe installed on the inlet, meaning the
jettison pumps will 'suck air' when the fuel gets down to this level whilst there is
still sufficient fuel below the stack pipe available for engine delivery.

Another, less common, method is to use a float-operated valve that closes and
prevents any fuel entering the jettison system below a predetermined level.

Maintenance of the jettison system (not unlike maintenance of the system as a

whole) is carried out periodically (as per the Maintenance Schedule) and might
include checks to ensure all the valves and pumps run correctly. In addition you
would expect to carry out a leakage check of the pipe-work of the rear gallery.

During these checks care needs to be exercised to prevent inadvertent discharge

,.... of fuel from the jettison nozzles. To help, the jettison nozzles are often protected
with air/ground sensing (weight switches, or squat switches, operated when the
landing gear shock absorbers compress on landing). This means they cannot be
opened with the aircraft on the ground (unless, of course, the CB's for the air /
ground system are pulled).

Having said all that jettison systems are used very rarely. Even on occasions
when you might reasonably expect the commander to jettison fuel, they often
elect for overweight landing instead. Cost and environmental constraints dictate
this action. This rare use means that our checks are even more important.

FUEL

A full and detailed explanation of fuel ty pes is carried out in the books in this
series entitled The Jet Engine. But below is a brief explain of the various types of
"'" fuel that might be available.

Jet A

. -I~!A is the most common turbine engine fuel and all that is available in the USA
for jet engined aircraft. It is a kerosene fuel based on crude oil. It has a moderate
freezing point. If you had to use a military supply you would call this fuel
AVTUR. A variation on Jet A is Jet AI, this is the same fuel but with a freezing
pointdepr-essant-added to lower the point at which entrained water becomes ice
crystals. Typical freezing point of Jet Al is -47°C. --

- 41 -
--- - -----_.
Avgas

Avgas is a gasoline-based fuel that is used on piston engined aircraft. Its name is
short for Aviation Gasoline and is not dissimilar to normal petrol. As you may
well imagine, this type of fuel is much more volatile than kerosene based fuels. A
variation of this is MOGAS, short for Motor Gasoline, which is petrol off the
garage forecourt. Its use is allowed on some light aircraft provided it meets
specification BS EN228 or BS7070 (AWN number 98l. but not those which are
flown as commercial air transports.

Jet B

Jet B is a mixture of Jet A and Avgas. It burns much hotter and has similar
explosive qualities as pure gasoline. Generally this type of fuel is only available in
the developing world. Its use must be documented in the Tech Log and this can
give rise to additional precautions when entering tanks.

Aviation fuels must:

* Be pumpable.
* Permit quick starting of the engine.
* Be non corrosive.
* Be self lubricating.
* Be resistant to fungus growth.
* Have a low freezing point.
* Have low emissions.
* Have a high calorific value (give off a lot of heat when burnt).

Water in Aviation Fuel

Aviation fuel, and turbine fuels in particular, tends to hold water. All efforts must
be taken to avoid introducing additional water during maintenance or refuelling
--
operations but some water is unfortunately inevitable. Water in fuel may be
classed in one of two ways:

* Free water - is water that collects at the lowest part of the tank. It is this
water that we saw ejector pumps removing. We can also carry out water
....... __ drain checks from. th~ ~Ul1}p_.gL~ns. __.. ...

* Water in Suspension - sometimes called entrained water. This is held as

tiny droplets within the fuel itself. It is not normally a problem providing
the fuel supplier has good storage and carries out the appropriate checks.
It can be detected should it be required by water detecting capsules.
 Water needs to be eliminated, as far as possible from the fuel. Most of the
methods, we have discussed already. As temperature of the fuel falls, the water
held in suspension will precipitate out. This will form ice long before the freezing
point of the fuel is reached. The formed ice can move down fuel lines and block
filters and hence engine fuel supplies. (The engine systems are designed to
prevent this but care in the early stages adds that all important safety factor).

Water does play a part in a more sinister invasion of aviation fuel, that is the
formation of fungus:

Fungus

In all areas of the world between latitudes of 30° north and 30° south, various
forms of fungus exist that are dangerous to aviation fuels, particularly turbine
.-- fuels. The most common is Cladosporium Resinae, which has airborne spores.

Its spores can stay alive in virtually any conditions, but to grow requires food
and water. Incredible as it may sound turbine fuel is a food source for them. So
now you can see that if we have water in the tank, we can grow fungus along the
water fuel boundary.

It grows as a green slimy fungus that does several things. In bag tanks it tends to
head off down to the engine filters and block those. In integral tanks it is even
more sinister where it will move to the edge of the tank and adhere to the metal
structure. Due to its molecular make-up it forms an anodic site on the tank wall.
The rest of the tank structure now effectively becomes a cathode and we have all
the ingredients of a corrosion cell. If you are carrying out tank inspections you
should be looking for black deposits on the walls, this is indicative of fungal
attack and needs cleaning and very detailed inspection carried out.

,- Generally limited to warmer climates, but can be seen as far north as Western
Europe. Cladosporium Resinae can be treated with additives to the fuel. Take
caution with these as they are very harmful. The most common used is BioBor.

