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ELECTRICITY
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ELECTRICITY
1
1 .1 I N T RODU CT I ON
An electrical circuit consists of some active and passive elements. The active elements such as a
battery or a cell supply electric energy to the circuit. On the contrary, passive elements consume or store
the electric energy. The basic passive elements are resistor, capacitor and inductor.
A resistor opposes the flow of current through it and if some current is passed by maintaining a
potential difference across it, some energy is dissipated in the form of heat. A capacitor is a device which
stores energy in the form of electric potential energy. It opposes the variations in voltage. An inductor
opposes the variations in current. It does not oppose the steady current through it. Fundamentally,
electric circuits are a means for conveying energy from one place to another. As charged particles move
within a circuit, electric potential energy is transferred from a source (such as a battery or a cell) to
a device in which that energy is either stored or converted to another form, into sound in a stereo
system or into heat and light in a toaster or light bulb. Electric circuits are useful because they allow
energy to be transported without any moving parts (other than the moving charged particles themselves).
In this chapter we will study the basic properties of electric currents. WeÊll study the properties of
batteries and how they cause current and energy transfer in a circuit. In this analysis we will use the
concepts of current, potential difference, resistance and electromotive force.

1 .2 EL ECT RI C CU RREN T
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit, measured in
Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In most DC electric circuits, it can be assumed that the
resistance to current flow is a constant so that the current in the circuit is related to voltage and
resistance by Ohm’s law. The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A = 1C/s.
At room temperature, the free electrons in a conductor move
randomly with speeds on the order 105 m/s. Since the motion of
the electrons is random, there is no net charge flow in any
direction. For any imaginary plane passing through the conductor,
the number of electrons crossing the plane in one direction is
equal to the number crossing it in the other direction.
Random motion of free electrons
in a conductor

vd

E

V
+ ă

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When a constant potential difference V is applied between the ends of the conductor an electric field

E is produced inside the conductor. The conduction electrons within the conductor are then subjected

to a force ă e E and move in the direction of increasing potential. However, this force does not cause
the electrons to move faster and faster. Instead, a conduction electron accelerates through a very small
distance (about 5  10ă8m) and then collides with one of the atoms of the conductor. Each collision
transfers some of the electronÊs kinetic energy to the atoms, resulting in an increase in the vibrational
energy (and therefore in the temperature) of the atoms. Because of the electric and collision forces a
conduction electron moves slowly along the conductor or we can say it acquires a drift velocity vd in

the direction opposite to E , in addition to its random motion.
This chaotic motion of the electrons can be understood by a simple
model. Let us imagine that the conduction electrons form an Âelectron gasÊ
vd
whose particles are moving randomly, while the gas as a whole is moving
slowly down the conductor with a drift velocity vd in the direction opposite

to E . ItÊs interesting to note that the magnitude of the drift velocity is of
the order of 10ă4 m/s, or about 109 times smaller than the average speed
of the electrons between collisions. When averaged over time, the random
motion of an electron due to its collisions does not result in any net displacement. Hence, we can ignore
this random motion and treat the electrons as though they were all moving down the conductor at the
drift velocity vd.
The net movement of charge through a conductor is represented by electric current (or just current)
I. Current is defined quantitatively in terms of the rate at which net charge passes through a cross-
section area of the conductor.

dq dq
Thus, I or i
dt dt

We can have following two concepts of current, as in the case of velocity, instantaneous current and
average current.

dq
instantaneous current = = current at any point of time
dt

q
and average current =
t

Hence-forth unless otherwise referred to, current would signify instantaneous current. By convention,
the direction of the current is assumed to be that in which positive charge moves. In the SI system,
the unit of current is ampere (A).
1A = 1 C/s

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1 .3 CON V EN T I ON A L EL ECT RI C CU RREN T

Although it is electrons which are the mobile charge carriers which are responsible for electric
current in conductors such as wires, it has long been the convention to take the direction of electric
current as if it were the positive charges which are moving. Some texts reverse this convention and take
electric current direction as the direction the electrons move, an obviously more physically realistic
direction, but the vast majority of references use the conventional current direction and that convention
will be followed in most of this material. In common applications such as determining the direction of
force on a current carrying wire, treating current as positive charge motion or negative charge motion
gives identical results. Besides the advantage of agreeing in direction with most texts, the conventional
current direction is the direction from high voltage to low voltage, high energy to low energy.

I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s t o Re m e m b e r
1. The current is the same for all cross-sections of a conductor of non-uniform cross-section. Similar
to the water flow, charge flows faster where the conductor is smaller in cross-section and slower
where the conductor is larger in cross-section, so that charge rate remains unchanged.
2. Electric current is very similar to water current, consider a water tank kept at some height and
a pipe is connected to the water tank. The rate of flow of water through the pipe depends on
the height of the tank. As the level of water in the tank falls, the rate of flow of water through
the pipe also gets reduced. Just as the flow of water depends on the height of the tank or the
level of water in the tank, the flow for current through a wire depends on the potential
difference between the end points of the wire. As the potential difference is changed the current
will change. For example, during the discharging of a capacitor potential difference and hence,
the current in the circuit decreases with time. To maintain a constant current in a circuit a
constant potential difference will have to be maintained and for this a battery is used which
maintains a constant potential difference in a circuit.
3. Though conventionally a direction is associated with current
i1
(opposite to the motion of electrons), it is not a vector as the
direction merely represents the sense of charge flow and not 
a true direction. Further, current does not obey the law of i = i1 + i2
i2
parallelogram of vectors, i.e. if two current i1 and i2 reaches
a point we always have i = i1 + i2 whatever be the angle
between i2 and i2.
4. According to its magnitude and direction current is usually divided into two types :
(i) Direct current (DC) : If the magnitude and direction of current does not vary with time,
it is said to be direct current (DC). Cell, battery or DC dynamo are its sources.
(ii) Alternating current (AC) : If a current is periodic (with constant amplitude) and has
half cycle positive and half negative, it is said to be alternating current. (AC). AC dynamo
is the source of it.
5. If a charge q revolves in a circle with frequency f, the equivalent current,
i = qf

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Ex a m p l e 1
A wire carries a current of 2.0 A. What is the charge that has flowed through its cross-
section in 1.0s. How many electrons does this correspond to ?

q
Solution. i =
t

q = it = (2.0 A) (1.0s) = 2.0 C Ans.

q = ne

q 2.0
n = 
e 1.6  10 –19

= 1.25  1019 Ans.

Ex a m p l e 2
The current in a wire varies with time according to the relation

 A
i = (3.0A) +  2.0  t
 s

(a) How many coulombs of charge pas a cross-section of the wire in the time interval
between t = 0 and t = 4.0s ?
(b) What constant current would transport the same charge in the same time interval?

dq
Solution. (a) i =
dt


q 4
0
dq =
0
idt


4
q= (3  2 t ) dt
0

= [3 t  t 2 ]40  [12  16 ]

= 28 C Ans.

q 28
(b) i = 
t 4

=7 Ans.

1 .4 . CU RREN T DEN SI T Y (J ) :
The current flowing per unit normal area at a point is called current density at that point.
It is a vector quantity whose direction is taken in the direction of current at the point.

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
ds
di
i  j = ds cos  ...(1)
ds cos

From equation (1)

 
di = j ds cos  = j .ds
 
 I =  di   j .d s
 
If j is constant, then I = j. s

*If the current is constant then  j   S2

1
 S
S1
If S2 > S1
 j1 > j2 (current is constant)

Ex a m p le 3
Find the current through a cylindrical wire whose current density varies as :

 r 
j = j0  1 + 
 R

Solution. Consider this circular ring cross-section of wire, at distance r from axis.

R
  r 
i =  j .d s    j0  1  R  2 r dr
0
i
R
 R 2 R 2   10 j0 .R 2 
= 2 j0   
 2 3   6 

1 .5 . DRI FT V EL OCI T Y (V d )
Let n = number of particles per unit volume
e = charge of each particle x
Then, dq = (Adx) ne

 dq  dx
   = nA   e
dt   dt 
dx
 dx 
i = n A (Vd ) e   vd 
 dt 

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In terms of current density, j = neVd

So m e Po i n t s :
.. .. . . .
1. In the absence of the external fields, inside the conductor all free
.
elect r ons move under r andom mot ion wit h V rms =
 3RT 

M 
and .. . . . ..
follow a zig-zag path.
2. In the absence of electric field, the total number of free electrons passing through a cross-section
from left to right is equal to total no. of free electrons passing from right to left. Hence, there
is no current through the conductor.
3. But when an external field is applied inside the conductor, all the free electrons experience an
electric force and acquires a velocity called drift velocity, and hence a current is established in
the conductor.
 
dV  eE 
= ă  
dt  m

V  – eE
t

Vrms dv = m  dt
0


   eE 
V ă Vrms = –   t
m 
To find the drift velocity take the average value for a large number of electrons
  
 eE 
V ă Vrms = –   t
 m

[ Vrms is a randomly oriented vector, hence Vrms = 0]

eE 
  Vd  =
m

where  = (relaxation time)

 = time between successive collision =  / V d 
where  = mean free path

1 .6 . REL A T ION B ET WEEN CU RREN T DEN SI T Y A N D EL ECT RI C FIEL D

j = neVd

 eE
Vd =   
 m

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ne2 E 
 j=
m

 ne2
 j=   E = E
 m 

 ne2 
where = electric conductivity =   
 m

1 m
Resitivity = 
 n e2 

1 .7 . M OB I LI T Y
Drift velocity acquired per unit electric field is called mobility.

 Vd   e 
 =  E    m     = ne
   

1 .8 . EFFECT OF T EM PERA T U RE ON RESI T I V I T Y

m

 e2 

n  number density  depends on nature of material

  relaxation time = depends on nature as well as temperature
·In conductors : On increasing the temperature, the number of free electrons does not change
(incr ease) appr eciably, wher eas t he r elaxat ion t ime decr eases appr eciably, (due t o incr ease in V rms and
decrease in mean free path due to increased amplitudes of vibrations. Hence, resistivity increases with
increase in temperature.
·In semi-conductors : On increasing the temperature, the resistivity of the semi-conductor
decreases.
Reason·Inside a semi conductor the number of free electrons increases appreciably with the
increase in temperatures, whereas the relaxation time does not decrease appreciably and hence, the
overall effect is the decrease in resistivity.
The number of free electrons in the semi-conductor varies with the temperature as :

n = n0eăEg/kT

where Eg = is the difference valence of energy level between valence and conduction band.
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In terms of electrical conductivity :

Eg
 =  eă kT     = e
0

At high temperature : T   ( = 0)

The semi-conductor behaves as a conductor.
At low temperature : T  0,  = 0
The semi-conductor behaves as an insulator.

2 . OH M ’S L A WS
Since, j = E

i  V 
 = 
A l 

 l 
 V =   i
A

STATEMENT : The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference applied across the ends provided the
i.e V  I V (V  i)
or V = IR
Where R is the resistance of the conductor.

 tan   R


O
i
The materials following the ohmÊs law are called ohmic or linear conductors.

Ex a m p l e 4
v
T2

T1



0
i
Which of the temperature T1, T2 are greater for the V v/s i graph for a given ohmic
resistor.
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Solution. (R  slope)
 R 2 > R1
as, (T2 > T1)

3 .1 . RESI ST A N CE
The electrical resistance of an object is a measure of its opposition to the passage of a steady electric
current. An object of uniform cross section will have a resistance proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area, and proportional to the resistivity of the material.
Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. The SI
unit of electrical resistance is the ohm, symbol . ResistanceÊs reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance
measured in siemens, symbol S.
The resistance of a resistive object determines the amount of current through the object for a given
potential difference across the object, in accordance with Ohm’s law :

V
I =
R

where,
R is the resistance of the object, measured in ohm, equivalent to J.s/C2
V is the potential difference across the object, measured in volts.
I is the current through the object, measured in amperes.
For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does not depend on the
amount of current through or the amount of voltage across the object, meaning that the resistance R
is constant for the given temperature. Therefore, the resistance of an object can be defined as the ratio
of voltage to current :

V
R=
I

3 .2 . DC RESI ST A N CE
The resistance R of a conductor of uniform cross section can be computed as

l
R=
A

where,
l is the length of the conductor, measured in meters.
A is the cross-sectional area, measured in square meters.
is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in
Ohm meter. Resistivity is a measure of the materialÊs ability to oppose electric current.

