4) COMMUNICATION

 What is a communication?

It is the basic process of exchanging information.

 Elements of communication system

Any electronic communication system can be represented in its basic form, as shown in
the figure:

The explanation of communication system blocks are as follows:

1) Information Source
The messages come from the information source. The two main sources of
information are:
a) Ideas emanating from the human brain
b) Changes in any physical environment

-It may contain human voice, picture, code, data, music and their combinations.
2) Transmitter

The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the

information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication
medium.

-Most of the times information source is non-electrical.

-The built-in circuitry such as encoders, transducer etc. in the transmission makes
incoming information suitable for transmission and subsequent reception.

-The amplifier available in transmitter increases the strength of the signal.

3) Communication Channel

There are basically two types of communication channel

a) Wire communication

This medium is simply a pair of wires that carry the signal from one end to
another.

Example- Fiber optic cable, Co-axial cable.

b) Wireless communication

It is communication system in which there is no requirement of physical wires

between transmitter and receiver to carry the signal; on the contrary the signal
is send through free space or air.

Example-Radio signal

4) Noise

It is random, undesirable electric energy that enter the communication system via the
medium and interferes with transmitted message.
 -Noise is one of the serious problems of electronic communication. It cannot be
completely eliminated.

-Normally there are two types of noises:

a) Man–made noise

It is the noise produced by electric ignition system of cars, electric motors,

fluorescent lights etc.

b) Natural noise

This noise includes noise produced in nature e.g. from lighting during rainy
season or noise due to radiations produced by the sun and the other stars.

5) Receiver

A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the
original information.

-It does this by suitable decoders and transducers.

 Types of Electronics Communication System

A] Communication Paths

1) Simplex System

The data transmission takes place only in one direction.

Example-Radio and Television Broadcasting

2) Half-Duplex System

The data transmission takes place in both direction, but not simultaneously.

Example-Walkie-talkie
 3) Full-Duplex System

The data transmission takes place in both directions simultaneously.

Example-Telephone Lines and Mobile System

B] Types of Information Signals

Normally, there are two types of information signals.

1) Analog Signal

A signal that can vary in a continuous manner is called as analog signal.

Examples-Sine wave tone, Voice & Video signals

2) Digital Signal

A signal that only takes discrete values is called as digital signal.

Example-Computer Generated Signals

C] Method of Signal Transmission

 Baseband Signals

-The original information signals (Analog or Digital) are referred as Baseband signals.
 Baseband Transmission

-Putting the original signal directly into the medium is referred as Baseband
transmission.

Note-The Baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission over the medium.

Solution-MODULATION

 Modulation

 Definition

It is the process in which baseband signal (such as voice, video etc.) modifies some
characteristics (for example-amplitude, frequency, phase etc.) of higher-frequency
signal called the carrier signal.

OR

It is the process of varying one or more properties of a high frequency periodic

waveform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating signal.

 What is a carrier signal?

-It is a high frequency signal.

 Need of Modulation

Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system due to following

reasons:

1) Antenna Height

-In order to transmit a radio wave effectively, the Height (Length) of antenna is
approximately equal to the wavelength of wave.

Wavelength (l) = Velocity (V) / Frequency (F)

= 3 * 108 meters / Frequency (F)

 -As the audio frequencies range from 20Hz - 20 kHz, therefore if they are
transmitted directly into space, the length of antenna required would extremely
large.

-For instance, to radiate an audio signal of frequency 20kHz directly into space.
We would need an antenna of = 15,000 meters

-This is too long antenna to be constructed practically. For this reason, it is

impractical to radiate audio signal directly into space.

Solution-Use the carrier of 1000 KHz to carry the signal, so we need antenna length
of 300 meters only and this size can be easily constructed.

2) To avoid signal mixing

-The transmission of baseband signals from various sources causes the mixing of
signal, so it is difficult to separate these signals at receiver end.

-In order to separate the various signals, it is necessary to translate them all to
different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (channel).Each must be given
its own bandwidth(Channel bandwidth).

Solution-This can be achieved by taking different carrier frequency for different

signal source.

-Once the signals have been transmitted, a tuned circuit at the receiver end selects
the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum it is tuned for.

-Therefore modulating different signal sources by different carrier frequencies

avoid signal mixing.

3) Poor radiation

-The energy of wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the frequency of the
wave, the greater the energy possessed by it.
 -As the audio signal frequencies are small, therefore, these cannot be transmitted
over large distances if radiated directly into space.

-At lower frequency, radiation is poor and audio signals gets highly attenuated

Solution-To modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal. Thus, it
increases the distance over which signals can be transmitted faithfully.

 Types of Modulation

The details of all modulation technique are available as follows:

1) Amplitude Modulation

 Definition

The Baseband signal varies the amplitude of the carrier by keeping its frequency
constant is called as Amplitude Modulation.