As maintenance engineers we can check for fungal spores in the fuel by draining
some of the fuel and cultivating any spores for a week or so. Then use a dye to
detect them. Kits are available for this-.-

Bacteria

This is covered in the LBP books in this series entitled Jet Engines.

- 43 -
Bacteria can get into the fuel if dirty water has got in (during storage or cleaning
processes). It is very geographical and tends to be limited to warm tropical
climates. Care in refuelling and checking the fuel supplier's cleanliness
credentials will virtually eliminate this hazard.

LONGITUDINAL FUEL STABILITY SYSTEMS

From our Theory of Flight studies we should be familiar with the phenomena of
'Mach Tuck'. As the aircraft approaches the speed of sound (usually with a swept
wing aircraft) the centre of pressure moves rearwards and as such the lift force
opposing weight will put the aircraft equilibrium out of balance. This new
moment causes the nose of the aircraft to pitch down.

SAQ 13

How is this trim up-set of the aircraft normally countered? Can you think when this
normal method might be impossible to achieve?

An alternative is to move weight around within the aircraft. As we move the

weight we move the Centre of Gravity and hence the correct trim can be
regained. Refer to figure 30. The most obvious mass to move around is the fuel.

C of L MOVEMENT

C ofG

TRIM CHANGE AT MACH 2

REAR TRIM TANKS

FUEL TRANSFER FORWARD FUEL TRANSFER REARWORO

Fig. 30 MACH TRIM - CONCORDE

 Concorde has to move significant quantities of fuel from the forward trim tanks
to the rear trim tanks as the aircraft goes through the sound barrier and
accelerates to Mach 2. (As a matter of interest the Centre of Pressure actually
shifts about 6 feet (1.8m), causing a significant moment change). Moving fuel
from the forward trim tanks rearwards counteracts this.

Concorde holds about 33 tonnes (33.5 tons) of fuel in its trim tanks. As the
aircraft decelerates from supersonic to subsonic speeds the fuel is transferred
from the rear trim tanks to the forward trim tanks.

The system does have some useful side effects as the aircraft can be loaded tail
heavy for take off. This means the elevons (elevators and ailerons combined) can
be moved down from their normal 'up take-off position' to compensate and thus
increasing the camber of the wing, producing a flap like effect. Also fuel can be
used during flight for normal trimming of the aircraft, minimising drag and thus
"'. increasing fuel efficiency.

Some subsonic aircraft now have fuel tanks in the tail and the fuel is used for
normal trimming purposes.

That concludes the section on Fuel Jettison, Fuel Types, Problems and Stability
systems. Bit of a mixture I know but now have a go at the following questions.

Exercises

1. Explain how a jettison system works and why we need one?

2. How is the jettison process controlled?
3. What safeguards are built in to prevent total fuel jettison?
4. What is a fuel stability system?
5. Explain how we can detect Cladosporium Resinae and what measures
should be taken to avoid it in the first place?

Suggested Practical Activities

Study your maintenance manual and get to know the jettison system on your
aircraft. --~-

If you can, try to find a detection kit for water and fungal spores (they are
··~---ti4ficult to come by) Have a lookatitand read the instructions.

Carry out fuel jettison checks, see and understand why CB's are pulled and how
you get the aircraft fit for flight with a cleared CRS.

""""""""

r:'·-:-:~~_:..=:..:...:.:.·_-_·
- 45 -
;;,;:0-,-_.. _ .
 Chapter 5

INDICATING SYSTEMS

Indication of contents is there for two reasons, firstly to allow maintenance

personnel to put the correct quantity of fuel on board for the sector to be flown.
Secondly the flight crew require indication of the tank contents so they can keep
the fuel (and hence aircraft) balanced and work out diversionary routes etc.
should that be required.

Fuel indication systems can be split into three categories:

* Manual
* Mechanical
* Electrical/ Electronic

Let's consider each in turn, and it will almost provide a chronological

development of fuel indication systems through time.

Manual Indication Methods

Manual indication methods were the first type of indication, starting with
dipsticks similar to the dipstick fitted to the car engine for checking the oil
contents. Variations of the dipstick include the dropstick and the dripstick.

Dipsticks are fitted to some older aircraft and are used by maintenance engineers
to give a reliable indication of the contents of each fuel tank.

r.r=r.J SEALING CAP

DIPSTICK DROPS TiCK DRIPSTICK

NU~ SEALING W~ER -......... DRIP HOLE

Fig. 31 MANUAL FUEL CONTENTS MEASUREMENT

- 46-
 To use, unscrew the dipstick and remove complete with sealing cap if fitted,
clean with a lint free cloth, push back into the tank so that it rests on the top
screw cover, pull it out and note on the dipstick where the wetted section ends.
At this point the graduations on the dipstick will indicate the amount of fuel in
the tank. Replace the dipstick, screw into position and lock as per the AMM.

Figure 31 shows a simplified layout for the dipstick, dripstick and dropstick.

The dropstick is released from the bottom of the tank, the same as the dripstick,
and allowed to fall under its own weight. It will come to rest when the magnet in
the top of the stick reaches the iron core of the float. The graduations protruding
from the bottom of the tank give an indication of the tank contents.