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3 .3 . RESI ST IV I T Y
Electrical resistivity (also known as specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) is a measure
of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that
readily allows the movement of electrical charge. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm meter
(m).

De f i n i t i o n s

A piece of resistive material with electrical contacts on both ends.

Electrical resistivity  (Greek : rho) is defined by,

E
 =
J

where,
is the static resistivity (measured in volts metres per ampere, V m/A);
E is the magnitude of the electric field (measured in volts per metre, V/m);
J is the magnitude of the current density (measured in amperes per square metre, A/m2).
The electrical resistivity  can also be given by,

A
 = R


where
is the static resistivity (measured on ohm-metres, m);
R is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material (measured in ohm,) ;
 is the length of the piece of material (measured in metres, m) :
A is the cross-sectional area of the specimen (measured in square metres, m2).
Finally, electrical resistivity is also defined as the inverse of the conductivity  (sigma), of the
material, or

1



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)
3 .4 . T EM PERA T U RE COEFFICI EN T OF RESI ST IV I T Y (
The fractional change in resistivity for unit 1ĈC or 1 K change of temperature is called temperature
coefficient of resistivity ().

  
 = 
     (Average value)

   = 0 (1 + )  R = R0 (1 + )

 d 
 =  d   (Absolute value)
 

 
d
  
= 0 d

0


 
ln   =
 0 
  d
0

 is + ve for a conductor.

 is ăve for a semi-conductor.

In general,

 = 0 [1 +  + 2 + 3 +......]

but for small temperature change, higher powers are neglected.

Variation of  :

 Conductor  Semi-Conductor

O T T
O

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Super-conductor : A substance whose resistivity becomes zero at temperature critical temperature

is called super-conductor.

O
TC
Ex a m p l e 5
A steady current flows through a conductor of a non-uniform cross-section. Then, which
of the following quantities are constant ?
(i) current, (ii) current density, (iii) electric field, (iii) drift velocity.
Solution. (i) current remains constant.
(ii) current density is not constant
S2
1 S1
 j  
 S
i
(iii) Electric field is again not constant
j = E
(iv) drift velocity is also not constant

 eE 
 Vd =   
m 

Ex a m p l e 6
A potential drop V is applied across the ends of a conductor of length  . Then, find the
change in the drift velocity if :
(i) V is doubled
(ii)  is doubted
(iii) diameter is doubled.
Solution. (i) When V is doubled : V = E   (V  E)
 E is also doubled, and hence Vd is also doubled.
(ii)  is doubled : E is halfed
 Vd is also halved
(iii) Diameter is doubled : Vd remain unchanged.

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Ex a m p le 7
Find the resistance of a cylindrical hollow tube which is connected between,
(a) inner and outer surfaces of the cylindrical shell
(b) when connected between the ends a and b.

.b
a .
Solution. (a) When connected between inner and outer surfaces :
In this case, consider co-axial cylinders of thickness dr and all such cylinders are in series

b  dr     b
 R=    ln   dr
a 2 rl  2    a
rr

(b) When connected across the ends : Consider annular distance

l d x
 d R  0

 b2 – a 2  dx

R= l a
. x .
b

 b2 – a 2 
Alternative methods : (Using the concept of current density)
j = E
 E = j

– dV
= j Apply this
dx

 dV  I   I I 
–   a s j   
(a)  dr  =  2 r    A 2 rl 

Vb
b I 
–  dV = a  2 r l  d r
Va

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I  b
(Va ă Vb) = ln  
2 l  a

n (b / a )
 R=
2 l

 dV I
(b) – = P
 dx   (b2 – a 2 )

Vb I

. .
d V =  (b 2 – a 2 ) 
 dx a
–  0
b
Va

 I
(Va ă Vb) =
(b 2 – a 2 )

4 . T H E B A T T ERY A N D T H E EL ECT ROM OT I V E FORCE

Before studying the electromotive force (emf) of a cell let us take an example of a pump which is
more easy to understand.
Suppose we want to recycle water between a overhead tank
and a ground water tank. Water flows from overhead tank to Over head tank
ground water tank by itself (by gravity). No external agent is
required for this purpose. But to raise the water from ground
water tank to overhead tank a pump is required or some external
work has to be done. In an electric circuit a battery or a cell plays Pump
the same role as the pump played in the above example.
Suppose a resistance (R) is connected across the terminals of a
battery. A potential difference is developed across its ends. Current
(or positive charge) flows from higher potential to lower potential
across the resistance by itself. But inside the battery work has to
be done to bring the positive charge from lower potential to higher Ground Water
Tank
potential. The influence that makes current flow from lower to
higher potential (inside the battery) is called electromotive force
(abbreviated emf). If W work is done by the battery in taking a
charge q from negative terminal to positive terminal, then work H L
done by the battery per unit charge is called emf (E) of the battery. R

W
Thus, E=
q H L

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The name electromotive force is misleading in the sense that emf is not a force it is work done per
unit charge. The SI unit of emf is J/C or V (1 V = 1 J/C).

I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s t o Re m e m b e r

1. A battery is a device which maintains a potential difference between + ă


its two terminals. It is often prepared by putting two rods or plates E
of different metals in a chemical solution. Some internal mechanism

 
exerts forces Fn on the ions (positive and negative) of the solution.

This force drives positive ions towards positive terminal and negative + ă
ions towards negative terminal. As positive charge accumulates on +q
.
 Ć 
anode and negative charge on cathode a potential difference and
Fn Fe

hence an electric field E is developed from anode to cathode. This
 
electric field exerts an electrostatic force F e = q E on the ions. This

force is opposite to that of Fn . In equilibrium (steady state)

Fn = Fe
and no further accumulation of charge takes place.

2. The emf is the work done per unit charge by the battery force Fn E
which is non electrostatic in nature.
3. When the terminals of the battery are connected by a conducting
wire, an electric field is developed in the wire in the direction shown
+ ă
in Fig. The free electrons in the wire move in the opposite direction
and enter the battery at positive terminal. Some electrons are
withdrawn from the negative terminal. Thus, potential difference
and hence, Fe decreases in magnitude while Fn remains the same. Thus, there is a net force on
the positive charge towards the positive terminal. With this the positive charge rush towards
positive terminal and negative charge rush towards negative terminal. Thus, the potential
difference between positive and negative terminal is maintained.
4. During the charging of a battery current is driven into a battery in the reverse direction. In
such a case positive charge enters the battery at the positive terminal and leaves the battery
from the negative terminal.
 
5. In an open circuit the electrostatic force F e and non-electrostatic force Fn on a charge q are
equal.

6. The work done by Fn on a positive charge q moving from negative terminal to positive terminal
is qE, where E is the emf of the battery.

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Ex a m p l e 8
Why canÊt we use a capacitor as a battery ? What is the difference between a battery and
a capacitor ?
Solution. A capacitor cannot maintain constant potential difference across a circuit. After the capacitor
discharges completely no current is obtained. A capacitor discharges in a very short interval of time.
On the other hand, a battery can maintain a constant potential difference for a long period of time.
A battery also gets discharged, but discharging may take years also.

4 .1 . DI RECT CU RREN T CI RCU I T S, K I RCH H OFF’S L A WS

8V 14V 10V E
<

i i

<
i
< <
R
2 (c)
4
(a)
(b)

Current in a simple circuit can be found by the relation,

net em f E
i  n et
net resist a nce Rn et

For example :
In Fig. (a ) : Net emf is 8V and net resistance is 2. Therefore,

8
i =  4A
2

In Fig. (b) : Net emf = (14 ă 10) V

= 4V
and Net resistance = 4 

4
Therefore, i =  1A
4

In Fig. (c) : We have n cells each of emf E. Of these polarity of m cells (where n > 2m) is reversed.
Then net emf in the circuit is (n ă 2m) E and resistance of the circuit is R. Therefore,

(n – 2 m ) E
i
R

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 19

5 . Re s i st o rs i n Se r ie s a n d i n Pa r a l le l

A
A
R1 V1
V
In Series :
V R

R2 V2

B B

Figure represents a circuit consisting of a source of emf and two resistors connected in series. We
are interested in finding the resistance R is of the network lying between A and B. That is, what single
equivalent resistor R would have the same resistance as the two resistors linked together.
Because there is only one path for electric current to follow, i must have the same value everywhere
in the circuit. The potential difference between A and B is V. This potential difference must somehow
be divided into two parts V1 and V2 as shown, subject to the condition
V = V1 + V2
= iR 1 + iR 2
or V = i (R1 + R2) ...(i)
Let R be the equivalent resistance between A and B, then
V = iR ... (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii),
R = R1 + R2 for resistors in series
This result can be readily extended to a network consisting of n resistors in series.
R = R1 + R2 +.....+Rn

i
i

V i2
In parallel : V
i1 R R2 R
1

ELECTRICITY
 20 QUIZRR

In Fig. the two resistors are connected in parallel. The voltage drop across each resistor is equal to
the source voltage V. The current i, however, divides into two branches, which carry currents i1 and
i 2.
i = i1 + i2 (iii)
If R be the equivalent resistance, then

V V
i= , i1  R
R 1

V
and i2 =
R2

Substituting in Equation (iii) we get

1 1 1
  (for resistors in parallel)
R R1 R2

This result can also be extended to a network consisting of n resistors in parallel. The result is,

1 1 1 1
   .....
R R1 R2 Rn

Ex a m p l e 9
Compute the equivalent resistance of the network shown in Fig. and find the current i
drawn from the battery.
1/3V

i i

10 

6
2
Solution. The 10 and 2 resistances are in parallel. Their equivalent resistance is,

1 1 1
=  1
V i
R 10 2 3

5
5 
or R=  6 3
3

23 5 23
Now this 6 and  resistances are in series and their equivalent resistance is 6   
3 3 3

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 21

1
V
i 3

23

3

Therefore, equivalent resistance of the network = 23   Ans.

3

Current drawn from the battery is,

net emf 1
i = 
net resistance 23

1
= A Ans.
23

4 .1 .1 . K I RCH H OFF’S L A WS
Many electric circuits cannot be reduced to simple series-parallel combinations. For example, two
circuits that cannot be so broken down are shown

A
C D
R1 E1 B
A B R1 R2 R3 R4
R2 E2
D C
E2 E3
E1
R3
F E F
E G
i H
R5
(a) (b)

However, it is always possible to analyze such circuits by applying two rules, devised by KirchhoffÊs
in 1845 and 1846 when he was still a student.
First here are two terms that we will use often.

ELECTRICITY
 22 QUIZRR

J un c t ion
A junction in a circuit is a point where three or more conductors meet. Junctions are also called node
or branch points.
For example, in figure (a) points D and C are junctions. Similarly in figure (b) points B and F
junction.

Lo op
A loop is any closed conducting path. For example, in figure (a) ABCDA, DCEFD and ABEFA loops.
Similarly, in figure (b), CBFEC, BDGFB are loops.

