Candu Fundamentals

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The document provides an overview of the fundamentals of CANDU nuclear reactors, including their basic components, nuclear processes involved, and safety systems.

The main components discussed include the moderator and moderator system, heat transport system, reactor fuel, neutron life cycle, and emergency coolant injection system.

The document discusses atomic structure, radioactivity through spontaneous nuclear processes like alpha, beta and gamma emissions, and nuclear fission.

CANDU Fundamentals

CANDU Fundamentals
CANDU Fundamentals

Table of Contents

1 OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 1
1.1 COURSE OVERVIEW ............................................................... 1
1.2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE .............................................................. 1
1.3 RADIOACTIVITY – SPONTANEOUS NUCLEAR PROCESSES ....... 1
1.4 NUCLEAR STABILITY AND INSTABILITY ................................. 2
1.5 ACTIVITY ............................................................................... 2
1.6 NEUTRONS AND NEUTRON INTERACTIONS ............................. 2
1.7 FISSION .................................................................................. 2
1.8 FUEL, MODERATOR, AND REACTOR ARRANGEMENT ............. 2
1.9 NUCLEAR SAFETY .................................................................. 3
1.10 NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS ................................................. 3
1.11 CANDU REACTOR CONSTRUCTION ...................................... 4
1.12 MODERATOR AND MODERATOR SYSTEM ............................... 4
1.13 MODERATOR COVER GAS SYSTEM & MODERATOR
AUXILIARY SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 5
1.14 HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM .................................................... 6
1.15 HEAT TRANSPORT AUXILIARY SYSTEMS ............................... 6
1.16 REACTOR FUEL ...................................................................... 7
1.17 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE ............................................................ 8
1.18 CRITICALITY AND NEUTRON MULTIPLICATION ...................... 8
1.19 CHANGES IN REACTOR POWER WITH TIME .......................... 8
1.20 XENON: A FISSION PRODUCT POISON .................................... 8
1.21 REACTIVITY EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE CHANGES ............... 9
1.22 NEUTRON FLUX CONTROL ..................................................... 9
1.23 REACTIVITY MECHANISMS .................................................... 9
1.24 EMERGENCY COOLANT INJECTION & CONTAINMENT ............ 9
1.25 CONVENTIONAL SIDE ........................................................... 10
1.26 OTHER MAJOR SYSTEMS...................................................... 11
2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE .......................................................... 13
2.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES .................................................. 13
2.1.1 Proton ......................................................................... 13
2.1.2 Neutron ....................................................................... 13
2.1.3 Electron....................................................................... 14
2.2 STRUCTURE OF ATOMS ........................................................ 14
2.3 ATOMIC NOTATION .............................................................. 14
2.4 ISOTOPES ............................................................................. 15
2.5 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS..................................................... 16
2.6 ASSIGNMENT ....................................................................... 18

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CANDU Fundamentals

3 RADIOACTIVITY - SPONTANEOUS NUCLEAR


PROCESSES ..................................................................................... 19
3.1 TYPES OF EMISSIONS ........................................................... 19
3.1.1 Alpha Emissions.......................................................... 19
3.1.2 Beta Emissions ............................................................ 19
3.1.3 Gamma Emissions....................................................... 20
3.2 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER........................ 21
3.2.1 Interactions of Alpha Particles ................................... 22
3.2.2 Interactions of Beta Particles ..................................... 22
3.2.3 Gamma Ray Interactions with Atoms ......................... 22
FIGURE 3.3....................................................................................... 24
COMPTON EFFECT ............................................................................ 24
3.3 DIRECT AND INDIRECT IONIZATION ..................................... 25
3.4 SHIELDING ........................................................................... 25
3.5 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS..................................................... 26
3.6 ASSIGNMENT ....................................................................... 28
4 NUCLEAR STABILITY AND INSTABILITY ..................... 29
4.1 NEUTRON RICH NUCLIDES ................................................... 30
4.2 INTERCHANGEABLE NUCLEONS ........................................... 31
4.3 NEUTRON DEFICIENT NUCLIDES .......................................... 32
4.4 HEAVY NUCLIDES ................................................................ 32
4.5 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS..................................................... 33
4.6 ASSIGNMENT ....................................................................... 34
5 ACTIVITY AND HALF-LIFE ................................................ 35
5.1 THE LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY ..................................... 35
5.2 HALF-LIFE............................................................................ 36
5.3 RANGE OF HALF-LIVES ........................................................ 39
5.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS..................................................... 39
5.5 ASSIGNMENT ....................................................................... 41
6 NEUTRONS AND NEUTRON INTERACTIONS................ 43
6.1 NEUTRON PRODUCTION ....................................................... 43
6.1.1 The Photoneutron Reaction ........................................ 43
6.2 NEUTRON INTERACTIONS ..................................................... 43
6.3 ELASTIC SCATTERING—(N, N) ............................................. 44
6.4 INELASTIC SCATTERING—(N, Nγ) ........................................ 44
6.5 TRANSMUTATION—(N, P), (N, α) ......................................... 45
6.5.1 Neutron-Proton Reaction (n, p) .................................. 45
6.5.2 Neutron-Alpha Reaction (n, α) ................................... 46
6.6 RADIATIVE CAPTURE—(N, γ)............................................... 46
6.7 FISSION ................................................................................ 47
6.8 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS..................................................... 48