[t
,
-

FULL
l QUARTZ
PRISM

SHUT-OFF CAP USED FOR

UNIT REMOVAL WITH
FUEL IN TANK

TANK
MOUNTING

Fig. 32 SIGHT GLASS TYPE 'DIPSTICK'

Figures 32 and 33 show two methods of manual stick measurement. Both are
unscrewed from their mounting and lowered out of the lower wing surface. In the
case of the sight glass the prism causes the viewing port tcfiimblack as the
prism is immersed in fuel. It is lowered slowly whilst looking at the prism
through the eyepiece - when it turns black note the graduation showing level
with trre tank fitting this-indicates the tank-centents, ~ ~

Note. Wear protective glasses just in case there is any fuel leakage.

- 47 --

--------- ----
- - - --- - -----------'
 The Dripstick is lowered slowly until the open top allows fuel to spill out of the
hole at the bottom of the stick. It is then a simple case of measuring off against
the scale and that gives the quantity in the tank.

FUEL IN
<,

DRIP STICKS (5)

fJf
E

Fig. 33 DRIPSTICKS

MAGNETIC
FLOAT " "
FLOAT
STOP

Fig. 34 DROPSTICK

- 48 -

------------~~-
A development from these was the dripless stick or dropstick (see figure 34). In
this system there is a ferrous material target attached to the top of the stick. The
stick is free to move up and down inside a fuel free cell or tube. The float, which
is in the tank, floats on top of the fuel and has a magnet inside it. When required
the stick is released from it's housing and then allowed to drop out of the bottom
wing skin. The target and the magnet coming together will stop it.

The reading can then be read off the scale. Usually this reading is given in inches
and that is converted into a quantity by looking up tables in the AMM and held
on the aircraft flight deck. Care needs to be taken as the readings maybe taken
back to front. Dripless sticks are still in use today as a backup method for
electrical systems.

MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS

Figure 35 shows a very basic mechanical system. It relies on a float (sealed cork
or a metal canister) located in the tank moving, directly, or through gears and
levers a pointer within an instrument casing. These devices are often found in
general aviation light aircraft. The manufacturers try to locate the dial or sight
glass where it can be seen easily by both the pilot and the person carrying out
the refuelling operation.

In some cases, on small older aircraft, a manometer type gauge might be fitted.

GEARING

PIVOT

Fig. 35 FLOAT TYPE INDICATOR

The Moving Coil Instrument

The moving coil instrument can be used to measure fuel level using a float type
transducer with a variable resister and the de signal sent direct to the
instrument without modification.

- 49 -
In all cases the output from the transducer is a de current which is changed by a
variable resistor - and this current "drives" the instrument windings against a
spring.

If a coil carrying current is placed in the field of a permanent horseshoe magnet,

the magnetic field due to the current interacts with the permanent magnet field
in such a way that the coil turns (figures 36, 37 & 38).

When conventional de current flows in a wire and the wire is going into the page
then current flow direction is indicated by the symbols 0 and $.

o represents the current flowing towards the reader (like the point of William
Tells arrow coming towards you) and the symbol $ represents the current flowing
away from the reader (like the flights of the departing arrow).

When current flows in a wire a magnetic field is set up around the wire. For a de
current flowing away from the reader the direction of the magnetic field is
clockwise (the corkscrew rule), and for a current flowing towards the reader the
field direction is anti-clockwise.
---

Current Current
coming going
towards into
reader page
CONDUCTOR

Fig. 36 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND A CONDUCTOR

Magnetic lines of force flowing between the poles of a magnet are said to flow
from north to south. If the lines of force, called flux lines, meet other flux lines
moving in the same direction then they are strengthened. If they meet flux lines -
moving in the opposite direction then they tend to cancel each other and become
weaker (figure 37).

FLUX LINES

-:
--c&s - MAGNE'l'-~ •N--.-=
. ~ ~-.-
===--- . . -..

RESULTANT FORCE ON CONDUCTOR

Fig. 37 FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR

- 50 -
The flux lines tend to behave as if they are elastic. They try to straighten and
will exert a force on the copper conductor (as shown).

If the conductor is wound in such a way as to form a loop within the permanent
magnet field then; when current flows, the loop will try to turn (figure 45).

~ DIRECTION OF ROTATION
PIVOT LINE

N + s -MAGNET

7 ..

Fig. 38 PRINCIPLE OF THE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

In the moving coil instrument, the loop of wire is repeated many times to form a
coil. It is wound on a former with a soft iron core, which is hinged and
connected to a pointer. The coil is connected to a de supply and the turning
torque of the de supply is resisted by the hairsprings (figure 39).

Figure 39 shows the construction of a basic moving coil instrument. When the
meter is connected to a circuit, and current flows, it will flow through the
hairsprings to the coil and the coil turns in a direction dependent upon the
direction of current through it. Thus, to get the pointer to move over the scale
the meter must be connected the right way round in the circuit.

SCAU POINTER

HAIR SPitING

COIL WOUND OH FORMER SOFi IRON COR£.