4 .1 .2 . K I RCH H OFF’S CU RREN T L A W

This fundamental law results from the conservation of

charge. It applies to a junction or node in a circuit a point
in the circuit where charge has several possible paths to IA
travel.
In Figure. we see that IA is the only current flowing
into the node. However, there are three paths for current
to leave to node, and these current are represented by IB,
IC, and ID. node
Once charge has entered into the node, it has no place
to go except to leave (this is known as conservation of
charge). The total charge flowing into a node must be the
ID
same as the total charge flowing out of the node. So, IB
I B + I C + ID = I A
Bringing everything to the left side of the above IC
equation, we get
Possible node (or junction) in a circuit
(IB + IC + ID) ă IA = 0
Then, the sum of all the currents is zero. This can be generalized as follows

I = 0
Note the convention we have chosen here : current flowing into the node are taken to be negative,
and currents flowing out of the node are positive. It should not really matter which you choose to be
the positive or negative current, as long as you stay consistent.

4 .1 .3 . K I RCH H OFF’S V OL T A GE L A W
KirchhoffÊs Voltage Law (or KirchhoffÊs Loop Rule) is a result of the electrostatic field being
conservative. It states that the total voltage around a closed loop must be zero. If this were not the case,
then when we travel around a closed loop, the voltages would be indefinite. So

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 23

V = 0
In Figure the total voltage around loop 1 should sum to zero, as does the total voltage in loop 2.
Furthermore, the loop which consists of the outer part of the circuit (the path ABCD) should also sum
to zero.
A . .
B

loop 1

D
. loop 2
.
C
Around a closed loop, the total voltage should be zero
We can adopt the convention that potential gains (i.e. going from lower to higher potential, such
as with an emf source) is taken to be positive. Potential losses (such as across a resistor) will then be
negative.
In applying the loop rule, we need sign conventions. First assume a direction for the current in each
branch of the circuit. Then starting at any point in the circuit, we imagine, travelling around a loop
adding emfÊs and iR terms as we come to them.
When we travel through a source in the direction from ăto +, the emf is considered to be positive,
when we travel from + to ă, the emf is considered to be negative.

.
A E
.
B
.
A E
.
B
Path Path
V = VB ă VA = + E V = VB ă VA = ă E

When we travel through a resistor in the same direction as the assumed current, the iR term is
negative because the current goes in the direction of decreasing potential. When we travel through a
resistor in the direction opposite to the assumed current, the iR term is positive because this represents
a rise of potential.

R i R i

Path Path

V = VB – VA = – iR V = VB – VA = + iR

Note : It is advised to write H (for higher potential) and L (for lower potential) across all the
batteries and resistances of the loop under consideration while using the loop law. Then writeămoving
from H to L and + for L to H. Across a battery write H on positive terminal and L on negative terminal.
Across a resistance keep in mind the fact that current always flows from higher potential (H) to lower

ELECTRICITY
 24 QUIZRR

potential (L) For example, in the loop shown in figure we B E1 R1

have marked H and L across all batteries and resistances. C
H L H L
Now let us apply the second law in the loop ADCBA. The
H
equation will be, E2
L
+iR 2 + E2 + iR 1 + E1 = 0
i

L H
A D
R2
Ex a m p l e 1 0
Find currents in different branches of the electric circuit shown in figure.

A 4 B 2
C

2V 4V 6V

F 2 E 4 D

How to Proceed : In this problem there are three wires EFAB, BE and BCDE. Therefore we have
three unknowns i1, i2 and i3. So, we require three equations. One equation will be obtained by
applying KirchhoffÊs junction law (either at B or at E) and the remaining two equations, we get from
the second law (loop law). We can make three loops ABEFA, ACDFA and BCDEB. But we have to
choose any two of them. Further, we can choose any arbitrary direction of i1, i2 and i3.
Solution. Applying KirchhoffÊs first law (junction law) at junction B,
i1 = i2 + i3 ...(i)
Applying KirchhoffÊs second law in loop 1 (ABEFA),

4 4
A H L H L C
i1 i3
i2
H L H
1 4V 2 6V
2V L H L

i1 L H i3 L H
F D
2 4

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 25

ă4i1 + 4 ă 2i1 + 2 = 0 ....(ii)

Applying KirchhoffÊs second law in loop 2 (BCDEB).
ă2i3 ă 6 ă 4i3 ă 4 = 0 ... (iii)
Solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
i1 = 1A

8
i2 = A
3

5
i3 = – A
3

Here, negative sign of i3 implies that current i3 is in opposite direction of what we have assumed.

Ex a m p l e 1 1
In previous example find the potential difference between points F and C.
How to Proceed : To find the potential difference between any two points of a circuit
you have to reach from one point to the other via any path of the circuit. It is advisable
to choose a path in which we come across the least number of resistors preferably a path
which has no resistance.
Solution. Let us reach from F to C via A and B,
VF + 2 ă 4i1 ă 2i3 = VC
 VF ă VC = 4i1 + 2i3 ă 2

5
Substituting, i1 = 1A and i3 = – A, we get
3

4
VF ă VC = – volts Ans.
3

Here negative sign implies that VF < VC.

5 . I N T ERN A L RESI ST A N CE (r) A N D POT EN T I A L DI FFEREN CE (V ) A CROSS

T H E T ERM IN A L S OF A B A T T ERY
The potential difference across a real source in a circuit is not equal to the emf of the cell. The
reason is that charge moving through the electrolyte of the cell encounters resistance. We call this the
internal resistance of the source, denoted by r. If this resistance behaves according to OhmÊs law r is
constant and independent of the current i. As the current moves through r, it experiences an associated
drops in potential equal to ir. Thus, when a current is drawn through a source, the potential difference
between the terminals of the source is,

ELECTRICITY
26 QUIZRR

V = E ă ir
This can also be shown as below :
E r
A B
i
VA ă E + ir = VB
or VA ă VB = E ă ir
Following three special cases are possible :
(i) If the current flows in opposite direction (as in case of charging of a battery), then V = E + ir.
(ii) V = E, if the current through the cell is zero.
(iii) V = 0, if the cell is short circuited.
This is because current in the circuit

E
i =
r

Short
circuited

E r
or E = ir
 E ă ir = 0
or V= 0
Thus, we can summaries it as follows :

E r
V = E ă ir or V< E
i

E r
V = E + ir or V> E
i

V= E if i = 0
E r

V = 0 is short circuited
E
i=
r

E r

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 27

I m p o r t a n t Po i n t s t o Re m e m b e r
1. In figure (a ) : There are eight wires and hence, will
A B
have eight currents or eight unknowns. The eight wires
are AB, BC, CE, EA, AD, BD, CD and ED. Number of 1
loops are four. Therefore, from the second law we can 4 2
D
make only four equations. Total number of junctions are 3
five (A, B, C, D and E). But by using the first law, we can E C
make only four equations (one less). So, the total number
of equations are eight.
A B
In figure (b) : Number of wires are six (AB, BC, CDA, BE, 1
AE and CE). Number of loops are three so, three equations
will be obtained from the second law. Number of junctions are 3 E 2
four (A, B, C and E) so, we can make only three (one less) D C
equations from the first law. But total number of equations
are again six.
2. Short circuiting : Two points in an electric circuit directly R1
connected by a conducting wire are called short circuited. Under
such condition both points are as same potential.
For example, resistance R1 in the adjoining circuit is short circuited,
i.e., potential difference across it is zero. Hence, no current will R2
flow through R1 and the current through R2 is therefore, E/R2.

E
3. Earthing : If some point of a circuit is earthed then its potential
is taken to be zero. 6V
D E
For example, in the adjoining figure,
VA = VB = 0
2
VF = VC = VD = ă 3V 3V
VE = ă 9V C B
 VB ă VE = 9V
or current through 2 resistance is F A
4
VB – VE 9
or A (from B to E)
2 2

Similarly, VA ă VF = 3V

VA – VF 3
and the current through 4 resistance is or A (from A to F)
4 4

ELECTRICITY
28 QUIZRR

4. For a current flow through a resistance there must be a potential difference across it but
between any two points of a circuit the potential difference may be zero.
For example, in the circuit,
net emf = 6V
A
and net resistance = 12
2V
6 1 4
 current in the circuit, i =  A
12 2

1 4
VA ă VB : VA  2 – 4  = VB 2V
2
i
or VA – VB = 0
B
or by symmetry, we can say that C
4 2V
VA = VB = VC
So, the potential difference across any two vertices of the triangle is zero, while the current
in the circuit is non-zero.
5. The principle of superposition : Complex 10.8 4
network problems can sometimes be solved
easily by using the principle of superposition.
12

8
This principle essentially states that when a
number of emfÊs act in a network, the solution
is the same as the superposition of the solutions
for one emf acting at a time, the others being 2 14.4V
shorted.
Figure shows a network with two loops. The currents in various branches can be calculated
using KirchhoffÊs laws. We can get the same solution by considering only one battery at a time
and then superposing to two solutions. If a battery has no internal resistance, it must be left
in place when the emf of the battery is removed. Figure shows how the superposition principle
can be applied to the present problem.

10.8V 4 4 1.2A
0.4A
12 12
8 +
8

1A
0.4A 0.6A

2 2
14.4V
(a) (b)

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 29

10.8V 4 1.8A

8
1.8A

2 14.4V
(c)
The current values in figure (a) and (b) are easily verified. For example when the 10.8 V
battery alone is acting, the total resistance in the circuit is,

12  8
4  2  10.8 
12  8

10.8 V
This makes the total current = 1 A. This current splits between 8 and 12 in the ratio
10.8

3 : 2.
Similarly, the total resistance when only the 14.4 V battery is acting is,

12  6
8  12 
12  6

14.4 V
Therefore, the total current is  1.2A
12 

The superposition principle shows that there is no current in the 12 resistance. Only a current
of 1.8A flows through the outer loop. All these conclusions can be verified by analyzing the
circuit using KirchhoffÊs laws.
6. Distribution of current in parallel connections : When more than one resistances are
connected in parallel, the potential difference across them is equal and the current is distributed
among them in inverse ratio of their resistance, as

V
i =
R

R
i1
i i2 2R

i3
3R

ELECTRICITY
30 QUIZRR

1
or i for same value of V
R

e.g., in the figure,

1 1 1
i3 : i2 : i3 = : :  6 :3 :2
R 2R 3R

 6  6
 i1 =  6  3  2  i  11 i
 

 3  3  2  2
i2   i = i and i3    i i
6 3  2  11 6 32 11

7. Distribution of potential in series connections : When more than one resistances are
connected in series, the current through them is same and the potential is distributed in the
ratio of their resistance, as
V = iR
or V  R for some value of i.

R 2R 3R

V1 V2 V3
i

For example in the figure,

V1 : V2 : V3 = R : 2R : 3R = 1 : 2 : 3

 1  V
 V1 =  1  2  3 V  6
 

 2  2
V2 = 1  2  3 V  3
 

 3  V
and V3 =  1  2  3 V  2
 

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 31

Ex a m pl e 12

In the circuit shown in figure, E1 = 10 V, E2 = 4 V, r 1 = r 2 E1 r1 E2 r2

 and R = 2.
= 1
Find the potential difference across battery 1 and
battery 2.
R

Solution. Net emf of the circuit = E1 ă E2 = 6V

E1 r1 E2 r2
Total resistance of the circuit = R + r1 + r2 = 4

n et em f 6
 Current in the circuit i =  = 15. A i
t ot a l r esist a n ce 4
V1 V2
Now, V1 = E1 ă ir1 = 10 ă (1.5) (1)
= 8.5 volt
and V2 = E2 + ir2 = 4 (1.5) (1) R
= 5.5 volt

6 . H EA T I N G EFFECT S OF CU RREN T
An electric current through a resistor increases its thermal energy. Also, there are other situations
in which an electric current can produce or absorb thermal energy.

6 .1 . POWER SU PPL IED OR POWER A B SORB ED B Y A B A T T ERY

When charges are transported across a source of emf, their potential energy changes. If a net
charge q moves through a potential difference E in a time t, the change in electric potential energy
of the charge is Eq. Thus, the source of emf does work,
W = E q
Dividing both sides by t, then taking the limit as t  0, we find,

dW dq
E
dt dt

dq dW
By definition, = i, the current through the battery and = P, the power output of (or input
dt dt

to) the battery, Hence,

P = Ei
The quantity P represents the rate at which energy is transferred from a discharging battery or to
a charging battery.