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6.9 ASSIGNMENT ....................................................................... 49


7 FISSION..................................................................................... 51
7.1 ENERGY RELEASED BY FISSION ........................................... 51
7.2 FISSION FRAGMENTS ............................................................ 54
7.3 CHAIN REACTION................................................................. 55
7.4 NEUTRONS ........................................................................... 56
7.4.1 Prompt and Delayed Neutrons.................................... 56
7.4.2 Neutron Energy........................................................... 57
7.4.3 Neutron Flux ............................................................... 57
7.5 NEUTRON CROSS-SECTIONS ................................................ 58
7.5.1 Effect of Composition.................................................. 59
7.5.2 Effect of Neutron Energy ............................................ 60
7.6 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS..................................................... 61
7.7 ASSIGNMENT................................................................... 62
8 FUEL, MODERATOR, AND REACTOR MANAGEMENT
63
8.1 MODERATOR ........................................................................ 63
8.2 FRESH FUEL AND EQUILIBRIUM FUELLING .......................... 65
8.3 REACTOR ARRANGEMENT ................................................... 65
8.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS..................................................... 67
8.5 ASSIGNMENT ....................................................................... 69
9 NUCLEAR SAFETY ................................................................ 71
9.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 71
9.2 UNITS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE ......................................... 71
9.3 RADIATION .......................................................................... 72
9.4 CONVENTIONAL SAFETY ...................................................... 75
9.5 ALARA - A PHILOSOPHY TOWARDS HAZARDS ................... 75
9.6 SELF-CHECKING .................................................................. 75
9.7 REACTOR SAFETY ................................................................ 75
9.8 DEFENCE IN DEPTH .............................................................. 76
9.8.1 Reliable Process Systems............................................ 77
9.8.2 Reliable Safety Systems............................................... 77
9.8.3 Multiple Barriers ........................................................ 77
9.8.4 Competent Operating and Maintenance Staff............. 78
9.8.5 Detect and Correct Failures ....................................... 79
9.9 BASIC RELIABILITY CONCEPTS ............................................ 79
9.9.1 Definitions................................................................... 79
9.9.2 Concepts...................................................................... 80
9.10 DOCUMENTATION ................................................................ 82
9.11 NUCLEAR STATION RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS ..................... 83
9.12 THE ROLE OF LICENCED POSITIONS WITHIN THE NUCLEAR
STATION........................................................................................... 84

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9.13 ASSIGNMENT ....................................................................... 86


10 NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS ..................................... 89
10.1 WHAT IS A NUCLEAR POWER STATION? .............................. 90
10.2 HAZARDS ............................................................................. 90
10.3 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS ............................................ 91
10.4 PRODUCTION METHODS COMPARED .................................... 91
10.4.1 Alternatives ................................................................. 91
10.4.2 Economics ................................................................... 91
10.4.3 Environmental Effects................................................. 93
10.5 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................... 95
10.6 THE ENERGY FLOW PATH .................................................... 95
10.7 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................... 99
10.8 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 100
11 CANDU REACTOR CONSTRUCTION ......................... 101
11.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 102
11.2 KEY CANDU COMPONENTS.............................................. 102
11.2.1 Fuel ........................................................................... 103
11.2.2 Coolant...................................................................... 103
11.2.3 Moderator ................................................................. 104
11.3 THE REACTOR CORE STRUCTURE ...................................... 104
11.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 108
11.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ................................ 109
11.5.1 On Power Fuelling.................................................... 110
11.5.2 Flexibility of Reactor Monitoring and Control......... 110
INDIVIDUAL CHANNELS CAN BE MONITORED FOR TEMPERATURE AND
FOR RADIATION LEVELS. ................................................................ 110
11.6 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 111
11.7 SHIELDING ......................................................................... 111
11.7.1 End Shields................................................................ 111
11.7.2 The Reactor Face...................................................... 112
11.7.3 Radial Shielding........................................................ 112
11.8 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS .......................................... 116
11.9 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 117
12 MODERATOR AND MODERATOR SYSTEM............. 119
12.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 119
12.2 D2O ISOTOPIC .................................................................... 119
12.3 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS .......................................... 120
12.4 RADIATION HAZARDS ........................................................ 120
12.5 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS .......................................... 122
12.6 THE MAIN MODERATOR SYSTEM....................................... 123
12.6.1 Moderator Heat Sources........................................... 123
12.7 THE MODERATOR CIRCULATION SYSTEM .......................... 125