Fig. 39 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT

- 51 -

"" -"--------"----
An increase in current increases the deflecting force and the pointer moves
further over the scale until it is balanced by the controlling force of the springs.

The coil is wound on an aluminium frame which rotates with the coil. This
frame, moving in a magnetic field, has voltages induced in it and the resulting
eddy currents produce a force tending to oppose the motion producing them.
This gives a damping force to the meter and the pointer takes up its final position
quickly, steadily, without overrunning.

A Ratiometer Type System

Operated by a float that may be of cork specially treated to prevent fuel

absorption, or it may be in the form of a lightweight metal cylinder suitably
sealed. The float is attached to an arm which is geared to move a wiper over a
resistor. Figure 40 shows a float connected to its indicator which works on the
ratiometer principle. The current through coil A will be constant while the
current through coil B will vary due to change of resistance caused by changes in -./
fuel level.

The pointer of the indicator is attached to a permanent magnet situated between

the two coils. If the resistance of the wiper arm coil changes then the current in
arm B changes (resistance increase, current decrease). This means that the ratio
of the currents in A and B change and cause the magnet (and pointer) to take up
a new position.

It is usual, in this type of instrument to make provision for power failure. In its
present form, if power should fail, the pointer will stay where it is - not a good
idea. So for this type of instrument a small spring is fitted to bring the pointer
off-scale when power is off.

TANK VARIABLE
RESISTOR
--
FLOAT

dcPOWER--·--···· FUEL TANK---------·

Fig. 40 SIMPLE DC RATIOMETER TYPE FUEL QUANTITY INDICATOR

- 52 -
 Some transmitters may have provisions for adjusting the empty and full settings.
The position of the permanent magnet depends on the ratio of the currents
(magnetic field strength) of each coil, it is therefore independent of any voltage
variations. Any temperature change will affect both coils equally ie, resistance
change will be equal therefore once again this will not effect the fuel quantity
indication.

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

Due to their size and complexity large commercial air transports have these style
of systems as their primary indication method. Early aircraft had float operated
switches. Most aircraft now have capacitive type systems.

~~---INNER PLATE

OUTER PLATE
~

I :
"'.:-J

Fig. 41 SIMPLE CAPACITIVE TANK UNIT

From our basic electronic theory, we understand that if we have two metal plates
reasonably close together with a dielectric (air or fuel - or any other material for
"'" that matter) in between, we have a capacitor. The value of a capacitor is given by
the formula

C = EA/d
Where A is the surface area of the metal plates and d is the distance between
them. These two values are fixedbythe rnanufacturerof the unit. The value .of.s...
is altered by changing the dielectric constant, and that happens as we alter the
amounts of fuel and air covering the plates. This is because fuel and air have
-different values of & [permittizityl., ..

As we add fuel to the tank, the air is displaced by the fuel and the dielectric
changes to increase the capacitance of the unit. Thus the change in the
capacitance is related to fuel quantity.

------

---- --------"
---. ------~
 Obviously careful design and calibration has to be carried out. The capacitive
tank units are normally calibrated at manufacture and as such require no on-
wing calibration.

CAPAClTOR-
-. SIGNAL
PROCESSOR

Fig. 42 SIMPLIFIED CAPACITIVE FUEL GAUGING SYSTEM

Figure 42 shows a simple capacitive circuit with one tank unit. There are -'
normally several tank units for each tank, wired in parallel and supplied with a
small de voltage. This voltage sets up a potential difference across the plates
between which the capacitance is measured.
2

TWO CAPACITORS

(capacitar.ce 011 incttased

lanklitted capacUIa 012 decreased
lolalis lhuame)

Fig. 43 AVERAGING

Figure 43 shows how averaging is achieved. Throughout the tank th~rewi!Lbe

several capacitive units and their values will be added and averaged. This allows
for the possibility of the aircraft being in an attitude which causes the fuel to
move to one end of the tank. If, say the tank was half full and this happens, the
- --------~tank uriifs aforie end Will indicate cCfiIlttanKa:nd units attherrther will indicate
an empty tank - averaged we get a half-full tank. The size of the tank and the
shape, dihedral etc determines how many tank units are fitted.

Figure 44 shows a typical capacitive tank unit (with a compensating unit),

sometimes referred to as a stack.
 GAUGING UNIT

COMPENSATOR UNIT

Fig. 44 CAPACITIVE TANK UNITS

The outer plate is called the stillwell and allows the fuel to be moderately static
inside regardless of air turbulence.

The cables to and from the tank units are low voltage cables as they can get
immersed in fuel. They are all collected together and passed to a connection
point on one of the spars. This minimises the risk of fuel leakage.

SAQ 14
What effect on the dielectric constant will a change in fuel density (or specific
gravity) have?

So we need to compensate for change in density and there are a couple of ways
of achieving this. The simplest form of compensator is a small capacitive unit
(called a compensator) that sits at the very bottom of the tank, often very close to
the sump drain.
Unless the tank is completeIy--drained it will always be totally immersed-in-fuel.
This means that any change in capacitance of this unit is not due to a change in
the fuel level, but due to a change in the relative density of the fuel.
- - --~---

This signal is then used to trim the main tank units to allow for the slight
changes in fuel relative density.