OR
When the amplitude of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the
signal is called as Amplitude Modulation.

 Advantages: 1) It is simple to implement and It can be

demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components.

2) AM receivers are very cheap.

 Applications: 1) In India, AM used in radio broadcasting.

2) In Television transmission, AM is used for picture signal.

2) Frequency Modulation

 Definition

The Baseband signal varies the frequency of the carrier by keeping its amplitude
constant is called as Frequnecy Modulation.

OR

When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of
the signal is called as Frequency Modulation.
 Advantages: 1) It gives noiseless reception.

2) The operating range is quite large.

3) It gives high-fidelity audio.

4) The efficiency of transmission is very high.

 Application: 1) In television transmission, FM is used for sound signal.

2) Most popular technique in today’s radio stations.

3) Phase Modulation

 Definition

It is the modulation in which the phase (The offset from a reference time at which the
sine wave begins) of the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal
(Baseband signal) instead of its frequency and the amplitude of the carrier remains
constant.

-If phase changes after cycle k, the next sine wave will start slightly later than the time
at which cycle k completes.

-The positive alternation of the modulating signal produces a lagging phase shift.

-The negative alternation of the modulating signal produces a leading phase shift.
 -When the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag increases the
amplitude of the modulating signal. This causes the carrier sine wave to be effectively
stretched out reducing its frequency.

-When the modulating signal goes negative, the amount of phase lead decreases the
amplitude of the modulating signal. This causes the carrier sine wave to be effectively
compressed increasing its frequency.

4) Pulse Amplitude Modulation

 Definition

The amplitude of the periodic sequential pulses is varied in accordance with the
sample values of the baseband signals.
4) Pulse Duration (or Width) Modulation

 Definition

The duration (width) of the periodic sequential pulses is varied in accordance with
the sample values of the baseband signals.
4) Pulse Position Modulation

 Definition

The position of the periodic sequential pulses is varied in accordance with the sample
values of the baseband signals.

 Radio Transmission and Reception

 Definition-Radio Communication

-The radiation of radio waves by the transmitting station, the propagation of these
waves through space and their reception by the radio receiver is called radio
communication.
 Block diagram

 Explanation

The explanation of Radio transmitter and receiver as are as follows:

 Radio Transmitter

-It is extremely important equipment and is housed in the broadcasting station.

-Its purpose is to produce radio waves for transmission into space.

-The important components of transmitter are microphone, audio amplifier,

oscillator and modulator.

1) Microphone

-It converts the sound waves into electrical waves.

-When the speaker speaks or musical instrument is played, the varying air pressure
on the microphone generates an audio electrical signal.

-The output of microphone is fed to multistage audio amplifier for raising the
strength of weak signal.
2) Oscillator

-The function of oscillator is to produce a high frequency signal, called a carrier

wave. Usually, crystal oscillator is used for the purpose.

-The power level of the carrier wave is raised to sufficient level by radio frequency
amplifier stages.

-Most of the broadcasting stations have carrier wave power of several kilowatts.

-Such high power is necessary for transmitting the signal to the required distances.

3) Modulator

-The amplified audio signal and carrier wave are fed to the modulator.

-Here, the audio signal is superimposed on the carrier wave in a suitable manner.

-The resultant waves are called modulated waves or radio waves and the process is
called as modulation.

-The process of modulation permits the transmission of audio signal at the carrier
frequency.

-As the carrier frequency is very high, the audio signal can be transmitted to large
distances.

-The radio waves from the transmitter are fed to the transmitting antenna or aerial
from where these are radiated into space.

4) Transmission of radio waves

-The transmitting antenna radiates the radio waves in space in all directions.

-These radio waves travel with the velocity of light i.e. 3 * 10 8 meters / sec.

-The radio waves are electromagnetic waves and posses the same general
properties.
  Radio Receiver

-On reaching the receiving antenna, the radio waves induce tiny e.m.f. in it. This
small voltage is fed to radio receiver.

-Here the radio waves are first amplified and then signal is extracted from the them
by the process of demodulation.

-The signal is amplified by audio amplifiers and then fed to the speaker for the
reproduction into sound waves.

 Television System

The technology of Television has changed since its early days using mechanical system
invented by Paul Gottlieb Nipkowin 1884.

 Television Transmitter
 The explanation of television transmitter is as follows:

a) For Video Signal

1) TV Camera

-It is used to convert the picture (scene) in front of television camera either in a
television studio or outdoors, into an electronic (electric) signal.

2) Video Amplifier -1
-It is used to increase the strength of video electronic signal in television studio.

3) Video Amplifier -2
-The video amplifier of television studio is connected to the video amplifier of
television transmitting station by cable or radio link.
-Most of the time, the distance between television studio and transmitting station is
so long, and then electric video signal becomes weak in traveling.
-To making that signal powerful, video amplifier is used at transmitting station side
also.