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12.8 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 126


12.9 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 128
13 MODERATOR AUXILIARY SYSTEMS........................ 129
13.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 129
13.2 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS .......................................... 130
13.3 THE MODERATOR COVER GAS SYSTEM ............................. 131
13.3.1 Purposes.................................................................... 131
13.3.2 Description................................................................ 132
13.3.3 The Recombination Unit ........................................... 132
13.4 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS .......................................... 135
13.5 MODERATOR PURIFICATION SYSTEM ................................. 136
13.5.1 Purpose ..................................................................... 136
13.5.2 Description................................................................ 136
13.6 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 137
13.7 OTHER MODERATOR AUXILIARIES .................................... 137
13.7.1 Moderator Liquid Poison Addition System............... 137
13.7.2 Moderator D2O Collection System ........................... 138
13.7.3 Auxiliary Cooling Systems ........................................ 139
13.7.4 Reactivity Mechanism Rod Cooling.......................... 139
13.7.5 Calandria, Dump Port and Dump Tank Spray Cooling
(Pickering A only) ..................................................................... 139
13.8 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 140
13.9 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 141
14 HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM (HTS) ............................ 143
14.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 143
14.2 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 144
14.3 THE MAIN HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEM............................... 144
14.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 147
14.5 OTHER FEATURES OF THE HTS LAYOUT............................ 147
14.6 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS .......................................... 150
14.7 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 151
15 HEAT TRANSPORT AUXILIARY SYSTEMS.............. 153
15.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 153
15.2 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 154
15.3 PRESSURE AND INVENTORY CONTROL .............................. 154
15.3.1 Pressure Control with a Pressurizer......................... 155
15.3.2 Inventory Control with a Pressurizer ....................... 156
15.3.3 Operation with the Pressurizer Isolated ................... 156
15.3.4 Operation Without a Pressurizer .............................. 157
15.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 157
15.5 OTHER EQUIPMENT IN THE PRESSURE AND INVENTORY
CONTROL SYSTEM ......................................................................... 158

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15.6 THE PRESSURE RELIEF SYSTEM ......................................... 159


15.7 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 159
15.8 OTHER HTS AUXILIARIES.................................................. 160
15.8.1 The Purification System ............................................ 160
15.9 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 161
15.9.1 HTS Pump Gland Seal .............................................. 162
15.10 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .............................................. 163
15.10.1 The Heat Transport D2O Collection System......... 163
15.11 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .............................................. 165
15.11.1 The Heat Transport D2O Recovery System........... 166
15.12 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .............................................. 166
15.13 FUELLING MACHINE D20 SUPPLY .................................. 167
15.14 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .............................................. 167
15.15 ASSIGNMENT ................................................................. 168
16 REACTOR FUEL............................................................... 169
16.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 169
16.2 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 171
16.3 MATERIAL AND FABRICATION ........................................... 172
16.3.1 The Fissile Material.................................................. 172
16.3.2 The Sheath Material.................................................. 174
16.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 176
16.5 FUEL HANDLING ................................................................ 177
16.5.1 New Fuel Handling ................................................... 177
16.5.2 Fuelling ..................................................................... 178
16.5.3 Handling Spent Fuel ................................................. 179
16.6 DEPLETED FUEL AND FLUX FLATTENING........................... 180
16.7 SUMMARY OF THE KEY IDEAS .......................................... 181
16.8 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 182
17 NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE ................................................. 183
14.1 ABSORPTION BY EQUILIBRIUM FUEL ................................. 183
17.1 FAST FISSION ..................................................................... 184
17.2 RESONANCE CAPTURE ....................................................... 184
17.3 PARASITIC ABSORPTION .................................................... 184
17.4 LEAKAGE ........................................................................... 184
17.5 SIZE AND SHAPE ................................................................ 185
17.6 REFLECTORS ...................................................................... 185
17.7 OVERALL CYCLE ............................................................... 186
17.8 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 187
18 CRITICALITY AND NEUTRON MULTIPLICATION 189
18.1 REACTIVITY CONTROL ....................................................... 191
18.2 ADJUSTING AMOUNT OF FISSILE MATERIAL ...................... 193
18.3 ADJUSTING THE AMOUNT OF ABSORPTION ........................ 193