ELECTRICITY
 32 QUIZRR

E i
Energy is transferred from the source at a rate Ei

E i
Energy is transferred to the source at a rate Ei.

6 .2 . POWER DI SSI PA T ED A CROSS A RESI ST A N CE

Now letÊs consider the power dissipated in a conducting element. Suppose it has a resistance R and
the potential difference between its ends is V. In moving through the element from higher to lower
potential, a positive charge q loses energy U = V q. This electric energy is absorbed by the conductor
through collisions between its atomic lattice and the charge carriers, causing its temperature to rise.
This effect is commonly called Joule heating. Since power is the rate at which energy is transferred,
we have,

U q
P= = V.  Vi
t t

P = Vi
which with the help of OhmÊs law can also be written in the forms,

V2
P = i 2R or P=
R

Power is always dissipated in a resistance. With this rate the heat produced in the resistor in time
t is,
H = Pt
V
V2
H L i
H = Vit  i Rt 
2
t
R

Joule heating occurs whenever a current passes through an element that has resistance. To prevent
the overheating of delicate electronic components, many electric devices like video cassette recorders,
televisions and computer monitors have fans in their chassis to allow some of the heat produced to
escape.

Ex a m p l e 1 3
In the circuit shown in figure, find
10V 4V
(a ) the power supplied by 10V battery
(b) the power consumed by 4V battery and
i
(c ) the power dissipated in 3 resistance.
Solution. Net emf of the circuit = (10 ă 4) V = 6V
3
Total resistance of the circuit = 3 

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 33

n et em f 6
 Current in the circuit i =   2A
t ot a l r esist a n ce 3

(a) Power supplied by 10 V battery = Ei = (10) (2) = 20 watt Ans.

(b) Power consumed by 4 V battery = Ei = (4) (2) = 8 watt Ans.
(c) Power consumed by 3 resistance = i2R = (2)2 (3) = 12 watt Ans.
Note : Here we can see that total power supplied by 10V battery (i.e. 20 watt) = power consumed
by 4 V battery and 3 resistance. Which proves that conservation of energy holds good in electric
circuits also.

Ex a m p le 1 4
In the circuit shown in figure, find the heat developed across each resistance in 2 seconds.
6
3

3 5

20V
Solution. The 6 and 3 resistances are in parallel. So their combined resistance is,

1 1 1 1
   or R = 2
R 6 3 2

The equivalent simple circuit can be drawn as shown.

Current in the circuit,
3 2

V
5
i

20V

n et em f 20
i = =  2A
t ot a l r esist a n ce 325

V = iR = (2) (2) = 4 volt

i.e., potential difference across 6 and 3 resistances are 4 volt. Now,

ELECTRICITY
 34 QUIZRR

H3= i2Rt = (2)2 (3) (2) = 24 Joule

V2 (4)2 16
H6 = t (2)  J oule
R 6 3

V2 (4)2 (2) 32
H3 = t  J oule
R 3 3

and H5= i2Rt = (2)2(5) (2) = 40 Joule Ans.

Ex a m p le 1 5
Find the current in each branches of the circuit.

5 A 4

21V
6 5V
i2
i1
8
E B
1 C
i3

D
2V 16
Solution. It is possible to use KirchhoffÊs laws in a slightly different form, which may simplify the
solution of certain problems. This method of applying KirchhoffÊs laws is called the loop current
method.
In this method we assign a current to every closed loop in a network.

5 4
A

21V 0.5A
6 5V

2A 1.5A

8
E B
C
1 0.25A
0.25A

D
2V 16

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 35

Suppose current i1, i2 and i3 are flowing in the three loops. The clockwise or anticlockwise sense
given to these currents is arbitrary. Applying KirchhooffÊs second law to the three loops, we get
21 ă 5i1 ă 6 (i1 + i2) ă i1 = 0 ....(i)
5 ă 4i2 ă 6 (i1 + i2) ă 8 (i2 + i3) = 0 ...(ii)
and 2 ă 8 (i2 + i3) ă 16i3 = 0 ....(iii)
Solving these three equations, we get

1 1
i1 = 2A, i2 = – A and i3 = A
2 4

Therefore, current in different branches are as shown in fig. 11.82.

Note : In wire AC, current is i1 + i2 and in CB it is i2 + i3. So, are has to be taken while applying
the loop law.

Ex a m p l e 1 6
In which branch of the circuit shown in figure a 11 V battery be inserted so that it dissipates
minimum power. What will be the current through the 2 resistance for this position of the
battery ?

2 4 6

Solution. Suppose, we insert the battery with 2 resistance. Then we can take 2 as the internal
resistance (r) of the battery and combined resistance of the other two as the external resistance (R).
The circuit in that case shown in Fig.

R
E

E2
Now power, P=
Rr

ELECTRICITY
 36 QUIZRR

This power will be minimum where R + r is maximum and we can see that (R + r) will be maximum
when the battery is inserted with 6 resistance as shown in Fig. below :

i1 i
i2

2 4 6

11V

24 22
6 = 
24 3

11
 i =  1.5 A
22 / 3

This current will be distributed in 2 and 4 in the inverse ratio of their resistances.

i1 4
i2
= 2
2

 2 
i1 =   (1 .5)  1 A Ans.
2  1

Ex a m p l e 1 7

5A D 2 3V 2A
E
C 1 4 B
12V

3 6

6A

Figure shows part of a circuit. Calculate the power dissipated in 3 resistance. What is the
potential difference VC ă VB ?
Solution. Applying KirchhoffÊs junction law at E current in wire DE is 8A from D to E. Now further
applying junction law at D. The current in 3 resistance will be 3 A towards D.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 37

5A D 8A E 2A

C 1 2 4 B
12V 3V 6A
3A

3 6

 resistance = i2R = (3)2 (3)

Power dissipated in 3
= 27 watt
VC ă VB : VC ă 5  1 + 12 ă 8  2 ă 3 ă 4  2 = VB
 VC ă VB = 5 ă 12 + 16 + 3 + 8
or VC ă VB = 20 volt Ans.

7 . SY M M ETRY M ET H ODS OF FIN DI N G EQU I V A LEN T RESI ST A N CES

I. Points (junctions) which are symmetrically located relative to initial and final points (say A and B
respectively) are EQUIPOTENTIAL and hence any circuit element (resistor, capacitor, industor)
between these 2 points can be removed from the circuit.

Illust rat io n
In the given cube (12345678) find the equivalent 5 8
resistance between the function :
6
(i)  1 and 8 7

(ii)  1 and 3
(iii)  1 and 2
4
3
1
2

Sol. (i) Between 1 and 8 5 8

In this case note that the points (2, 4, 6) are symmetrically
6
located from the initial point and final point and (3, 7, 5) are also 7
symmetrically located with respect to initial and final points.

4
3

1 2

ELECTRICITY
 38 QUIZRR

How to find the symmetrical points ?

(i) With respect to initial points, the points must be equidistant (in terms of resistances, of course)
and the same points must also be equidistant (not necessarily having the same distance as initial
points). Then these are said to be equipotential points.

Tip : In any circuit element, if there is no current through it, then it can be removed from the
circuit.

After finding the equipotential points, remove the circuit elements if any connected between these
points and else, you can also join these equipotential points.
Re-draw the circuit : Placing the equipotential points as shown.
1.
1 (2, 4, 6) (3, 5, 2) 8

2.
(2, 4, 6)
1 (3, 5, 7) 8

 R   R   R   5R 
Net equivalent resistance =           
3 6 3  6 

(ii) Between the points 1 and 3 :

(2, 4) and (5, 7) are equipotential junction points.
Re-draw the circuit

5 8
6 R/2 (5, 7) R/2 8
6
7
R R/2 R

4 R/2
3 R/2 3
1 (2, 4)
1 2

The above structure is a wheatstone bridge

 3R 
 Req. =  
 4 

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 39

(iii) Between 1 and 2

5 8

6
7 (4, 6) and (3, 7) are equipotential junction pairs.

4
3
1 2

Hence,
R

R 5
R
1 R (3, 7) R
R (4, 6) R
2
R
8 R

R/2
1 R/2 R R/2
(4, 6) R/2 2
R/2
8

R
R
2R R/2
1
R/2
R/2
R

1 2
7R
12

ELECTRICITY
 40 QUIZRR

7R
Req. =
12

Another simplified circuit

R
R/2
R/2

R/2
(4, 6) (3, 7)

R/2 R/2

1 R 2

7R
Req. =
12

II. If the line joining the initial and final point (i.e AB) is the axis of symmetry, then all points lying
on the perpendicular of the line AB are equipotential.
eg.
2 In this network points (2,4, 6), (1,5) and (3, 7)
are equipotential.

1 3 Hence, Remove the circuit elements present

between them.
4 Simplify the circuit.
A B (2, 4)
 Req. =  3R 
R/2  2 
5 7 1 R/2
R R
B
6 A
R R

R/2 R/2
(4, 6)

III. If the line AB is not the axis of symmetry, but its perpendicular bisector is the axis of symmetry,
then all points lying on the perpendicular bisector are equipotential.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 41

Illustrat ion
M R R

R R
O R R Req. =  5R 
 4 
R R
A B R R
A B
N
Here, (M,O,N) are equipotential points and hence, OM, ON resistors can be removed from the
circuit.
IV. Connection Removal Method (Image Method) :
Conditions to apply this method :
(1) Circuit should be symmetric relative to the initial and final points.
(2) If we place a mirror perpendicular to the line AB in such a way that image of A becomes the
image of B, then we can apply this method.
You cannot apply the image method is the cases as one shown be.
These two must be same to apply image method.
4R

R R R
R
R1
R1
R R

2R
Concept : The current in the resistor and its image are equal.

NOTE : If the resistor and its image coincide at a junction, then the junction can be separated
from other.

Illust rat io n
Find the net resistance between A and B

R R R R
Ć Ć Ć Ć
A B A B
R R
R R
R
 4R 
Req. =  
 5 

ELECTRICITY
 42 QUIZRR

Illust rat io n
Find net resistance between 5 and 7.

R 7
R
Ć7 5 R
R
5Ć R
R
R
R
R
R
 3R 
Req. =  
 4 

V. Star-Delta Method

A A

RA RA
r3 r2 r3 r2

RB
Rc RB Rc
B r1 C B r1 C

(Delta) (Star)
(i) Delta to star conversion

r2 r3 r3 r1 r1 r2
RA = RB = RC =
r1  r2  r3 r1  r2  r3 r1  r2  r3

Illust rat io n
B 4r/3 E
Ć Ć
r r

Ć r r Ć
A F
r
r
Ć Ć
C r/3 D

Find the equivalent resistance between A and F.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 43

Solution :
Symmetry methods do not apply in above such problems.
Convert delta to star for ABC and DEF
ABC and DEF are similar

B
ĆB
r
r2 r2
r + r + r r + r + r
AĆ r
A
r2
r + r + r
r
Ć C
C
B

r/3
r/3
A

r/3

4r/3
r/3 C
r/3 r/3
B
A r/3
r/3 r/3
r/3

2r
r/3 r/3
A B
r

A r/3 2r/3 r/3

B

A
4r B
3
4r
Req. =
3
ELECTRICITY
 44 QUIZRR

(ii) Star to delta conversion

A A
Ć Ć

RA
r3 r2

RC
Ć Ć RB
B C Ć Ć
r1 B C
(Delta) (Star)

R A R B  R B RC  RC R A
r1 = RA

R A R B  R B RC  RC R A
r2 = RB

R A R B  R B RC  RC R A
r3 = RC

Illust rat ion :

Find equivalent resistance between A and B.

1R
2R 2R

AĆ 2R 3R
ĆB
2R

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 45

Solution. Convert star to Delta.

