ENSTU 300: Critical Thinking & Communication in Environmental Studies

Sustainable stormwater
management for coastal
communities
Lauren Bailey, Environmental Studies Program, California State University
Monterey Bay

Introduction
Impermeable surfaces in coastal areas present two distinct issues: i) ocean waters

are vulnerable to nonpoint source pollution carried by stormwater runoff, and ii) little to no

groundwater replenishment occurs. Developers and managers in coastal communities

should focus on stormwater management practices that encourage groundwater recharge

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and reduce surface runoff. Both historic and modern development has led to widespread use
of impermeable surfaces. An impermeable surface, such a as concrete, asphalt, and most
common building materials, does not absorb surface runoff during or after rain events (Erickson,
Taguci, & Gulliver, 2018 ). The runoff then collects pollution on the ground surface and carries
it to storm drains or directly to ocean waters. Considering the impact of impermeable surfaces in
marine environments, coastal municipalities should encourage the implementation of sustainable
stormwater management for all future development.

Background
History

Stormwater management has historically been considered necessary for public health and
could be found in ancient civilizations as far back as the Mesopotamian Empire (3500-2500
BCE) (Cooper, 2001). Early examples of stormwater management include the Roman Empire;
their renowned aqueducts collected and transported stormwater to flush out their wastewater
(Huler, 2010). Similar to the system put in place by the Roman Empire, wastewater and
stormwater have traditionally been treated as one entity (Perales-Momparler et al., 2015).
Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) refer to the mixing of stormwater and wastewater within
sewer systems (Barbosa, Fernandes, & David, 2012). In some cases CSOs were transported
directly to ocean waters, leading to tainted water quality (Lee, Swamikannu, Radulescu, Kim, &
Stenstrom, 2007).

Stormwater managment on the central coast in particular has witnessed the progression
from CSO methods to more sustainable management in the last decade as coastal municipalities
in Monterey County move away from CSO stormwater management to separate sewer and
stormwater systems. According to Caleb Schneider, the management analyst for Pacific Grove’s
public works department, stormwater management along the central coast, specifically Monterey
and surrounding cities, have relied on large concrete outfalls directly accessing the ocean for
stormwater management (Schneider, 2019). Outfalls were used as the bay’s stormwater
management systems form WWII until the last decade or so. To date, most of these outfalls

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have been removed or decommissioned. The outfalls still in place in Pacific Grove are only used
during heavy storms that overpower the city’s current management system (Schneider, 2019).

Sustainable stormwater management method began appearing at the turn of the century as
best management practices (BMPs). BMPs focus on the protection of natural resources while
considering future needs (Hvitved, Vollerston, & Nielsen, 2010). BMPs include active
management methods such as rain gardens, green roofs, and permeable pavements (Martin,
Ruperd, & Legret, 2006). BMPs have proven to be effective stormwater management methods
particularly when it comes to reducing peak flows, increasing retention, and delaying the start of
runoff accumulation (Alyaseri, Zhou, Morgan, & Bartlett, 2017; Sandeki, 2015; Surpin, et al.,
2018)

Scientific Background

Impermeable surfaces do not allow for water collected during a storm to absorb

back into the ground to replace the water used to keep local ecosystems for daily

functioning (Erickson et al., 2018). Instead of absorbing back into the ground, stormwater

collects until there is enough volume to become mobile, thus becoming surface runoff.

Surface runoff simply refers to the flow of stormwater moves towards storm drains during

and after storms (Image 1). This water often carries pollutants, such as automobile oils,

litter, and sediments from roadways and surrounding environments (Hvitved et al., 2010;

Sandeki, 2015). In coastal communities runoff can flow directly into oceans. Nonpoint

source pollution includes ocean pollution via runoff.

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Image 1- Runoff Diagram

Impermeable surfaces interrupt the hydrologic cycle, commonly referred to as the

water cycle. Ecosystems require water in the ground to properly maintain life and

functioning (Barbosa et al. 2012). When concrete or asphalt is laid down, the soil is cut off

from rain water, meaning that supported ecosystems are cut off from an imperative water

supply. Agriculture in Monterey is reliant on groundwater for irrigation; for example,

withdrawals from the local aquifer without infiltration from stormwater left the City of

Salinas with tainted drinking water due to saltwater intrusion (Monterey One Water, 2019).