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18.4 ADJUSTING NEUTRON LEAKAGE ........................................ 194


18.5 ASSIGNMENT................................................................. 196
19 CHANGES IN REACTOR POWER WITH TIME ........ 197
19.1 EFFECT OF NEUTRON LIFETIME ON CHANGES IN REACTOR
POWER 197
19.2 REACTOR PERIOD .............................................................. 198
19.3 THE EFFECT OF DELAYED NEUTRONS ON POWER CHANGE 199
19.4 THE EFFECT OF PROMPT NEUTRONS ALONE, AND PROMPT
CRITICAL ....................................................................................... 199
19.5 POWER IN THE SUB-CRITICAL REACTOR ............................ 202
19.6 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 204
20 XENON: A FISSION PRODUCT POISON..................... 205
20.1 XENON PRODUCTION ......................................................... 205
20.2 XENON LOSS ...................................................................... 205
20.3 EQUILIBRIUM XENON LOAD............................................... 206
20.4 XENON TRANSIENTS .......................................................... 207
20.5 POISON PREVENT AND POISON OVERRIDE ......................... 208
20.6 OTHER EFFECTS ................................................................. 210
20.7 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 211
21 REACTIVITY EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
CHANGES....................................................................................... 213
21.1 THE NRX EXPERIMENT AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK .......... 213
21.2 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS............................................ 214
21.2.1 Fuel Temperature Coefficient of Reactivity.............. 215
21.2.2 Power Coefficient...................................................... 217
21.2.3 Void Reactivity .......................................................... 217
21.3 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 218
21.4 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 219
22 NEUTRON FLUX CONTROL ......................................... 221
22.1 REFLECTORS ...................................................................... 221
22.2 BI-DIRECTIONAL FUELLING ............................................... 222
22.3 ADJUSTER RODS ................................................................ 223
22.4 DIFFERENTIAL FUELLING ................................................... 224
22.5 FLUX OSCILLATIONS .......................................................... 225
22.6 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 227
22.7 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 228
23 REACTIVITY MECHANISMS ........................................ 229
23.1 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 230
23.2 REACTIVITY MECHANISMS ................................................ 231
23.2.1 Fine Reactivity Control............................................. 231

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23.2.2 Coarse Reactivity Control......................................... 232


23.2.3 Manual and Automatic Reactivity Adjustments ........ 235
23.2.4 Automatic Shutdown Systems.................................... 235
23.3 REACTIVITY MECHANISM PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ....... 238
23.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 239
23.5 TWO-OUT-OF-THREE TRIP SYSTEM .................................. 240
23.6 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 242
23.7 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 244
24 EMERGENCY COOLANT INJECTION &
CONTAINMENT............................................................................ 245
24.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 245
24.2 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 247
24.3 EMERGENCY COOLANT INJECTION..................................... 249
24.3.1 The Small LOCA ....................................................... 249
24.3.2 The Large LOCA....................................................... 250
24.4 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS .................................................. 250
24.5 CONTAINMENT ................................................................... 253
24.5.1 Negative Pressure Containment ............................... 255
24.6 PRESSURE SUPPRESSION CONTAINMENT ............................ 258
24.7 SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS................................................... 258
24.8 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 259
25 THE CONVENTIONAL SIDE OF THE STATION....... 261
25.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 261
25.2 THE BOILER (STEAM GENERATOR).................................... 261
25.3 THE STEAM/FEEDWATER CYCLE ....................................... 264
25.3.1 The Steam System...................................................... 264
25.4 THE STEAM TURBINE ......................................................... 266
25.5 THE CONDENSER ............................................................... 271
25.6 BOILER FEEDWATER SYSTEM ............................................ 272
25.6.1 Low-pressure Feedheating System ........................... 273
25.6.2 The Deaerator and Storage Tank ............................. 274
25.6.3 High-pressure Feedheating System .......................... 275
25.7 LUBRICATION SYSTEM ....................................................... 276
25.8 THE TURNING GEAR .......................................................... 276
25.9 CHEMICAL CONTROL ......................................................... 276
25.10 CONVENTIONAL AND RADIOLOGICAL HAZARDS ............ 277
25.10.1 .Chemical Energy.................................................. 277
25.10.2 Thermal Energy .................................................... 277
25.10.3 Electrical Energy .................................................. 278
25.10.4 Mechanical Energy ............................................... 278
25.10.5 Noise Energy......................................................... 278
25.10.6 Pressurized Fluid Energy ..................................... 278
25.10.7 Radiation Energy .................................................. 278