11 11
R R
3 2
2R
2R

A B
2R

11R
22 22
R R
17 15

22
R
13

A B

22  32
17  15

A B
22
13

Req. = 1.049

Ex a m p l e 1 8

8 resistors are connected along the sides of a pyramidal network O

as shown. Find the equivalent resistance between
(i) AC
(ii) AB
D C
(iii) OA

A B

ELECTRICITY
46 QUIZRR

(i) Between AC : Redraw the circuit D

C
Symmetry about line AC.
O
Hence applyimage method

B
A

R
 2R  D
 Req. =   (after removing OD and DB) C
 3 
2R R
R

B
A R

D C
(ii) About AB : Apply image method

A B

D R C
R R

8R R Ć R
Req. = Ć R
15 R
Ć Ć
A R B

(iii) About OA : (D, B) are equipotential points.

D C

A B

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 47

Hence
R

(D, R) Ć R
Ć
R

R
R R

R
A
(D, B) R/2
Ć C

R/2
R
R/2
O

R
Ć
A

A R O
Ć Ć

(D, B)

R/2 R/2

3R
2

A R O

R/2 3R
8

7
Req. = R
15

ELECTRICITY
 48 QUIZRR

Ex a m p l e 1 9
Find the equivalent resistance between A and B. F

B
D

A
C
Solution. Apply rule 1.
(D, F) and (C, E) are equipotential junctions.
Hence, remove the resistors connected between them
(i.e.) DF and CE
Simplified circuit :
R

(D, F) B
R

R R R

E
(E, C) R A

 3R 
Req. =  
5

Ex a m p l e 2 0
Find the equivalent resistance between AB.

r r

A1 r
B1

r r
r r

A r r
Q B

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 49

Solution. Apply image method

P

r r

r
r r
r r

A 2r B

 10 r 
Req. =  
 9 

Ex a m p l e 2 1
In previous question, the question is extended and there are infinite triangular networks
embedded is each other as shown, then find the equivalent resistance between AB.

r r

A1 Ć r/2 Ć r/2 ĆB
1

r r/2 r/2 r
Ć Ć
r/2 r/2
AĆ Ć ĆB
r r
Solution. Let the resistance between A and B be x.
Then the smaller triangle with A1B1 has resistances hall in each arm compared to the triangle with
AB.

x
Hence the equivalent resistance between A, B, =
2

r r

A1 B1
x/2
r r

A B
r r

ELECTRICITY
 50 QUIZRR

 2 xr  
 4 r  x   2 r  2 r  x
 
(Req.)AB =  
 2 xr  4 r 
 
 4r  x 

4 ( 7 – 1) r
 x=
6

8 . GROU PI N G OF CEL LS

8 .1 . Gro u p i n g o f I d e n t i c a l Ce l ls
 is the emf of each cell and r is the internal resistance
1. Series grouping
  
n
I = r r r
(R + n r )

In the series grouping

eq = (n) R
Req = (nr)
n, nr
When R > > r,

 n 
I =  
R
R
 The series grouping is ideal when R > > r.
2. Parallel grouping

 n I/n E, r
 I =  <
 r  (n R + r )
R + 
n < r
r
r
 eq = , Req =  
n

When r > > R

R
 n
I =  
r

Hence parallel grouping becomes effective when (R < < r).

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 51

3. Mixed grouping I/m r r

n = no. of cells in each row.
I/m
m = no. of row

n
 I =
 nr 
R + 
m

m n
 I = R
(m R  n r )

Combination for maximum current

It is maximum when (mR + nr) is minimum

   
2 2
(mR + nr) = mR nr

 
2
= m R – nr  4 m nr R

 
2
= m R – nr  2 mn r R

 (mR + nr) min = 2 m n r R , when m R  nr

For maximum current output through load
mR = nr

mn mn n  m 
I = = = =  
m R +n r 2m R 2R  2r 

Ex a m p l e 2 2
40 identical cells each of emf = 6V and internal resistance  are to be connected across
a load of R = 10. Find the most effective grouping ?
Solution. In the most effective grouping the current through the load is maximum.
Let n cells be series of each row, with network having m rows.

We have mn = N = 40
For maximum current

mR = (nr)
m (10) = (1) n
 n = 10 m
 10m2 = 40  (m = 2)

ELECTRICITY
52 QUIZRR

 n = 20

mn m n  20  6
I = =   6A
2 m nR 2 m R 2  10

Most effective grouping must have 20 cells in each row with 2 rows, in all.

8 .2 . GROU PI N G OF DI SSI MI LA R CEL LS

(1) Series grouping
1 2 3 n
(1   2 ..... n )
I =
R + (r1  r2  .... rn )
r1 r2 r3 rn

n n

 i eq =  i R
i 1
i 1
I = n n
R   ri Req. =  ri
i 1
i

(2) Parallel grouping : First we will derive for two cells, then we will generalize the result.
I = (i1 + i2)
i 1 1 , r
( – IR)   – IR  1
i1 = r1
; i 2
=  r 
2
r
i 2 2 2
  – IR    – IR 
 I =  r   r 
 1   2 
I R
 R R   
= I 1      1  2 
 r1 r2   r1 r2 

 1    2   1 1 
–1
 1  2 
          
 r1   n   r1 r2 
 r1 r2 
 I = =
 1 1    1 1 
–1

 
R  
 1 R +    
  r1 r2     r1 r2  

    1 1  
–1

 1  2    
 r1 r2  r1 r2  
 I =
 1 1 
–1

R +    
  r1 r2  

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 53

In general,

–1
 i   1 
    
 ri   ri 
I =
–1
 1
R +  
 ri 

  i  
     req  1
  ri   1 1 1 1
or, I = where  r  r  r  r  .... r 
R + (r e q )  eq 1 2 3 n 

Ex a m p l e 2 3
12 identical cells are given, each of emf , and internal resistance r, and are connected in
series and kept in a box. Same cells are wrongly connected by mistake. Now, when the box
is connected in series with two other identical cells, the current is 3A, when they support
each other and is 2A, when they oppose each other.
Solution. Let the no of wrongly connected cells be x
 Net emf is series combination
= + (N ă x)  ă x = (N ă 2x)  = (12 ă x)  { N = 12}

Tip : 1. When in series combination, a cell is wrongly connected, then its emf is added as ă.
2. If out of N cells is series, x are wrongly connected, net emf = (N ă 2x) .

(12 – 2 x)   2 
Now, = 3 ...(1)
14 r

when wrongly connected,

12 – 2 x  – 2  = 2 ...(2)
14 r

Divide (1) and (2)

(14 – 2 x) 3
=  
(10 – 2 x) 2

 x = 1

9 . M a x i m u m Po w e r T ra n s f e r T h e o r e m
„For maximum power (i.e. maximum current) being dissipated through an external load, connected
in a circuit with battery of internal resistance r, the external resistance must be equal to internal
resistance of the battery.ÊÊ

ELECTRICITY
 54 QUIZRR

Derivation :  r


i =
(R  r )

2 R R
 P = i2R =
(R  r )2

Differentiate P wrt R, Power dissipated

2  R  r  – 2 R[2(R + r )]
2
 dP 
 dR  =  2 
  (R  r )4  4R 

2 [R2  r 2  2Rr – 2R 2 – 2 r R)]

=
(R + r )4

 2 (r – R) O R=r
= Load
(R  r )3

 dP 
Hence,  d R  = 0, when (r = R)
 

Hence power dissipated is maximum when (r = R).

1 0. CH A RGI N G A N D DI SCH A RGI N G OF CA PA CI T ORS

1 0 .1 Ch a r g i n g o f Ca p a c i t o r
So, far, we have been concerned with the capacitors in the steady state, i.e. the capacitors which
have already been charged to their steady state voltages.
Now consider a circuit where an uncharged capacitor C is connected to a cell of emf E through a
resistance R.
C R
Applying loop rule

q
 iR = 
c


 q
iR =   – 
c

Now, due to the flow of corrent, the upper plate begins to acquire positive charge and lower becomes
negetively charged. The voltage across capacitor begins to grow.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 55

 dq   CE – q 
 R  = 
 d t  C 

 dq 
 RC   = (CE ă q)
 dt 

q (t ) t
dq dt

 (CE – q )
=  RC
0
q0

 CE – q   –t 
 ln   =  
 CE – q0   RC 

(CE ă q) = (CE ă q0) eă t/ RC

q = [CE ă (CE ă q0) eăt/RC] + q0 ă q0
= q0 + (CE ă q0) (1 ă eăt/RC)]

q (t) = q0 + (CE ă q0) (1 ă eăt/RC)

In generalizsed for any capacitor, we have,

t/ 
q (t) = q0 + (qs ă q0) [1ă e– )

where,
q0  inital charge ; qs  final steady state charge
  time-constant = RC
Differentiating the above result, we get the result for current,

 q – q0  – t / 
i (t) =  s  e  i0 e– t / 
  

where i0  initial current

(q v/s t) i
qs  qs ă q0 
   (i v/ s t)

q0

t t

ELECTRICITY
 56 QUIZRR

Time constant : The time in which a capacitor will get completely charged if it would have been
charging with initial constant rate, is called time constant.

qs

0.63 (qs ă q0) + (qs – q0 )

q0 tan  =


q0 

Ex a m p l e 2 4
Which capacitors 1 or 2, has the time constant is greater, for which the charging curves
are shown ?
q
1
2

t
q 
Solution. tan  =  s  {as q0 = 0}
 

1

 Slope  a t t 0

Hence (2 > 1)

1 0 .2 . Di s c h a r g i n g o f t h e Ca p a c i t o rs

 q
  – i R = 0 C
+ ă R
C

 dq  =  q 
– R  C
 dt 

 dq 
q(t ) t
dt

q0
   = –
q  RC
0

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 57

 q (t )   –t 
n   =  
 0 
q  RC 

 q (t) = q0 e– t / RC

 – q0  – t / RC
i (t ) =  e
 RC 

i (t)
q0

t

 ă q0 
t  RC 

A N A L Y SIS OF RC CI RCU I T

I. At time t = 0.
Get the initial charge through the capacitor. And then find the C R
initial current through the capacitor.
· The initial current can be found by short-circuiting the
capacitor, only if the capacitor is initially uncharged.
· Otherwise, apply toop rule to get the current through the
capacitor. 


i0 =  
R

II. At time t =  , (at steady state) :

* The current through the capacitor is zero.
* Remove the capacitor, inserting a gap between its terminals
and then find the potential difference across its ends. A B R
VAB = 
qs = (C)
III. Now, use

qs – q 
i0  0


ELECTRICITY
 58 QUIZRR

Among four unknown, three can be found using above concept and the fourth can be obtained,
hence.
Note : You can also find the time-constant by finding the equivalent resistance between the
terminals of the capacitor.
Remember : To find the time constant directly, short-circuit the battery and then find the equivalent
resistance between the capacitor terminals.
Ex a m p l e 2 5
At time = t = 0, the switch S is closed. Find the function,
(i) q (t) = ?
(ii) i (t) = ?
S R

C
E R

Solution. At t = 0, q0 = 0

RÊ

E C
R

R
Let i0 be the current through capacitor, and I be the current through battery.
Then,
R

E R C
1 2

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 59

In loop (1), E = IR +  I – i0  R

In loop (2), E = IR + i0R

ă ă ă
0 = I ă 2i0
I = 2i 0
Putting in (1)

 E = 2 i0 R + i0 R  i0  E /3R

At t = 
A R
Ć

E 1 R

Ć
R B
In loop (1)
E = 2iR  iR = E/2

since potential across capacitor = potential across AB

Hence, Vcapacitor = E/2

CE
 qs =
2

qs – q0  CE   3R  3RC
Hence, = =    
i 2  E  2

q (t) = q0 + (qs ă q0) (1 ă eăt/ )

CE
q (t) = (1 – e –2 t /3 RC ) ...(i)
2

Now, differentiate it,

 –2 t / 3 RC
We get, i (t) = (e ) ...(ii)
3R

ELECTRICITY
 60 QUIZRR

Ex a m p l e 2 6
Find the function of q (t) and i (t) when the initial charge through the capacitor is zero.