- 55 .-
 DRIP STICKS (10)

TANK No 2 _ _to-\\

PRESSURE REFUELING------~
STATION

FUEL QUANTITY TANK

UNITS (24)
F~g. 45 EXAMPLE OF TANK GAUGING
COMPONENT LOCATION

6 8 9 10 11 12 13 1~

Fig. 46 DIFFERENT SIZES OF TANK UNITS

-- 56 -
 We shall now consider a 'bridge type' capacitive fuel quantity indicating system.
Once again it is important for you to know the system on the aircraft you are
currently working on, but it is also necessary for you to understand the
principles of this system.

The system is used to measure the mass of usable fuel on the aircraft. The basic
principle of the system is shown in the following diagram.

TANK UNITS

------------+-,---II~~I----.
L-_--.J
116V AC R
400Hz 11 ~+-Ji===;-'" -- - - -

COMPENSATION
CAPACITOR
(IN TANK)

_____ FAIL
___T SAFE
N CIRCUIT
nUlnENCl
'MASE

Fig. 47 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF FUEL CONTENTS INDICATING SYSTEM

With reference to figure 47, note the following points:

(i) Input to system is 115v 400Hz.

(ii) The many tank units are represented by one capacitor in one leg of
thebridge system and one compensating capaciter-in-theother.

(iii) In the other leg of the bridge is also a fixed capacitor as part of an
amplifier circuit..

(iv) Across the centre of the bridge is a resistor 'R', any voltage developed
across this is fed into the amplifier.

- 57 -

--_ .._ - - - - - - - - - - . : . =
 (v) The cockpit indicator is driven by a motor in the indicator. It is a two
phase motor with its control phase signal coming from the amplifier.
The motor drives the indicator and a balance potentiometer (a
variable resistor as part of a negative feed-back circuit).

Let us now look at the operation of the system.

Balanced Condition (fuel quantity steady)

1. The current through the top leg of the bridge IS is the same as the
current through the bottom leg of the bridge lB.

2. These two currents pass in opposite directions through the resistor R.

As they are equal then no current flows through R - no voltage is
developed across R, and there is no input to the amplifier. The
indication therefore remains steady.

Unbalanced Condition (fuel quantity decreases)

1. The capacitance of the tank units will fall.

2. The current in the top leg of the bridge will fall, because as the capacitance
has fallen then Xc = _1_
-/2nfc
then Xc must have risen, this capacitive reactance (resistance if you like) is
the opposition to current flow, therefore current must fall (I = VjXd.

3. Nothing at this time has happened to the current in the bottom leg.

4. The opposing currents through R are no longer equal IB is greater than IS·
The current flowing through R is therefore IB - IS, and the voltage drop
across R is (lB - IS)R.

5. This voltage drop across is fed to the amplifier, where it is amplified and
Ted-OnTO a discrimination stage.

6. It is important to note that the amplifier must pass the correct sense (up or
_-.do.wn).-signalto the control phase ofthe m()tor, to ensure correct direction
of rotation. The signal that it receives could be a 'fuel incre-ase'-OrTuel
decrease' signal. The discrimination stage looks at the phase relationship
of the signal from the bridge circuit and then it knows whether it is a fuel
increase or fuel decrease signal.

- 58-

- ---------_.~----'
 7. The signal is fed to the control phase of the motor. The reference phase is
fed off of another secondary of the main supply transformer. The motor
drives the indicator down scale and also the balance potentiometer
towards'empty'.

8. The balance potentiometer controls the voltage across the bottom leg of the
bridge. As the potentiometer wiper arm is moving towards empty, the
voltage across the bottom leg of the bridge is falling, therefore IB must be
falling. This is a negative feed-back signal to cancel the input to the motor.

9. Eventually IB will fall to the value of IS and when this happens, there will
be no voltage drop across R, no input to the amplifier, the motor stops and
the indicator shows the new lower fuel reading. At this point the bridge
circuit is said to be balanced.

Read through this again carefully, and work through what happens if there is a
fuel increase in the tank. As far as the equations are concerned there is no need
to remember them. There is no need to commit the details of the drawing to
memory either but you should be aware of the principles.

The principle is that as fuel quantity changes, the bridge becomes unbalanced
and the error signal is fed to an amplifier and motor which re-balances the
bridge.

A similar situation occurs when the density of the fuel changes. It will affect all
the tank units in both arms of the bridge and change all their reactance's
(resistance's) so the bridge remains balanced, but one arm has an extra
capacitance unit in the form of the compensator. This means that it will upset
the balance and start a similar train of events to when there is a fuel level
change.

Both the tank unit and the compensator signals are fed through cabling to
processor units. These compensate the signals and amplify them. For servo type
instruments the signal is a voltage sent direct to the flight deck instrument. For
eRT display systems the signal is sent to display drivers or symbol generators to
provide for flight deck readings.

An Electronic System

- Most modern aircraft have these-syetems-fitted although standby instruments,

similar to the type described above, are usually fitted for use if the normal
system fails.