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26 OTHER MAJOR SYSTEMS............................................. 281


26.1 THE GENERATOR ............................................................... 281
26.1.1 AC Generator Energy Conversion............................ 281
26.1.2 Generator Cooling .................................................... 282
26.2 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS ....................................................... 283
26.2.1 Major Components.................................................... 283
26.2.2 Classes of Power....................................................... 284
26.2.3 Emergency Power Supply (EPS)............................... 286
26.3 WATER AND AIR SYSTEMS ................................................ 287
26.3.1 Light Water Systems.................................................. 287
26.3.2 Water Treatment ....................................................... 288
26.3.3 Condenser Cooling Water ........................................ 288
26.3.4 Common Service Water............................................. 289
26.3.5 Low-pressure Service Water ..................................... 289
26.3.6 High-pressure Recirculating Service Water ............. 289
26.3.7 Closed Loop Demineralized Service Water System .. 289
26.3.8 Emergency Water System.......................................... 289
26.3.9 Other Water Systems................................................. 290
26.4 AIR SYSTEMS ..................................................................... 290
26.4.1 Instrument Air ........................................................... 290
26.4.2 Service Air................................................................. 290
26.4.3 Breathing Air ............................................................ 290
26.5 IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM ................................................... 291
26.5.1 Equipment Identification........................................... 291
26.5.2 Field Identification.................................................... 292
26.5.3 Piping........................................................................ 292
26.5.4 Flowsheets................................................................. 293
26.6 WASTE MANAGEMENT ...................................................... 294
26.6.1 Liquid Waste Management ....................................... 294
26.6.2 Inactive Drainage ..................................................... 294
26.6.3 Active Drainage ........................................................ 295
26.7 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ............................................ 295
26.7.1 Irradiated Fuel Storage ............................................ 295
26.7.2 Waste Volume Reduction and Storage...................... 296
26.8 HEAVY WATER MANAGEMENT.......................................... 296
26.8.1 Loss Recovery ........................................................... 297
26.8.2 Upgrading ................................................................. 298
26.8.3 Tritium Removal........................................................ 299
26.9 ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................... 300

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CANDU Fundamentals

1 Objectives
1.1 Course Overview
CANDU Fundamentals is designed as an introductory course in the
operation of a CANDU reactor. Starting with the basics of atomic
theory the course explains the construction of the reactor, its major
systems and enough reactor physics so that the participant will
understand the control and operating practices in a CANDU plant.
Emphasis is placed on nuclear safety and the systems that minimize
the risk from fission products in the reactor core.

1.2 Atomic Structure


• Name the fundamental atomic particles.

• State the mass and electric charge if the fundamental particles.

• Describe an atom as pictured by the Bohr model.


A
• Recognize, interpret, and use the Z X notation for atoms
(nuclides).

• Describe what the term isotope means.

• Recognize and use the names of the hydrogen isotopes.

1.3 Radioactivity – Spontaneous Nuclear Processes


• Write a typical equation for the production of each type of
radiation: α, β, and γ.

• List the properties of each type of radiation: α, β, and γ.

• Discuss how each type of radiation interacts with matterα, β,


and γ.

• State how to shield against alphas and betas.

• State how to shield against γ rays and calculate γ ray shielding


in terms of ½-value layers.

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CANDU Fundamentals

1.4 Nuclear Stability and Instability


• Discuss the stability of nuclides in terms of neutron proton
ratios and forces in the nucleus.

• From a plot of n against p, state the emission a given nuclide is


likely to undergo.

• Given a chart or table of nuclides, list all members of the decay


chain of a given radioactive nuclide.

1.5 Activity
• Define the common units of activity: Becquerel, Curie.

• Define the half-life and discuss activity in terms of half-lives.

• Solve simple activity and half-life calculations.