R R

R
E C
R

R
Solution : At t= 0
Short-circuit the capacitor R R

 8R 
 Req =   R
 3 
R
E
 3E 
 I =  
 8R 
R
 3E   2   E 
 i0 =      
 8R   3   4R 

At t = 
R R

a
R b
R
E
R

 CE 
qs =  
 2R 

( q s – q0 )  C E   4R 
  =   (2R C)
i0  2R   E 

Ex a m p le 2 7
Find the potential drop across the 20 resistor connected through the capacitor after 1 ms.
(Initially the capacitor is uncharged)

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 61

Solution. Find the time constant directly using the equivalent resistance concept.

40F 20

10

10

 = 20V

Equivalent resistance is calculated across the capacitor and shorting the battery.
A B 20

10

10

10
 Req = 20   25 
2

Hence,  = R  C = 25  40  10ă6 = (10ă3) = 1 ms.

q0 = 0, qs = (10) (40)
= (400C)
 q (t) = q0 + (qs ă q0) (1 ă e–t/ )
= 0 + 400 (1 ăeăt/1) C (time in ms)
q (t) = 400 (1ăeăt) C (time in ms)

400 – t
 i (t) = (e )  10 –6 A
10 –3

= 0.4 (e–t) A

 0.4 
i (t) =  t  A
e

 Potential drop after 1 ms

0.4 8
= 20   V
e  e
1

ELECTRICITY
 62 QUIZRR

New Concept : If no circuit element is connected in series with the cell, then we can split the
branches of the circuit into different individual circuits.

40F 20 40F 20

10

10 +
 = 20V
 i = i (t)  = 20V
i = 2A
In the above diagram,
i (t) = current through the capacitor = 1eăt/ where  = 40  20  10ă6 = (8  10ă4) s
But current through the battery = 2 + eăt/

Ex a m p l e 2 8
In the arrangement shown, the switch S is closed at the time t = 0.
The capacitor has charges as shown
Find :
(i) current through the cell as a function of time t.
(ii) q (t) on capacitor
(iii) charge flown from the battery
(iv) total heat dissipated in the circuit.
ă CE + CE
2 2 R

E S

Solution. At, t = 0 –
CE CE
2 2 R
Apply KVL as capacitor is charged

E
E +   – iR = 0
2

 3E   CE 
 i0 =   , q0 = –   E
 2R   2 

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 63

At t = 
qs = (CE)
 = (RC)
 q (t) = q0 + (qs ă q0) (1 ă eăt/)

 –CE   3CE 
  1 – e 
– t /RC
= 
 2   2 

3CE – t / RC CE
(i) q (t) = CE – e = [2 – 3 e – t / RC ]
2 2

3E – t / RC
(ii)  i (t) = e
2R

(iii) Charge flown from the battery (after connection) to plate

= (Qf) ă (Qi) = CE –  –
CE   3CE 
 
 2   2 

(iv) Heat dissipated in the circuit.

Wex + Wb = U + H

 3CE  1  2 E2 
0  E = C E –   H
 2  2  4 

3CE 2 3CE 2  9CE 2 

H = – 
2 8  8 

Ex a m p l e 2 9

In the circuit shown, initially S2 is closed till the capacitor

is completely charged to q 0. Now, S2 is opened and S1 is closed C R

 q0 
t i l l t h e ch ar ge on t h e capaci t or becam e  2  in time t1. Now
 
S1
S1 is opened and S2 is closed till the charge on the capacitor

 3q0  2R
becomes  4  in time t. Find the ratio (t1/t2). 
  S2

Solution. When the capacitor is completely charged

q0 = CE

ELECTRICITY
 64 QUIZRR

(i) When S2 is opened and S1 is closed :

q (t) = q0 e(ăt/RC) (discharging circuit)

 q0 
   = q0e(t1/RC)
 2 

 t1 = (RC ln2
(ii) When S1 opened and S2 is Closed :

 q0  q 
q(t) =   q0 – 0  (1 – e
– t / 3RC
)
2  2 

 q0   q0   q0 
q(t) =  2    2  –  2  e
– t /3 RC

     

 3 q0   q0  – t 2 /3 RC
 4  = ( q0 ) –  2  e
 

 q0   q0  – t2 /3 RC
   =  e
 4   2 

 t2 
 ln2 =  3RC   t2 = 3RC ln2
 

 t1  1
  =  
 2
t 3

Ex a m p l e 3 0

Find the current through the battery just after closing the C R
switch and after longtime. Also, find the charge on each
capacitor and the total heat dissipated after the steady state R C
is reached. R R C

Solution. At t = 0 E
The short circuit capacitor circuit.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 65

This is a balanced wheatstone bridge network R

E R
 i =   R
R R R
At t = 
Short circuit the resistor in which there is no current
E
qc = 0, qA = qB = (CE)
i  = 0 (through the battery)
A
Net charge flown from the battery = (2CE ă 0) = 2 CE
 Heat dissipated, B C
Wex + Wb = V + H

1 
O + 2CE2 =  CE 2   2  H
2 

 H = CE2

Ex a m p le 3 1
In the circuit shown initially S1 and S2 are both closed. 2F 6
When the steady state is reached the key S1 is opened
(at t = 0). S1

Then find the charge flown through the battery and 3 4F
heat dissipated till the steady state is again reached after
opening S1.
Solution. At t = 0, charge distribution was,

S2
18
 2A  = 18V
Current (i) in the circuit =
9

 VA = 6V VB = 12V

 qA = 12C qB = 48C
A 6

3 B

= 18V (i = 2A)

ELECTRICITY
66 QUIZRR

After S1 is opened at t = 0 and the steady state is reached once again with S2 closed.

 q
C
qA = 36  E  18V= C 
 

qB = 72C

2F 6

3 4F

= 18V
 Charge flow from the battery
= [(36 + 72) ă (12 + 48)] C = 48 C.
 Heat dissipated
Wex + Wb = H + U

1  362 722   122 482  

0 + (48  18  10ă6) =      10 –6 + H
4   2 4  
–
2  3

 H = 216  10ă6J

1 1. H EA T DI SSI PA T ED T H ROU GH EA CH RESI ST OR I N RC CI RCU I T

(A) Series Combination :
C
H1 H 2 H 3 H n H Tot al
  = 
R1 R 2 R 3 Rn Req

Derivation :

 
R`1 R2 R3
H1 =  R 1 i d t  R 1  i d t
2 2

0 0

H2 = R
0
2 i 2 d t and so on

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 67

 
But, Htotal =  i 2 R eq d t = Req  i 2 d t
0 0

i
2
The factor d t is con st a n t
0

 H H H H
i
1 2 3 Tot a l
 2
dt = R  H  R  R
0 1 2 3 eq

H 
 Hi = R i  T ot a l 
 R eq 

(B) Parallel Combination

H1R1 = H2R2 = H3R3 =......HnRn = HTReq

Derivation :

 
C
V2 1
H1 =  R d t  R  V d t
2

0 1 1 0

R1

1
H2 = R  V d t and so on.
2
R2
2 0

R3

 =  V 2 dt  K =(H1R1 )  (HT Re q )
0

= .....= (H2Req)

HT Req
 H1 =
R1

Ex a m p l e 3 2
A capacitor of 2F is allowed to be discharged through resistors of R1 = 3 and R2 = 2 after
being charged to a potential of 10V. Calculate the heat dissipated through each if connected.

ELECTRICITY
 68 QUIZRR

Sol. (a ) In series (b) in parallel

C = 2F

R1

R2
R1 R2

HT =
1
 HT = CV2
2 1
=  CV 2
2
1
=  2  (100)  100 J
2 = 100 J
H1R1 = H2R2 = HT Req
 H1   H 2   H T   100 
 
 R    R  =  Req   5   H T R eq 
1 2 H1 =  R 1 

 100  3  100
 H1 = R 1     60 J 100  6
 5  5 =  40 J
35
H2 = (40J)
H2 = 60J

1 2. EL ECT RI CA L M EA SU RI N G I N ST RU M EN T S
So far we have studied about current, resistance, potential difference and emf. Now we will study
how these are measured. The basic measuring instrument is galvanometer, whose pointer shows a
deflection when current passes through it. A galvanometer can easily be converted into an ammeter
for measuring current, into a voltmeter for measuring potential difference. For accurate measurement
of potential difference or emf a potentiometer is more preferred. Resistances are accurately measured
by using post office box or meter bridge which are based on the principle of ÂWheatstone bridge.‰

1 2 .1 Ga l v a n o m e t e r
Many common devices including car instrument panels, battery chargers measure potential difference,
current or resistance using dÊ Arsonval Galvanometer. It consists of a provided coil placed in the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet. Attached to the coil is a spring. In the equilibrium position, with
no current in the coil, the pointer is at zero and spring is relaxed. When there is a current in the coil,
the magnetic field exerts a torque on the coil that is proportional to current. As the coil turns, the spring
exerts a restoring torque that is proportional to the angular displacement. Thus, the angular deflection
of the coil and pointer is directly proportional to the coil current and the device can be calibrated to
measure current.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 69

The maximum deflection, typically 90Ĉ to 120Ĉ is called full scale deflection. The essential electrical
characteristics of the galvanometer are the current ig required for full scale deflection (of the order of
A to 10mA) and the resistance G of the coil (of the order of 10 to 1000).
10
The galvanometer deflection is proportional to the current in the coil. If the coil obeys OhmÊs law,
the current is proportional to potential difference. The corresponding potential difference for full scale
deflection is,
V = i gG

1 2 .2 A m m e t e r
It is a device used to measure the current through a circuit element and connected in series with
that element.
E
E

Actural Current i1 
R  r
=  E 
R {Measured
R
A current}
R r

  
R 
Now, I =   , IÊ =
R r 
1 
R 

I
 I’ = 1   r / R 

Few important points to note :

(1) The reading of an ammeter is always less than the actual current in the circuit elements.
(2) Smaller the resistance of the ammeter, more accurate is the reading obtained.
(3) An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.

I If
G

(I ă If)
R

(4) To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, a small value resistance called shunt is connected
in parallel across the galvanometer.

ELECTRICITY
 70 QUIZRR

To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter which can measure a current I,

I Ig
G

(I, ăIg) R

Ig  full scale deflection current

I  required current range.
(I ă Ig) R = (I gG)

I gG
R= I–I
g

where R is the internal resistance.

1 2 .3 V o l t m e t e r
It is a device which can measure the potential difference across a circuit element and connected in
parallel with that element.

I R
I I’ R
Vactual = (IR)
(I ă I’) V’ =I’R
v r

Vobserved = (I‘R)
 (I ă IÊ)r = (IÊR)
Ir = I‘ (r + R)

Ir I
I‘ =  (V‘ < V)
(r  R) (1  R / r )

As r   (I’  I)
Few important points to note :
(1) The reading of the voltmeter is always less than the actual value.
(2) Greater the resistance of the voltmeter, more accurate is the reading obtained.
(3) For an ideal voltmeter, resistance should be infinite, which has been realized in practice through
a potentiometer.
To convert a galvanometer into voltmer of given range V :
We connect a high value resistance R is series with the galvanometer.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 71

Rg
ig R
+ G ă (Vab = V)

i gR + Rgi g = V

V
R= – Rg
ig

Illust ra t io n
A galvanometer of Rg = 30 and i g = 2mA is to be converted into an ammeter of 0.3A range
and a voltmeter of 0.2V range. Find the resistance required in each case.
Solution. To convert into an ammeter,

igR g 2  10 –3  30 2  10 –3  30  10
S =    10  0.2 
(I – i g ) (0.3) – (2  10 –3 ) 3

To convert into a voltmeter

V 0.2
R= – Rg  – 30  (70 )
Ig 2  10 –3

Ex a m p l e 3 3
A cell of emf 3.4V and internal resistance r = 3 is connected in series with an ammeter of
resistance 2 and an external resistance of 100 when a voltmeter is connected is parallel,
ammetter reading is 0.04 A.
 =V r = 3

0.04A R =100
A
RA = 2


Find the reading of the voltmeter and its resistance.