- 59 -

_.-._~-- .. _--~~-
- --~---------~~~-----~
Electronic components are often housed around the display indicators
themselves. Lets now briefly discuss a digital systems.

In a typical digital system (figure 48) the tank unit signals, along with the
compensator signals, as well as density, temperature and water detection
(possibly), are fed to a computer, called (on Boeing aircraft) Fuel Quantity
Processing Unit (FQPU).

Usually the signals are sent as either discrete or analogue signals. Once at the
computer (FQPU), they are converted into digital data by the analogue to digital
converter (AID converter), then processed through the CPU.

The FQPU computer will calculate the fuel level for each tank and the total fuel
on board and transmit that data in Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) word format -.-/-
along either ARINC 429 or 629 serial data buses.

TU
o~

WO'F
TU TS
q: .." ~
CONCEH-
TRATOR TAHI(
CIRCUIT
I
I
.1
I/O
CIRCUIT
1-1"'"629/429
LefT AIIIS
CABINET

CHANNEL 1 L SYSTEMS ARINC

LEfT IIAIN r--- 629 BUS
FUEL TANI(
,.
~U\.
OUA

WO~
p.-L CONCEH-
TRATOR
H ~~UITI-- I-< 1i
IRP

TU
CENTER
'-- r-. 1/0
FUEL TANK CIRCUIT
TU
o~

I CAT A .
CONCEN-
TRATOR
L
r
I CIRCUIT' I l
I
1
CHANNEL 2
H
I
ARINC RIGHT AIPlS
CABINET

_--..,.~
TANK 1629/429
\I0---r=~
TU R SYSTEMS ARINC
1629 BUS
RIGHT IIAIN
FUEL TANK

Fig. 48 EXAMPLE - FUEL CONTENTS SYSTEM - BOEING

'tIle sign arTs sentto thetefuel panel (IRptfuI display-duringrefueling.-It-is also

transmitted to the display drivers (called various things such as Symbol
Generators but in figure 48 they are called AIMS - A Boeing term meaning
Aircraft Information Management System) and then onwards to the CRT screens
in front of the pilots.

- 60 -
------._--
 I, iI_·~_.l .-.-- 1 i
l~ ~'~~'---,
i' :__ ,.... ,_ t·.·.. \,
II'~~~::~: ":' .... ..~. .... I
I,' ~:~,~ z ..~:.. :...~:.
A~~:-. ~~:' ..c
I .".A"
11. tU
_ ...
0"
CU.II
Cl""
, U.
(",lilt
U Ofl
(LOSU
ClOSIt
11II ......
h.IMI
UOllO

'... I.:'.~.. ,.----l_.."~

I I".-. .... r-;-_-
I" .. ,
(l,."",
-
n. •'
",eM.
1_ _
CL."
(l.1
IU."'"
0.......
n.0It.

\fI(._
M"" •• _"US

I lit '"IS

1 1'"....
.......... '... ,'"
.Ht
I1 W' 11 _ . . ~. "''''~
I~L S"'O~tlC DIS~l"

,....'
Fig. 49 FUEL SYSTEMS DISPLAY - BOEING

It is displayed on the top center screen as a quantity total. (Most 'glass cockpit'
displays have 2 screens in front of each pilot for HSI and ADI displays, or similar,
dealing with aircraft attitude, direction etc, and two centre screens showing
systems status [hydraulic, fuel, elect, engines etc].

Boeing call this screen system EICAS and Airbus use the term ECAM.

A button can be selected to bring up more detailed information of the fuel

system. See figure 49 and the books in this series entitled On Board
Maintenance Systems.

Provided a digital system is being used, there is another way of measuring

relative density of the fuel. It uses a densitometer (figure 50).

Fig. 50 DENSITOMETER

- 61

._-.~-~.~~.~=:.
.
-. -
- '-- ---=
The densitometer will measure very accurately the density of the fuel in the tank.
Again located in the bowels of the tank, to ensure that it is always immersed in
fuel. It is composed of a nickel alloy, wire wrapped spool, and an excitation coil, a
sensing coil and trim resistors all contained in a vented housing. Different sized
connectors help 'Murphy' proof the electrical connection.

Fuel density is determined by causing the spool to vibrate at its resonant

frequency and measuring any vibration changes. A control unit [the Fuel
Quantity Processing Unit (FQPU) on Boeing aircraft] sends a signal to the
excitation coil and this causes the spool to vibrate. Fuel is allowed to enter the
housing through the vent holes.

Dense fuel will slow the spool down more than less dense fuel, this 'slowing' or
change in vibrational frequency is felt by the sensing coil. This is then fed back
to the control unit (FQPU) for processing.

The densitometer is extremely accurate and can work out the relative density of '-.../
the fuel to two decimal places. It also has another rather useful function. If the
relative density starts to climb towards 1.0, we can safely say that water is
collecting at the bottom of the tank.

Perhaps the ejector pump has blocked or is leaking? This warning level is sent to
the flight deck and would be displayed to the flight crew as a 'status' message.

A More Modem Approach

Capacitive tank units are very accurate, but as technology marches forwards we
strive for even greater accuracy. Aircrew actually want to know to the gram how
much fuel they have on board. Enter the ultra sonic detector.