Policy Context

The Clean Water Act of 1972 is a broad policy that includes everything from water

quality laws to water pollution mitigation. Stormwater policy is often found in boarder

water quality policy. In coastal areas, stormwater management also can fall under policies

regarding coastal zone development and management on both federal and state

platforms. Because stormwater runoff often contains contaminants, it is considered

nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, and policies concerned with nonpoint source pollution

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also guide stormwater management. Stormwater policies are found in both federal and

state levels of government within these overarching categories.

The most prevalent federal water policy is the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,

commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act. Enacted in 1942 by the 77th United States

Congress. However the act was flawed and entirely rewritten in 1972 to become what is

widely known as the Clean Water Act. The 1972 amendment was introduced to the U.S.

Senate in October of 1971 and became law a year later despite a presidential veto by

President Nixon. The Clean Water Act underwent another major amendment in 1987

under the Water Quality Act of 1987.

The Clean Water Act set guidelines for point source pollution regulation and created

the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) which became the authority

for pollution discharge. The NPDES is responsible for permitting and enforcing pollution

discharge. The Clean Water Act allocates funding for water quality projects; however, the

responsibility of enforcing regulations set in the policy are left to each state. Clean Water

Act regulations regarding stormwater have not changed since 1972; while this has allowed

most cities and states to abide by the standards set nearly 50 years ago, issues with

stormwater and runoff have shifted enough that the existing policy within the act needs

updating (Congressional Research Service, 2012).

The Coastal Zones Management Act was enacted in 1972 by the 92nd U.S. Congress,

a few months before the Clean Water Act was rewritten. This act is dedicated to the

management of defined coastal zones and their resources. After realizing the act did not

provide specific regulations on water quality, Congress amended in 1990 to reflect

necessary water quality regulations.

In 1969 California set state-wide guidelines for water quality using the Porter-

Cologne Water Quality Control Act (CA Water Code Division 7, 1969). This act applies to

wetlands, groundwater, surface waters, and nonpoint and point source pollution. Porter-

Cologne established the CA State Water Board as well as nine regional water boards to

oversee enforcement and permitting for the act. Because of the diverse land use and

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climates in California regional water boards have been an effective way of regulating and

enforcing California water quality standards that focus on the specific needs of the region

(Lubell, 2008). When the Federal Water Pollution Control Act was being rewritten, policy

makers used several sections of Porter-Cologne as a basis for the Clean Water Act.

Stakeholder Perspectives

Stakeholders in stormwater management represent every level of government as

well as nonprofit organizations. The U.S. federal government, following the lead of the

current presidential administration, is more concerned with deregulation for the benefit of

business than water quality. California state and local governments are working to create

and enforce higher caliber water quality standards than those required by the federal

government. Table 1 contains summaries of each stakeholder group’s contributions,

concerns, and values according to Kellert’s values typology (Kellert, Black, Rush, & Bath,

1996).

Table 1: Stakeholder Perspectives

Stakeholder Stakeholder
Stakeholder Representative Groups Contributions
Values Concerns

Utilitarian Economic feasibility

Creating and implementing federal water
Executive Branch
United States Dominionistic quality standards Political security
Federal Government
EPA
Ecologistic- Repealing protective legislation Cheap vs. sustainable
Scientific business practices

Promoting coastal programs and low

California Coastal Protecting coastal and
Ecologistic- impact development (LID)
Commission watershed resources
CA State Scientific
Government Creating and implementing regional water
Central Coast Regional Protecting agricultural
Utilitarian quality standards reflecting state water
Water Board runoff polluters
quality standards

Groundwater and
Enforcing and regulating Post
Moralistic aquifer replenishment
Construction Requirements (PCRs)
Monterey County Resource
Management Agency Naturalistic Maintaining the
Improving upon regional water quality
Local Government aesthetic of the central
board standards
The Cities of Seaside and Aesthetic coast
Monterey, California
Implementing and encouraging low impact
Protecting coastal
development projects
resources and habitats