Also, find the reading when the voltmeter is ideal.
Solution. Use KVL,
0.04 (3 + 2) + VR = 3.4
 VR = 3.2 V

 VR   3.2 
 Req. =  I    0.04   80 
   

ELECTRICITY
 72 QUIZRR
100R V
Now, (100  R V )
= 80  RV = 400

 Resistance of volmeter = 400

and its reading is 3.2 V.
When the voltmeter is ideal,

3.4  100 3.4  100  68 

i =   
(3  2  100) 105  21 

 VR =  68   100
 21 

Ex a m p le 3 4
To convert into voltmeter
1g = 1mA
Rg = 50 R1 R2 R3
G

X Y Z
1V 10V 100V

V  1
Solution. Through X : R 1   1 – R g   –3 – 50  (950)
 ig  10

 V2  10
Through Y : (R1 + R2) =  i – R g  = – 50  9950   R2  
 g  1  10 –3

V 
Through Z : (R1 + R2 + R3) =  3 – R g   (10 5 – 50)   
i 
 g 

R3 = 90000

1 2.4 POT EN T I OM ET ER
The potentiometer is an instrument that can be used to measure the emf or the internal resistance
of an unknown source. It also has a number of other useful applications.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 73

E1

i i

a b
c
i2 = 0
G
E 2, r

Pr i n c i p l e o f Po t e n t i o m e t e r
The principle of potentiometer is schematically shown in figure. A resistance wire ab of total
resistance Rab is permanently connected to the terminals of a source of known emf E1. A sliding contact
c is connected through the galvanometer G to a second source whose emf E2 is to be measured. As
contact c is moved along the potentiometer wire, the resistance Rcb between points c and b varies. If
the resistance wire is uniform Rcb is proportional to the length of the wire between c and b. To
determine the value of E2, contact c is moved until a position is found at which the galvanometer shows
no deflection. This corresponds to zero current passing through E2. With i2 = 0, KirchhoffÊs second law
gives,

E2 = iRcb

With i2 = 0, the current i produced by the emf E1 has the same value no matter what the value
of emf E2. A potentiometer has following applications.

To find em f of an unk now n bat t ery

E1 E1

i
l1 l2
i i
a b a b
c1 C2
i2 = 0 i2 = 0
G G
Ek EU

We calibrate the device by replacing E2 by a source of known emf EK and then by unknown emf
EU. Let the null points are obtained at lengths l1 and l2. Then,
EK = i (l1)
and EU = i (l2)

ELECTRICITY
 74 QUIZRR

Here,  = resistance of wire ab per unit length.

EK l2
 EU
= l2

 l2 
or EU =  l  E K
 1

So, by measuring the lengths l1 and l2, we can find the emf of an unknown battery.

T o f i n d t h e i n t e rn a l r e s is t a n c e o f a n u n k n o w n b a t t e r y
To find the internal resistance of an unknown battery let us derive a formula.
E r

i
R

In the circuit shown in figure

E
i = ...(i)
R r

and V = potential difference across the terminals of the battery

V = E ă ir = iR ...(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we can prove that

E 
r = R  – 1
V 

Thus, if a battery of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a resistance R and the
potential difference across its terminals comes out to be V then the internal resistance of the battery
is given by the above formula. Now let us apply it in a potentiometer for finding the internal resistance
of the unknown battery.
E1

i i
l1

a b
c1
 i2 = 0
G
E r

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 75

The circuit shown in Fig. is similar to the previous one.

Hence E = il 1 ...(i)
Now a known resistance R is connected across the terminals of the unknown battery as shown in
Fig. below
This time Vcb  E,
but Vcb = V

i E1 i

i
l2

a b
C2
i2 = 0
E r
G

i0

R
where V = potential difference across the terminals of the unknown battery. Hence,
V = il 2 ...(ii)
From Eqs. (i) (ii),

E l1
= l
V 2

E 
Substituting in r = R  – 1  , we get
V 

 l1 
r = R  l – 1
 2 

So, by putting R, l1 and l2 we can determine the internal resistance r of unknown battery.

Ex a m p l e 3 5
A potentiometer wire of length 100 cm has a resistance of 10 ohm. It is connected in series
with a resistance and a cell of emf 2 volts and of negligible internal resistance. A source
of emf 10mV is balanced against a length of 40 cm of the potentiometer wire. What is the
value of external resistance ?
Solution. From the theory of potentiometer,
Vab = E, if no current is drawn from the battery

ELECTRICITY
 76 QUIZRR

E1
 E1 
or   R ab = E
 R + R ab 
R
Here, E1 = 2V, Rab = 10
a b
c
 40 
Rcb =    10  4 
 100  E
G

and E = 10  10ă3 V
Substituting in above, we get
R = 790 Ans.

PRI N CI PL E OF WH EA T ST ON E’S B RI DGE

This is an arrangement of four resistances which can be B
used to measure one of them in terms of the rest.
i1 i1

ig = 0
The figure shows the circuit designed by him. The bridge P
A Q C
is said to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer is zero, G

i.e. ig = 0, and hence, R S

i2 i2
VB = V D
Under this condition, VA ă VB = VA ă V D i D
or i1P = i2R E
i1 R
or i2
= ...(i)
P

Similarly, VB ă VC = VD ă V C
or i1Q = i 2S

i1 S
or i2
=
Q

R S
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), =
P Q

P R
=
Q S

So, this is a condition for which a Wheatstone bridge is balanced.

Following two points are important regarding a WheastoneÊs bridge.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 77

(i) Wheastone bridge, cell and galvanometer arms are interchangeable.

B B

P Q P Q

A G C A C

R S  R S

D D

In both the cases, condition of balanced bridge is

P R
=
Q S

(ii) If bridge is not balanced current will flow from D to B if,

PS > RQ

DI FFEREN T FORM S OF WH EA T ST ON E’S B RI DGE

Following are given few circuits which are basically WheatstoneÊs bridge circuits.

Q
G
R

(a)

Q P R

P
G G

R Q S

S
(c)
(b)

ELECTRICITY
 78 QUIZRR

Most simple practical application of this bridge is the meter bridge.

It consists of a straight and uniform wire of manganin or constantan stretched along a meter scale.
The balance is obtained on the wire, if lengths of two parts are l1 and l2 then the ratio of two
resistances

P l1
= l
Q 2

P Q

l2 l2

E Meter Bridge

Ex a m p l e 3 6
A potentiometer wire of length l = 100 cm, R = 10 is connected in series with a cell of emf
 = 2V, and an external resistance R. A source of 10 mV is balanced against 40 cm length
of potentiometer wire. Find the external resistance R and the maximum potential that can
be measured with the potentiometer.

2
Solution. i =
(10  R)

40
Resistance of 40 cm of wire = 10   4
100

Now, i (4) = 10 mV

24
= 10  10ă3
(10  R)

 800 = 10 + R
 R = 790

2
i =  0.25  10 –2  2.5  10 –3 A
800

 Maximum drop that can be measured = 2.5  10ă3  10

= 0.025 V
= 25 mV.

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 79

Ex a m p l e 3 7
A potentiometer wire AB is 100 cm long. When AC = 40 cm, no deflection occurs in
galvanometer. Find R.

10 R

A C B

10 AC
Solution : =
R CB

 CB   100 – 40 
 R = 10    10  
 AC   40 

60
= 10   15 
40

Ex a m p l e 3 8
In the arrangement of the potentiometer shown, the first balanced point is achieved at 75
cm from one end A when the key K is opened. After closing the key K, the second balanced
point is achieved at 60 cm from the end A. Find the internal resistance of the cell and the
length of the potentiometer wire AB.
Solution. (a) When the key is opened
Drop V1 =  = 1.5 V
(b) When the key is closed
Drop V2 = ( ă ir) 75m
A B
   2 1
= – 60cm
 R  r 
r
r (a)

Now, use the principle of potentiometer = 1.5V

K
R = 10
 r 
– 
   R r 
  =
75 60

 5r  
 4 = 5  –  
Rr

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 80 QUIZRR

 5r 
 R  r  = 1  4r = R
 

 10 
 r =    2.5 
 4 

To calculate the length of potentiometer,

0 
l0
=
l

2 1.5
 0
=
(75)

75
l0 =  2 cm = 100 cm
1.5

Ex a m p l e 3 9
A uniform conducting wire of length AB = 100 cm is connected with an unknown resistance
x and a known resistance R by a thick metallic strip.

X R
A B

Now, a battery and a galvanometer with a sliding jockey is given. Make appropriate
connection to find the resistance X if the balance point is achieved at a point 60 cm from
the end A.
Solution. To convert the given arrangement, think the balanced wheastone bridge, with connections
made as shown.
D

R X

 A
G
C
J X R
A B

J
G



ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 81

Using, the balanced network principle

R   AJ   60 
 X  =  J C    40 
     

4 4
 X=  R =  12  8 
6 6

L EA K A GE CU RREN T
Leakage current is the current flowing through the di-electric placed between the walls of the
capacitor.
  +q
j = E ăq

 q 
j =  K  S
 0 

   q  ds  q 
i =  j .d s =  K   s   K  
 0   0  (dictector)

 – dq  q
i =   = K 
 dt  0

q (t ) t
dq

–1
q0
q = 
K 0 0
dt


q (t) = q0eăt/ 0

Discharging through leakage current

For this circuit,  = K0
This, leakage current can be compared with a dischariging circuit whose

 d  K 0 S  
 = (K0)   (RC)     K 0 
 s  d  

q
Potential drop at any time =  
c

Ex a m p l e 4 0
The gap between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor is filled with a dielectric of restivity
 and dielectric constant K. It is connected with a battery of emf V. Then find the current
(leakage) through the capacitor.

ELECTRICITY
 82 QUIZRR
q = CV

Solution. The charge on the capacitor is constant, hence the

leakage current is of constant magnitude

 q  CV
i =  =
 P k0  ( rk 0 e 0 )

Ex a m p l e 4 1
The gap between the electrodes of a spherical capacitor is filled with a dielectric of dielectric
constant K and charged to a potential drop of V0. Now it is found that the potential drop
across the capacitor decreases to n times is the time to. Then, find the resistivity of the
dielectric.

 q
Solution. V = V0eăt/   V= 
 C

V –t / t0
    Ve ln  =

  

 t0 
and  =  ln n 
 

 t0 
K =  ln n 
0  

t0
  = K  ln 
0

Ex a m p l e 4 2
Two resistors with temperature coefficients of resistance 1 and 2 have resistances R01
and R02 at 0ĈC. Find the temperature coefficient of the compound resistor consisting of the
two resistors connected.
(a ) in series, (b) in parallel.
Solution. In series :

At 0Ĉ C R01 R02 R0 = R01 + R02

At tĈ C R01 (1 +1t) R02 (1 + 2t) R0 (1 + t)

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 83

R01 (1 + 1t) + R02 (1 + 2t) = R0 (1 + t)

or R01 (1 + 1t) + R02 (1 + 2t) = (R01 + R02) (1 + t)
R01 + R011t + R02 + R022t = R01 + R02 + (R01 + R02) t

R 01 1  R 02  2
 = R 01  R 02

In parallel :

R 01 R 01 R 02
R=
R 01 + R 02

R 02

1 1 1
At tĈC, = 
R 0 (1  t ) R 01 (1  1 t ) R 02 (1   2 t )

R 01  R 02 1 1
or = R (1   t )  R (1   t )
R 01 R 02 (1  t ) 01 1 02 2

Using the Binomial expansion, we have

1 1
(1 – t ) = R (1 – 1 t )  R (1 –  2 t )
1 1
(1 – t ) 
R 02 R 01 01 02

 1 1  1 
i.e. at    = t 2 t
 R 01 R 02  R 01 R 02

1 R 02 2 R 01
or  = R 01  R 02

Ex a m p l e 4 3
An ammeter and votmeter are connected in series to a battery with an emf E = 6.0 volt.
When acertain resistance is connected in parllel with the voltmeter, the reading of the
latter decreases two times, whereas the reading of the ammeter increase the same number
of times. Find the voltmeter readings after the connection of the resistance.
Soution. Let R1 = resistance of ammeter
and R2 = combined resistance of ammeter and voltmeter
In the first case current in the circuit,

6
i = R ...(i)
2

ELECTRICITY
 84 QUIZRR

and voltage across voltmeter V = 6 ă voltage across ammeter A V

or V = 6 ă iR1

1 6R
or V = 6– R ..(ii) i
2

In the second case reading of ammeter becomes two times,

i.e., the total resistance becomes half while the resistance of 6 volt

ammeter remains unchanged. Hence,

6 12
i’ = = R ...(iii)
R2 /2 2

and V’ = 6 ă (i’) R1

12R
1
or V’ = 6 – R ...(iv)
2

V
Further, it is given that V’ =
2

12R 1 3R 1
or 6– = 3– R
R2 2

R1 1
or R2
=
3

Substituting this value in equation (iv), we have

1 
V’ = 6 – (12)  
3 

or V’ = 2 volt Ans.