1.6 Neutrons and Neutron Interactions


• Write equations describing each of the following neutron
interactions: transmutation, radiative capture, photoneutron
reaction with deuterium.

• Describe elastic and inelastic scattering of neutrons.

1.7 Fission
• State where the energy released by fission comes from
(mass to energy conversion).

• Write a typical fission reaction.

• State how much energy a fission releases.

• State how the major portion of the energy from fission is


carried away.

• Define each of the following: thermal neutrons, fast neutrons,


prompt neutrons, delayed neutrons.

• Describe what is meant by neutron cross-section and neutron


flux.

• Explain a self-sustaining chain reaction.

1.8 Fuel, Moderator, and Reactor Arrangement


• Explain the purpose of a moderator.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• Sketch the basic arrangement of fuel and moderator in a


CANDU reactor.

• Explain why the arrangement of fuel and moderator in a


CANDU reactor is used.

• State the basic differences between fresh and equilibrium fuel.

• Compare the moderating properties of heavy water, light water,


and graphite.

1.9 Nuclear Safety


• Describe the makeup of background radiation, and state how
much nuclear stations contribute to it.

• State what is meant by Defence in Depth.

• Describe the five parts of the Defence in Depth model.

• List the five barriers that protect the public from fission
products.

• Explain how the principle of Control, Cool and Contain guides


reactor operation.

• Explain how the following concepts contribute to the reliability


and/or availability of systems or equipment: redundancy,
independence, diversity, periodic testing, fail-safe operation,
operational surveillance, preventive maintenance, and
predictive maintenance.

• State the purpose of the following documents: Safety Report,


Station Operating Licence, Operating Policies and Principles
(OP&Ps), Operating Procedures, and Certificates of Approval.

• State the possible consequences of an OP&P violation.

• Describe how the authorization of some positions supports


nuclear safety.

1.10 Nuclear Power Reactors


• State the type of fuel, coolant and moderator used in a CANDU
reactor.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• Give the advantages and disadvantages of a nuclear power


plant compared to a fossil fuelled plant for each of the
following: economics, energy production flexibility,
environmental considerations.

1.11 CANDU Reactor Construction


• State the function of each of the following reactor components:
pressure tube, calandria rupture disc, calandria tube, annulus
gas, end fitting, feeder pipe, closure plug, fuelling machine,
fuel latches, biological and thermal shield, end shield, shield
plug, shield tank, reactor vault.

• Given a diagram of a fuel channel or an end fitting in a reactor


face, label the following components: end fitting, channel
closure plug, feeder coupling, annulus bellows, journal
bearings, fuel bundle, pressure tube, calandria tube, calandria-
side tube sheet, liner tube, shield plug, end shield, fuelling
machine-side tube sheet.

• State the purposes of the annulus gas system.

• Describe three advantages of the CANDU pressure tube design


compared to a pressure vessel design.

1.12 Moderator and Moderator System


• Define the term isotopic and state the importance of
maintaining the isotopic as high as possible.

• State the purpose of a D2O upgrader.

• State the three main radioactive isotopes produced in the


moderator.

• Describe the radiation hazard associated with each isotope.

• State the two major reasons why the rate of tritium production
in the moderator is greater than in the heat transport coolant.

• State two purposes of the moderator circulation system.

• State the three main moderator heat sources.

• State why a backup cooling arrangement is needed.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• Given a diagram of a moderator, circulating system label the


following major system components: pumps, heat exchangers,
moderator temperature control valves.

• Describe how moderator temperature is controlled.

1.13 Moderator Cover Gas System & Moderator Auxiliary


Systems
• Given a diagram of the main moderator system, show where
the purification system is connected.

• State the three major functions of a moderator cover gas


system.

• State two additional functions for the moderator cover gas


system for a reactor with a dump tank.

• Given a diagram of a moderator cover gas system label the


following: compressors (two functions), recombination unit,
heat exchanger, recombination unit inlet heater, flame
arrestors.

• State the function of each of the following components of the


moderator cover gas system: compressors (two functions),
recombination unit, heat exchanger, recombination unit inlet
heater, flame arrestors.

• State the role of gas chromatography in the cover gas system.

• State why the following gases are sometimes added to the


cover gas system: oxygen, helium.

• State the function of each of the following moderator auxiliary


systems: purification system (two functions), liquid poison
addition system, D2O collection system, auxiliary cooling.

• State the importance of maintaining the chemical purity of the


moderator D2O as high as possible.