Environmental Center for Watershed Moralistic Watershed restoration Protecting watersheds

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 and water resources
Guiding best management practices for
water treatment
Sustainable stormwater
Protection Naturalistic
management
Advocacy for sustainable water
Organizations
Natural Resources Defense Ecologistic- management programs and policies
Advocacy and
Council Scientific
education
Aided in the drafting and passage of the
1970 Clean Water Act

The Trump Administration took aim at dismantling key environmental protection

policies before stepping into the office. Saving American families tax dollars and removing

red tape protecting natural resources from industrial exploitation through regulatory

reforms were two cornerstones of Donald Trump’s election campaign (Noel, 2016).

According to a report from the White House, regulatory reforms saved Americans $23

billion in taxes during the 2018 fiscal year (The White House, 2018a). Because federal

agencies take on the direction of the acting administration, there has been shift in the

values of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The current Administrator of the EPA

Andrew Wheeler, is also acting Vice President of the Washington Coal Club which is a likely

source of bias for the Administrator (Turrentine, 2019). Affiliations and support from

exploitative industries, such as coal contribute to the perspective of the Trump

Administration.

February 28, 2017 President Trump issued an executive order for the EPA and Army

Corps of Engineers to review the Clean Waters Rule (The White House, 2017). This policy,

enacted by the Obama Administration in 2015, offered critical protections for wetlands,

rivers, and other smaller bodies of water. The rule was repealed in 2019 after being

reviewed by the EPA and Army Corps. During the EPA review of the Clean Water Rule,

Andrew Wheeler highlighted the focus and goals of regulatory reforms carried out by the

Trump Administration thus:

The Trump administration’s proposal would respect the limits of federal

authority and give hardworking Americans the freedom and certainty they

need to do what they do best: develop, build and invest in projects that

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 improve the environment and the lives of their fellow citizens (The White

House, 2018b).

The State of California has been at the forefront of water quality policy in the U.S.;

however, regulation of these policies has been inadequate in the eyes of environmental

stakeholders. Water quality laws set by California State in the Porter-Cologne Act were used

as a blueprint for the rewrite of the federal Clean Water Act of 1972. Due to the 840 miles

of coast and the variety of regional needs the state water board instituted regional water

boards to govern state water regulations, there are nine regional water quality boards in

total. The Central Coast Water Board has to regulate both coastal protections and

agricultural runoff. According to Bell (2019), a California water analyst for the Natural

Resources Defense Council, California regional water boards have offered the agriculture

industry leniency when it comes to polluted agriculture runoff. An investigation by the

Natural Resources Defense Council found 2,079 water quality violations by the Los Angeles

Regional Water Quality Control Board in Santa Monica beaches and waterways (Bell, 2019).

The California Coastal Commission (CCC) is one of California’s three agencies that

focus on the water quality and management of coastal communities. The CCC encourages

and supports programs dedicated to sustainable coastal management. The commission

also encourages communities to implement low impact development on all new projects

and advocates best management practices (BMPs) for stormwater management (CA

Coastal Commission, 2019). The commission provides technical assistance and education to

communities working towards implementing or maintaining stormwater management

BMPs. The Commission supports the use of sustainable stormwater management

practices, particularly in coastal communities because of how effectively methods such as

bioretention can filter pollutants and reduce runoff flows (Sandeki, 2015).

The Monterey County Resource Management Agency serves as the stormwater

management agency and advocates for the county of Monterey and municipalities within

the county. The agency enforces regulations set by the Clean Water Act through the

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National Pollution Discharge Elimination Service (NPDES), the State Water Resources

Control Board, and the Central Coast Regional Water Quality Control Board (Resource

Management Agency, 2019). The agency works with the nonprofit Monterey Regional

Stormwater & Education Alliance to further stormwater education in the Monterey, CA

area. By enforcing NPDES permitting and encouraging sustainable stormwater

management the agency works to protect the Monterey Bay from pollutants carried by

surface runoff.