The system senses fuel tank quantity by ultrasonic fuel probes. These and other
signals are processed by a Signal Processing Unit which is controlled by a -:»
Central Processor Unit. This unit will send fuel quantity information via a data
bus (ARINC data bus) to flight deck displays and other systems requiring the
information.

THE ULTRA SONIC SYSTEM

Ultrasonic F-UclPIQb~ _

The ultrasonic fuel probe consists of two main assemblies; a transducer housing
and a still tube. The piezoelectric transducer is mounted inside the shroud and
is located against a reference face at the bottom of the still tube. The still tube
acts as a guide for the acoustic signal whilst shielding against extraneous
acoustic noise and minimising the effects of fuel turbulence.
 -~
UIIII
fue
Probe
'fKD Sit'NI
Proceuinc
Unit
CMIII
Procft$Ol
Un"
~

...
.
,
ARINC
b29
•
ARINC
~
InpuV
Qulpul
loJf,om
A"c'l#1

'I'
IC.P.U.1 IC.P.U.1 429 S~~m\

,.....

I
I
r
I
~Milomet~

I
I
-- p~
Supply
28"
D.C
Inpul

w Il~~

Fig. 51 ULTRASONIC SYSTEM - GENERAL LAYOUT

Water Detector
The water detector consists of the basic transducer housing assembly minus still
tube and is mounted at the lowest point in the fuel tank where water will tend to
collect.

Temperature Sensor
The sensor is a platinum resistance thermometer element and is located within
the terminal block assembly of a fuel probe. Normally one such temperature
sensor is provided per tank.

Densitometer
m

The densitometer unit utilises a proven technology element based on the-

vibrating cylinder principle.

- 63 -

---~~_ ..... _~-

.... ~~-~--'--"~~~-
 Processor (Computer)

The microprocessor-based unit provides:

(a) Drives for the in-tank sensors.

(b) Conditioning of sensor outputs.
(c) Computation of fuel quantity.
(d) Communication with flight deck displays and other aircraft systems.
(e) Fuel distribution management.
(1) Fuelling/ defuelling control.
(g) Built-in-test (BIT).

The processor consists of:

(a) Signal conditioning modules.

(b) CPU modules.
(c) Digital I/O modules.
(d) Power supply module.

Fuel Gauging Operation

The piezoelectric transducer in the fuel probe is excited by an electrical pulse

generated by the signal conditioning unit. The transducer emits an ultrasound
wave into the fuel inside the still tube. The sound wave travels upwards through
the fuel until it meets the fuel surface where it is reflected back down the still
tube to the transducer. The return signal is sensed by the transducer and an
electrical current generated which is received by the signal conditioning unit.

Rl'ierenct
FI~nlte

r
Rt'k'rt'nll'
Ht"l~hl
----- ----
h,
I

Fig. 52 ULTRASONIC FUEL GAUGING - PRINCIPLE

- 64 -

- -----------
- - --------------
 The 'time of flight' of the ultrasonic wave from the transducer up to the fuel
surface and back down to the transducer is a function of the immersed height of
the fuel probe and the propagation velocity in fuel. By means of a reference
flange in the still tube at a reference height from the transducer a second
reflected signal is produced.

Assuming that the propagation velocity is the same in both the calibration
wavefront path and the surface wavefront path, then the height of the surface
may be calculated directly without reference to the propagation velocity.

With reference to figure 52, the distance measured in time 'tl' at a constant
propagation velocity is h j and similarly t2 for h2.

Where h j = reference flange height

h2 = fuel height

then h2 = t2 or
- -
hj tl

Thus the fuel immersion height is determined ratiometrically. Fuel height

signals from the numerous probes within the tank are used to calculate the
volume of fuel contained within that tank from stored tank shape data.
Volumetric quantity is then converted to mass using the signal from the
densitometer. Fuel quantity in terms of mass is then output to cockpit displays
and aircraft systems.

Several enhancements to the basic system operation described above are

incorporated. Fuel surface attitude information can be computed from fuel
height data of any three probes in anyone tank. This allows dynamic
compensation to be applied to fuel volume calculations based on stored tank
geometrical data and compensation for aircraft attitude variations.

In the event of densitometer failure, fuel density can be inferred from the
empirical relationship between fuel density and propagation velocity. This
calculation uses the time of flight to the reference flange (t I) from a number of
fuel probes.vFuel stratification effects can also be identified by comparison of
time (tl) for a number of fuel probes at differing heights within the tank.

.. -----+hat-concllldesthe.....s...e.ctioll....Qn fuel indication and indeed the whole book on

11.10 of the syllabus on fuel systems. Nowtry the folloWlngexerclse-s-.-·_···

- 65 -
Exercises

1. What manual methods of indication can we use, and which might we see
used in conjunction with 'more advanced' systems?

2. Where are direct reading mechanical gauges usually placed and why?

3. Explain briefly how a capacitive tank unit or stack works?

4. How are the signals fed to the EICASjECAM screens in the fully digital
system?

5. What functions do densitometers perform?

Suggested Practical Activity

-;»
Study the maintenance manual for the aircraft type that you are currently
working on. Look in ATA chapter 28-40 and look in page block 1 - 100, you will
find the description and operation of the systems we have been talking about.