• Given a diagram of the moderator purification system, label the


following major system components and state their function:
ion exchange columns (IX columns), filters, strainers,
purification coolers.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• Name the two neutron absorbing poisons added to moderator


D2O.

• List four points from which moderator D2O is routinely


collected.

1.14 Heat Transport System


• State the two purposes of the heat transport coolant.

• Discuss the nuclear and conventional hazards that may be


present around heat transport system equipment in the plant.

• Given a diagram of a typical heat transport system (HTS), label


the major components: HTS Circulation pumps, fuel channel,
reactor inlet header, reactor outlet header, feeders (feeder
pipes), boilers/steam generators.

• Explain why bi-directional flow is used in HTS operation.

• State why HTS pumps are placed after the boilers in the main
HTS circulating system.

• State the purpose of the shutdown cooling system.

• Explain the importance of circulation by natural convection to


HTS operation.

1.15 Heat Transport Auxiliary Systems


• State the two major purposes of the heat transport pressure and
inventory control system.

• Given a diagram of a pressure and inventory control system,


label the diagram showing the following components:
pressurizer, pressurizer steam bleed valves, pressurizer heaters,
feed valves, bleed valves, feed pumps (pressurizing pumps),
bleed condenser, bleed cooler, D2O storage tank.

• State the function of each of the following components:


pressurizer, pressurizer steam bleed valves, pressurizer heaters,
feed valves, bleed valves, feed pumps (pressurizing pumps),
bleed condenser, bleed cooler, D2O storage tank.

• State the function of each of the following HTS auxiliary


systems: Pressure relief system, Purification system, HTS D2O

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CANDU Fundamentals

collection system, HTS D2O recovery system, Fuelling


machine D2O supply.

• State the importance of chemical control in the HTS.

• State the function and basic principle of operation of the HTS


pump gland and gland seal supply system.

• State why HTS D2O is not added to moderator and why


moderator D2O is not added to HTS D2O.

• State two reasons why there is more leakage from the heat
transport system than from the moderator system.

• List four typical heat transport system leakage collection


points.

1.16 Reactor Fuel


• Define the term failed (defective) fuel.

• State how normal CANLUB fuel is used and why it has this
name.

• Given a diagram of a fuel bundle, label the following


components: fuel element, fuel sheath, fuel pellet, end plate,
bearing pad.

• State seven characteristics (two nuclear and five non-nuclear)


that the fissile fuel material should have.

• State four characteristics (one nuclear and three non-nuclear)


that the fuel sheathing material should have.

• Give three ways the CANLUB graphite layer helps prevent


fuel defects.

• Explain six precautions taken in the handling of fresh fuel.

• Explain three precautions required when handling spent fuel.

• Describe the general process followed during refuelling of a


channel.

• State three in-plant operational consequences of leaving failed


fuel in the reactor.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• State and explain two uses of depleted fuel and give the U-235
concentrations for normal and depleted fuel.

1.17 Neutron life cycle


• Sketch the life cycle of a neutron including all possible fates of
the neutron.

• Discuss why reactors use reflectors.

1.18 Criticality and Neutron Multiplication


• Define the neutron multiplication constant (k).

• Define reactivity (∆k) and state its common units.

• Discuss what is meant by sub-critical, critical, and super-


critical in terms of the values of k and ∆k and state whether
power is increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant.

• State and explain how the reactor can be critical at any power
level.

• Given a method of criticality control, discuss how it affects the


neutron cycle.

1.19 Changes In Reactor Power With Time


• Define Reactor Period.

• Explain why and how delayed neutrons affect changes in


reactor power.

• Explain why power does not drop to zero in a sub-critical core.

1.20 Xenon: A Fission Product Poison


• Explain why xenon is the most important fission product
poison.

• Explain how xenon is produced in, and how it is removed from


the reactor.

• Sketch xenon concentration as a function of time for a


shutdown or trip from full power.

• Discuss the phrase xenon poison out.

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CANDU Fundamentals

1.21 Reactivity Effects of Temperature Changes


• Define the following terms: temperature coefficient of
reactivity, void reactivity, power coefficient

• Explain why and how reactivity changes when the temperature


of the fuel changes.

• Explain why a negative temperature coefficient is desirable.

1.22 Neutron Flux Control


• Explain why a flat flux distribution is desirable.

• Explain how each of the methods used in CANDU reactors


flattens the flux.

• Explain what flux oscillations are and how liquid control zones
are used to prevent them.