The cities of Seaside and Monterey, California are strong advocates for high caliber

stormwater management practices. Both cities have initiated or completed projects

including low impact development renovations. An overhaul of Seaside’s Broadway Avenue

included the addition of several trees and other water-absorbing surfaces as well as

designating the area as a “green district” (City of Seaside, 2010). The green district

classification will require any future development to follow LEED certification standards for

neighborhood development. Kurt Overmeyer, from the economic development

department in Seaside, focuses on stormwater management, specifically when it comes to

groundwater recharge during any new development project (Overmeyer, 2018). Seaside,

CA, and many other Monterey county municipalities are still working to recharge the

aquifer that feeds agricultural practices in the Salinas Valley to prevent further saltwater

intrusion (Overmeyer, 2018; Monterey Resource Management Agency, 2006).

The Center for Watershed Protection is a nonprofit organization dedicated to

resorting, protecting, and sustaining watersheds. The center was established in 1992 and

has implemented nearly a hundred watershed management plans across 12 states (Center

for Watershed Protection, 2019). Pollutants carried by combined sewer overflows (CSOs)

and stormwater runoff pose a threat to the integrity of watersheds making the

management of stormwater in these areas crucial to a healthy local environment. The

Natural Resources Defense Council is another nonprofit with a stake in stormwater

management. Two years after being founded the council advocated and lobbied for the

Clean Water Act of 1972 (NRDC, 2019). The council pushes for stronger federal

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environmental protections. They have strongly opposed regulatory reforms made by the

Trump Administration and closely monitor the pitfalls of California State Water Quality

Boards (Bell, 2019).

Discussion

Policy options for sustainable stormwater management in coastal communities

should focus on four criteria: increasing groundwater retention while reducing runoff,

costs, lifespan, and aesthetic value. Low impact designs can include permeable or semi-

permeable surfaces which reduces runoff and increases retention (Sage, Berthier, &

Gromaire, 2015; Avellandea, Jefferson, Grieser, & Bush, 2017). Reducing runoff in coastal

communities, especially in areas previously covered by impermeable surfaces, can lead to a

reduction in nonpoint source pollution (NPS) carried by runoff (Sage et al., 2015).

Sustainable stormwater management has the potential to increase the aesthetic value of

new development projects, or entire blocks in the case of green streets. The lifespan of

these methods will be important to consider when determining each option’s viability

versus conventional practices. The three policies that best fit the criteria are: implementing

green streets, such as Broadway Ave in Seaside, CA; adding bioretention areas to all future

development plans; and requiring permeable pavements for any new parking and walkway

surfaces within 10 miles of coastal access. Table 2 uses (+) to symbolize criteria each policy

option supports, (-) to symbolize criteria not supported by a policy, and (+/-) if the policy is

neutral towards the criteria. To evaluate costs through this table the most costly method is

represented by ($$$) while the less expensive is represented by ($).

Table 2: Analysis of Policy Options by Criteria

Policy 1: Green Policy 2: Bioretention Policy 3: Permeable

Criteria
streets Areas Pavement
Increase (+) (+) (+)

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 retention/Reduce
Runoff
Cost ($$$) ($) ($$)
Lifespan (+/-) + (-)
Aesthetic Value (+) (+) (+/-)

Green streets (Image 2) are an approach to development that focuses on

maximizing their retention ability through methods such as rain gardens, permeable

pavers, and other LID methods (EPA, 2019; Naturally Resilient Communities, 2019). The

goal of these streets is to encourage the most effective and sustainable stormwater

management methods. Green streets blend sustainability with aesthetically appealing

consumer-friendly designs to stimulate local businesses. The goal of this policy is to

implement smart and sustainable stormwater management that increases retention and

reduces runoff. Because of this goal ocean health may improve due to reduced runoff and

thus reduced pollution. This is an initially expensive project to undertake: an analysis of

green street construction costs in Onondaga County, New York, averaged from just under

$500,000 to roughly $250,000 per acre (Water Environment Federation, 2015). Costs for

these projects can be reduced in the case of municipalities with preexisting stormwater

utility fees (Environmental Law Institute, 2019).