If there is an open tank and you have followed the appropriate safety and legal
requirements have a look at some of the tank units such as compensators and
densitometers.

Take a visit to your local flying club and ask for a look round some of the
aircraft. They are often happy to oblige. It will give you some idea of the sort of
other systems that are available.

Above all try expand the knowledge you now have. Get involved with any
maintenance on fuel systems and expand your experience in this area. It will all
help when taking the CAA examination.
...../

",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

SAQ 1. Storage, Refuel, Engine fuel feed, Jettison and indication sub systems.
The start of the fuel system is where the bowser/tanker connects onto the
aircraft, and the aircraft fuel system ends at the spar valve (sometimes called LP
- Low Pressure cock, or LP SOY - Shut Off Valve).

SAQ 2. Flexible tanks have the advantage that they can be made to fit any cavity.
They are fairly easy to replace and as such, leaks in the tanks can be fairly easily
found and fixed. Unfortunately they are fragile and prone to deterioration. They
add weight to the aircraft. Leaks in the bags may not be detected until there is a
dangerous build up of fuel in the wing structure.

SAQ 3. Provide sufficient fuel for the duration of flight plus any mandatory
reserves. To contain that fuel without hazard and allow easy delivery to the
engines. As such, all fuel is stored in tanks; these can be flexible, rigid or
integral.

SAQ 4. This is answered in the text after the question.

SAQ 5. There are essentially two types of fuelling system; over-wing or gravity
refuelling and pressure or underwing refuelling. Normally light aircraft have the
former with large commercial transports having a pressure refuelling system.
They are similar in that both provide fuel to the tanks and both need very
specific fuelling precautions to be taken.

SAQ 6. ATA chapter 12 gives details of servicing. You may, however, have to look
in ATA chapter 6 to find details of the refuel panel location.

SAQ 7. Carry out operations as though you were to defuel the aircraft. Without
the bowser connected and hence the NRV's closed. The fuel will travel from the
forward gallery onto the rear gallery. Now we can select a refuel valve open from
the refuel panel and we then will transfer fuel from one tank to another.

SAQ 8. Engine fuel feed systems must be capable of doing just that, feeding fuel
to the engine, clean, at any attitude, and to cater for numerous failures.

SAQ 9. No is the simple answer. Due to the fact that there is only one pump in
the line if this were to seize then fuel could not get to the engine. The usual way
of aUewing for this is to prozide a bypass pipe, with check valve. Under normal
operation the check valve stays closed by fuel pump pressure. -IfihaCpump fails
the engine will 'suck' and hence open the check valve and allow fuel through. See
figure 22.

--- - -----~-----
SAQ 10. If there were a Centre Wing Tank (CWT) this would be emptied first so
that the weight is reduced from the fuselage section. Also, keeping weight within
the wing and hence downward force on the wings, counter balances the upward
force of lift. (This reduces the bending moment of the wing which can be designed
as a lighter structure). This is achieved in one of two ways. Boeing uses higher
pressure boost pumps in the CWT, causing it to empty first. Airbus generally
uses a single point sensor that allows a float to open when the CWT is empty.

SAQ 11. This follows a similar pattern to the post-fit tests. Security of the
component; ensure it is correctly orientated and the screws are tight and wire-
locked if required. Don't forget the electrical plug, usually standard Amphenol
type connector they have witness marks to show correct locking. A bonding
check will be required in common with all fuel system component changes.
Finally we need to look at functionality. Does it operate as per the AMM
specification?

Carry out the specific maintenance manual checks for replacement that are
likely to include open and close checking against the manual indicator. Also we
would expect to carry out flow (and no flow) checks with a number of boost
pumps running - these checks ensure the valve opens fully, closes fully and that
the thermal relief hasn't failed.

Notice the clear and logical approach. Working from start to finish.

SAQ 12. Some of the problems that could occur are the fuel coming into contact
with hot exhausts, this is covered by careful design of the jettison pipes and
providing sufficient pressure to 'fire' the fuel far enough away from the aircraft to
avoid danger.

Another problem is fuel imbalance. If one pump were running at a slightly higher
pressure, that tank would empty quicker than the other - we shall discuss later
how this is avoided. Also if the pumps didn't stop for some reason we could
jettison the entire fuel contents. -'

SAQ 13. We used the stabiliser (tailplane) trim mechanism to move the stabiliser
nose down (decreased angle of incidence) causing an opposing nose up pitch.
This countered the natural nose down tendency of Mach tuck. This is the most
efficient (not to mention easy) way to counter Centre of Pressure-ehenges.

Unfortunately as we approach the speed of sound, the flight controls lose their
efficiency and evehtu~becQm~y~ryj_~~ffective.

SAQ 14. If the relative density (or specific gravity) of the fuel is lowered the
dielectric constant of the fuel is altered, it will be lowered slightly. So if we now
apply that to our basic capacitive equation we shall see that the capacitance will
also be lowered. Now there is a problem isn't it? When density changes fuel
contents reading changes. Return to the text.