1.23 Reactivity Mechanisms


• State how core reactivity (long term) is normally maintained.

• State the two general functions of reactivity mechanisms.

• For each of the following reactivity mechanisms, state whether


it is used for reactor power regulation or protection: liquid zone
control, absorber rods, adjuster rods, shutoff rods, liquid poison
addition, liquid poison injection, moderator level, moderator
dump.

• Describe the principle of operation of each of the three types of


protective shutdown systems found in CANDU reactors.

• Describe how the two-out-of-three trip logic triggers an


emergency shutdown system.

• State three advantages of using two-out-of-three trip logic.

• Define the term fail-safe.

• Describe how fail-safe design contributes to the reliability of a


safety shutdown system.

1.24 Emergency Coolant Injection & Containment


• Name the four special safety systems designed to protect the
public from radiation.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• Explain the purpose of the containment system.

• Explain the purpose of the emergency coolant injection system.

• Given a diagram of the emergency coolant injection system:


high pressure water supply, isolation (or injection) valves,
recovery sump, recovery pumps, recovery heat exchangers, low
pressure water.

• Explain the purpose of each of the following components in an


ECI system: high pressure water supply, isolation (or injection)
valves, recovery sump, recovery pumps, recovery heat
exchangers, low pressure water

• Describe the basic operation of the emergency coolant injection


system in response to a loss of coolant accident (LOCA).

• Describe two types of containment systems used for CANDU


reactors.

• Given a diagram of a negative pressure containment system,


label the following components: the dousing tank, pressure
relief valves, a vacuum duct, the pressure relief duct, the
containment structure, and the vacuum building.

• Given a diagram of a pressure suppression containment system,


label the following components: the dousing tank, a dousing
valve, the containment structure.

1.25 Conventional Side


• State the two major functions of the steam and feedwater cycle.

• Describe the condition of the steam (moisture, temperature,


pressure) at each of the following locations in the steam path:
outlet of high-pressure turbine, outlet of moisture separator,
outlet of reheater, and outlet of low-pressure turbine.

• State the function of the turbine-generator set.

• Describe the need for both high and low pressure turbines.

• Explain the advantage of having a vacuum in the condenser


during operation.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• Given a diagram, label the following components, show the


main steam and water connection between them, and indicate
the direction of flow: boiler (steam generator), safety valve,
atmospheric steam discharge valve (ASDV), emergency stop
valve, governor valve, HP turbine, moisture separator, reheater,
LP turbine, condenser, condensate extraction pump,
feedheaters, deaerator, and boiler feed pump.

• State the purpose of each of the following components of the


steam and feedwater cycle: boiler (steam generator), safety
valve, atmospheric steam discharge valve (ASDV), emergency
stop valve, governor valve, HP turbine, moisture separator,
reheater, LP turbine, condenser, condensate extraction pump,
feedheaters, deaerator, and boiler feed pump.

• Explain how an alternative heat sink is provided if the turbine


is unavailable for operation.

• Describe the process for preparation of the condensate before it


is returned to the boiler.

• Describe the turbine generator lubricating system.

• State the purpose of the turning gear.

• State the reasons and methods for maintaining good chemistry


in the steam and feedwater.

1.26 Other Major Systems


• Describe how an AC generator produces electrical energy.

• Explain how heat is generated in and removed from a large AC


generator.

• Describe the major hazards associated with the boiler, turbine,


generator, steam and feedwater system.

• State the purpose of each of the following: main output


transformer, switchyard, unit service transformer, and system
service transformer.

• Name the four classes of power used in a CANDU station, and


explain the purpose of these classifications.

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CANDU Fundamentals

• Name the power source which supplies power when one or


both Class IV power sources fail.

• State the function of the Emergency Power Supply (EPS).

• Given a diagram, label the following light water systems: water


treatment, condenser cooling water, common service water,
unit low pressure service water, unit high pressure recirculating
service water, and closed loop demineralized service water
system.

• State the purpose of each of the following light water systems:


water treatment, condenser cooling water, common service
water, unit low pressure service water, unit high pressure
recirculating service water, and closed loop demineralized
service water system.

• State the purpose of the Emergency Water System (EWS).

• State the purposes of three separate air systems in a nuclear


generating plant.

• State how equipment is identified in the station and on


flowsheets.

• Describe how piping systems are coded and why.

• Briefly, describe major features of waste management for


liquid and solid waste.

• Describe how D2O is managed in a CANDU station to


minimize losses.

• Describe the purpose and process of the tritium removal


facility.

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