Image 2 – Sample Green Street

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 Bioretention areas (Image 3) come in various shapes and sizes. This kind of

sustainable stormwater management focuses on increasing stormwater retention using

methods such as bioretention basins, rain gardens, or green roofs. The use of rain gardens

in St. Louis, Missouri led to a 76% reduction in surface runoff (Alyaseri et al., 2017). These

projects have the potential to be expensive, depending on size and function. Rain gardens

are an affordable rendition of this policy, costing $10 to $15 per square foot (Three Rivers

Rain Garden Alliance, 2009). Green roofs have high installation and maintenance costs but

serve to lower utility costs the longer the roof is in place. They last longer than

conventional roofs as well. Green roofs have the potential to absorb 40-80% of stormwater

(Keeley et al., 2013). Implementing bioretention areas between impermeable surfaces and

ocean access could reduce the number of pollutants reaching ocean waters by absorbing

incoming runoff.

Image 3 – Diagram of Bioretention via Rain Garden

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 Permeable pavers (Image 4) are another LID design that focuses on increasing

groundwater retention while decreasing surface runoff. This method implements

interlocking pavers, similar to soft puzzle piece mats for children; however, the material

consists of permeable, or porous, pavement (concrete or asphalt). Studies of permeable

pavers used to reduce runoff and peak flows during heavy rains have shown that pavers

can reduce surface runoff enough to delay initial runoff as well as slow peak flows (Surpin,

et al., 2018). One drawback to this solution is lifespan. Permeable pavers essentially act as

a strainer, allowing water to pass through and infiltrate into the ground while catching the

sediment carried by runoff (Kamali, Delkash & Tajrishy, 2016). Permeable surfaces are also

costly to install: interlocking pavers can cost between $104 and $115 per square yard,

porous concrete can range from $60 to $70 per square yard, and the least expensive

permeable surface option is porous asphalt, costing less than $50 per square yard

(University of Maryland, 2011).

Image 4 - Diagram of Impermeable Pavers

Recommendation

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 All three policies use LID infrastructure to sustainably manage stormwater and have

demonstrated the ability to reduce surface runoff as well as increase groundwater

infiltration. This leaves cost and aesthetics as the most decisive criteria. Green streets work

well to accommodate large scale sustainable stormwater management projects such as city

blocks or pedestrian-friendly downtown areas. However, this policy is the most expensive

to construct and maintain. Bioretention areas boast variability in scale, and are less

expensive to install than an entire green street with lower maintenance costs post-

construction as well. Rain gardens or infiltration trenches installed between parking lots,

sidewalks or other impermeable surfaces adjacent to beaches or other coastal access could

potentially reduce pollutants carried by run of for reaching ocean waters. While permeable

pavement is a an effective sustainable stormwater management tool for reducing peak

flows and delaying runoff events, the shortcoming of permeable pavements is short

lifespan. Coastal communities may find that porous pavements clog too quickly when

exposed to sandy conditions (Kamali, Delkash & Tajrishy, 2016).

Overall, I feel that requiring bioretention areas for all new development is the best

policy option for coastal communities. Bioretention areas are likely to have the most

success in the goal of reducing nonpoint source pollution via runoff, as well as increasing

groundwater recharge rates (Sandeki, 2015). They also have the lowest installation and

maintenance costs. The lifespan of bioretention area is longer than that of permeable

pavement as well as green streets featuring permeable pavement sidewalks. The

bioretention method of stormwater management includes several varieties from rain

gardens to green roof. Project costs are as variable as the scale of the area and specific

method used. A pitfall of implementing bioretention areas are annual maintenance and

landscaping costs.

Conclusion

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 Sustainable stormwater management is becoming necessary for all communities

and has proven to be an effective management method. Coastal communities in particular

can benefit from implementing sustainable stormwater management practices. Local and

state governments should consider exploring incentives encouraging the implementation

of sustainable stormwater management practices, particularly bioretention areas. Even

without incentives developers should at least consider implementing biorentention areas in

all future projects. Coastal communities should be focusing on management methods that

will mitigate nonpoint source pollution via surface runoff. These communities should also

focus on increasing groundwater retention, specifically in Monterey County, where

agriculture relies on groundwater for irrigation.

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