Ex a m p le 4 4
The gap between two plane plates of a capacitor equal to d is filled with a gas. One of
the plates emits n 0 electrons per second, which while moving in an electric field, ionize gas
molecules. This way each electron produces  new electrons (and ions) along a unit length
of its path. Find the electronic current at the opposite plate, neglecting the ionization of
gas molecules by formed ions. Take charge on an elecron as e.
Solution. Let n be the number of electrons at x = x.

dn
Now, = increase in n per unit length
dx
=n

dn
 = .d x
n
ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 85

n dn d
or n0 n
  d x
0

dx
 n 
 ln   =  d
 n0 

n
or  ed
n0
x=0 x=x x=d
or n = n0ed
Here, n is number of electrons reaching at other plate per unit time.
 Electronic current at opposite plate = charge reaching per unit time
or i = en
or i = en0ed Ans.

Ex a m p le 4 5
A voltmeter of resistance R1 and an ammeter of resistance R2 are connected in series
across a battery of negligible internal resistance. When a resistance R is connected in
parallel to voltometer, reding of ammeter increases three times while that of voltmeter
reduces to one third. Find R1 and R2 in terms of R.
Solution. Let E be the emf of the battery.
E E
A G

i 3i

i
C 3 D
A V A V F
B R1
R2 R1 R2
8i
3
R

In the first case let i be the current in the circuit, then

E = i (R1 + R2) ...(i)
In the second case main current increases three times while current through voltmeter will reduce
to i/3. Hence, the remaining 3i ă i/3 = 8i/3 passes through R is shown in figure.

i  8i 
V C ă VD =   R 1    R
 
3 3

or R1 = 8R Ans.

ELECTRICITY
 86 QUIZRR

Applying KirchhoffÊs second law in loop ABFGA,

 R 
E = 3 i (R 2 )  (i / 3)(R 1 )  i  3R 2  1  ...(ii)
 3 

From Eqs. (i) and (ii),

R1
R1 + R2 = 3R 2 
3

2R 1
or 2R2 =
3

R1
or R2 =
3

8R
or R2 = Ans.
3

Ex a m p l e 4 6
A rod of length L and cross-section area A lies along the x-axis between x = 0 and x = L.
The material obeys OhmÊs law and its resistivity varies along the rod according to,
 (x) = 0 eăx/L
The end of the rod at x = 0 is at a potential V0 and it is zero at x = L
(a ) Find the total resistance of the rod and the current in the wire
(b) Find the electric potential V (x) in the rod as a function of x.
Solution. (a) Resistance of elementary section dx at x = x is,
x

x=0 x=L
dx

 ( x) d x  1
dR =  R = A 
A  

x
–
0 e L . d x
=
A

Since all such elements are in series.

L
0 L – Lx L
Therefore, R =  dR =  e dx = 0 (1 – e–1 )
0
A 0 A

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 87

0 L  1
or R=
A   1– 
e
Ans.

V0 V0 A  e 
Current in the wire, i = R   L e–1 Ans.
0  

(b) (dV) = idR

V0 A  e  0 e– x / L
= L   dx
0 e–1 A

V0  e  – x / L
(dV) =  e dx
L e–1

 e  – x/L
x
V0
  e
V
 dV =  dx
0 L  e– 10

 e  – x/L
or V ă V0 = V0   (1 – e )
1 – e 

V0 (e – x / L – e–1 )
 V= Ans.
1 – e–1

Ex a m p le 4 7
What amount of heat will be generated in a coil of resistance R due to a charge q passing
through it if the current in the coil
(a ) decreases down to zero uniformly during a time interval t0 ?
(b) decreases down to zero halving its value every t0 seconds ?
How to Proceed : Heat generated in a resistance is given by,
H = i 2 Rt
We can directly use this formula provided i is constant. Here, i is varying. So, first we
calculate i at any time t, then find a small heat dH in a short interval of time dt. Then by
integrating it with proper limits we can obtain the total heat produced.
Solution. (a) The corresponding i-t graph will be a straight line with i decreasing from a peak value
(say i0) to zero in time t0.
i

i0

t
t0

ELECTRICITY
 88 QUIZRR

i-t equation will be as

 i0 
i = i0 ă   t (y = ămx + c) ...(i)
 t0 

Here, i0 is unknown, which can be obtained by using the fact that area under i-t graph gives the
flow of charge. Hence,

1
q= (t0 )(i0 )
2

2q
 i0 = t
0

Substituting in (i), we get,

2q  t 
i = 1 – 
t0  t0 

 2 q 2 qt 
or i = – 2 
 t0 t0 

Now at time t, heat produced in a short interval dt is,

dH = i2Rdt

2
 
= 2 q – 2 qt R dt
 t 2 
t0 
0

t0

 Total heat produced =  dH

0

2
 2 q 2 qt 
t0

or H =   – 2  R dt
0 0
t t0 

4 q2R
= Ans.
3 t0

(b) Here, current decreases from some peak value (say i0) to zero exponentially with half life t0.
i-t equation in this case will be
i = i0eăt

ln (2)
Here  =
t0

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 89

i
 
i 
q =  i d t   i0 e
– t
Now, dt   0 
0 0 
i0
 i0 =  q
 i = (q) eăt
dH = i2R dt =  2q2eă2t Rdt

 q  R
H = d H =  q R  e dt 
–2  t
2 2
or
 0
0
2 t0 t

ln (2) q 2 R ln (2)
Substituting  = , we have H = Ans.
t0 2 t0

Ex a m p l e 4 8
A conductor has a temperature independent resistance R and a total heat capacity C. At
the moment t = 0 it is connected to a dc voltage V. Find the time dependence of the
conductorÊs temperature T assuming the thermal power dissipated into surrounding space
to vary as q = k (T ă T0) where k is a constant, T0 is the environmental temperature (equal
to conductorÊs temperature at the initial moment).

V2
How to Proceed : Here energy is being generated in the resistance at a rate of . On
R
which part of energy is being lost in the environment and the rest is utilized in raising the
temperature of conductor. So, this is basically a problem of conservation of energy.
Solution. Energy supplied by the dc source per unit time = energy lost in environment per unit time
+ energy used in raising the temperature of conductor per unit time.

V2
= k (T – T0 )  C 
dT 
Hence, 
R  dt 

 dT  V2
 C  = – k (T – T0 )
 dt  R

dT dt
 = 2

V C
– k (T – T0 )
R

Substituting the proper limits, we have

T t
dT dt
= V 2
= C
T0
– k (T – T0 ) 0

ELECTRICITY
 90 QUIZRR

Solving this equation, we get

kt
V2 
T = T0  (1  e C )
kR

This kind of question will become clearer if thermodynamics has been done by the student).

Ex a m p l e 4 9
An electrical circuit is shown in figure. Calculate the V
potential difference across the resistor of 400 ohm as will 400
be measured by the voltmeter V of resistance 400 ohm either
by applying KirchhoffÊs rules or otherwise. (J ee 1996) 100 100 200

i2 i1 100
i
10V

Solution. The given circuit actually forms-a balanced Wheatstone bridge (including the voltmeter) as
shown in figure.
A
Rv = 400
0

Q
=
V Q = 200 10

20
400 =

0
P
P = 100 A100 B i1
100 100 200 i2
 S = 200 R

0
=
R = 100 10

20
100 0

=
S
B

10V
10V 10V
(b)
(a) (c)

P R
Here, we see that Q
= (Bridge is balanced)
S

Therefore, resistance between A and B can be ignored and equivalent simple circuit can be drawn
as shown in figure (c).
The voltmeter will read the potential difference across resistance Q.

10 1
Currents i1 = i2   A
100  200 30

 1  20
 Potential difference across voltmeter = Qi1 = (200)   V= V
 30  3

20
Therefore, reading of voltmeter will be V.
3

ELECTRICITY
 QUIZRR 91

Ex a m p l e 5 0
Find the emf (V) and internal resistance (r) of a
single battery which is equivalent to a parallel r2 V2
+ ă
combination of two batteries of emfs V1 and V2 A B
and internal resistances r1 and r2 respectively,
with polarities as shown in figure. r1 V1
Solution. (i) Equivalent emf (V) of the battery : Potential difference across the terminals of the
battery is equal to its emf when current drawn from the battery is zero. In the given circuit :

Net em f V  V2
Current in the internal circuit i =  1
Tot a l resist an ce r1  r2

i=0 i i=0
r2 V2

A B

r1 V1

Therefore, potential difference between A and B would be

VA ă VB = V1 ă ir1

 V  V2  V1 r2 – V2 r1
 VA ă VB = V1 –  1  r1 
 r1  r2  r1  r2

So, the equivalent emf of the battery is

V1 r2 – V2 r1
V= r1  r2

Note that if V1r2 ă V2r1 then V = 0

If V1r2 > V2r1 then VA ă VB = Positive, i.e., A side of the equivalent battery will become to positive
terminal and vice-versa.
(ii) Internal resistance (r) of the battery : r1 and r2 are in parallel. Therefore, the internal
resistance r will be given by

1 1 1
= r r
r 1 2

r1 r2
r= r1  r2

ELECTRICITY
 92 QUIZRR

Ex a m p le 5 1
The thin uniform wire AB of length 1 m, an
unknown resistance X and a resistance of 12
are connected by thick conducting strips, as
shown in the figure. A battery and a
galvanometer (with a sliding jockey connected
to it) are also available. Connections are to
x 12
be made to measure the unknown resistance
X using the principle of Wheatstone bridge. A B C D
Answer the following questions.
(a ) Are there positive and negative terminals on the galvanometer ?
(b) Copy the figure in your answer book and show the battery and the galvanometer
(with jockey) connected at appropriate points.
(c ) After appropriate connections are made, it is found that no deflection takes place in
the galvanometer when the sliding jockey touches the wwire at a distance of 60cm from A.
Obtain the value of the resistance X.
Solution. (a) There are no positive and negative terminals on the galvanometer because only zero
deflection is needed.
(b)

x 12
j B
A D

(c) AJ = 60 cm
 BJ = 40 cm
If no deflection is taking place. Then the Wheasone bridge is said to be balanced. Hence,

X R BJ
= R
12 AJ

X 40 2
or = 
12 60 3
or x = 8

ELECTRICITY