4) Video Carrier Source

-It generates the high frequency carrier signal which is used to carry the low
frequency electrical video signal.

5) Video Modulator
-With the help of amplifier, the amplitude of the signal is increases, not a frequency.
-Such signal is incompatible for long traveling.
-So, low frequency electric video signal is superimposes on high frequency carrier
signal.
-This process is called as modulation and it happens in video modulator.
-The output signal of video modulator is good in amplitude and frequency.
 6) Power Amplifier
-It is always used in last stage of any electronic circuit to increase the voltage and
current of electric signal.
-The output signal of power amplifier is fed to combining unit.

b) For Audio Signal

1) Micro phone

-It is used to convert original sound signal into electric audio signal.

2) Sound Amplifier

-It is used to increase the strength of audio electric signal at television studio and
television transmitting station.

3) Sound Carrier Source

-It generates the high frequency carrier signal which is used to carry the low
frequency electrical audio signal.

4) Sound Modulator

-It is the device in which low frequency audio electrical signal is superimposes on high
frequency carrier signal.

-The output signal of audio modulator is good in amplitude and frequency.

5) Combining Unit
-It is the device in which resultant carrier video electrical signal with carrier audio
signal is combined.
-The output signal from the combining unit is video-audio carrier electrical signal is
passed to the transmitting aerial for radiation into atmosphere.

 Television Receiver

The explanation of television receiver is as follows:

The parts of radio transmitter are as follows:
1) Receiving Antenna
-At the receiving end, the TV receiving aerial picks up the combined vision and sound
modulated wave to pass it to radio receiver.
2) Radio Amplifier
-It increases the strength of radio signal and passed to detector.
3) Detector (Demodulator)
-It is used to separate the video (vision) and audio (sound) components after
demodulation process.
-The demodulated signal is fed to video amplifier and audio amplifier respectively for
increasing the power of signals.
4) TV picture tube
-The demodulated video signal is passed to a CRT to produce the original scene at the
receiving end.
5) Loudspeaker
-The demodulated audio signal is passed to a loudspeaker to reproduce the original
sound associated with the scene.
 Principle of producing moving pictures
 Persistence of vision
-If “still” pictures are presented one after another to the human eye at a rate of more
than 16 per second, an illusion of moving scene, due to “Persistence of vision” is
created.
 To achieve an illusion in Television system
-To have an illusion of moving pictures in television system, 25 picture frames are
scanned in 1 second.

 Scanning
Def-It is the technique by which TV camera converts the optical information of picture
such as intensity, color etc. into an electrical signal, called as “scanning”.
 Interlaced Scanning
The process of scanning the picture by means of electron beam is known as
Interlaced Scanning.
 Scanning lines required completing one picture frame?
-625 Horizontal lines
-These 625 lines are divided into 2 fields:
1) Even Field=312.5 lines (2, 4, 6…….) lines
2) Odd Field=312.5 lines (1, 3, 5……..) lines
 Aspect Ratio
-It is the ratio of picture width and picture height of TV.
-Normally, the aspect ratio is 4:3.
-Nowadays, in HDTV the aspect radio 16:9 is also available.

 Principles of color TV
1) Parts of Video signal in colour TV
a) Luminance - it contains the brightness information.
b) Chrominance- it contains the additional information needed for a colour system.
2) TV signal producing systems
a) NTSC system- Used in U.S.A., Japan
b) SECAM system-Used in France, Russia
c) PAL system-Used in India
3) Encoding-The process in which the Chrominance information signal is combined
with the Luminance information signal at the transmitter.
Decoding-The reverse process at the receiver.
 4) Picture formation
-All the different colours and different shades can be reproduced by proper
combination of 3 basic primary colours, red, green, and blue.
-At the transmitting station, the 3 primary colours are extracted from the scene to
be televised by using suitable light filters in front of each of the 3 cameras used.
-The luminance and chrominance signals are then produced from the 3 primary
colour signals in the encoding circuits and combined to form the compatible video
signal which is then passed to the modulator of the TV transmitter.
-In colour receiver, after demodulation, the compatible signal is applied from the
decoding circuits to a 3-gun cathode ray tube t reproduce the colour picture.

 Radar System
It is a “Radio Detection and Ranging System” .In 1904; the scientist Christian Hulsmeyer
demonstrated the radar system.

 Functions of Radar system

-It is an electronic communication system which is used to detect objects at distances
that cannot be observed visually.
-It tell us all information about the range, direction, altitude and speed of both moving
and fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather information.

 Presence of target distance detection

-The radio wave strikes target, some of the energy is reflected or re-radiated by the
target back towards the transmitter.

 Target distance detection

-If the transmitted radio wave is in the form of pulses, then by measuring the time delay
between the transmitted pulse and its corresponding received pulse or echo; the
distance of the detected target from the transmitter can be determined.
-The formula of distance calculation is distance = velocity * time
 Block diagram of Transmitter and Receiver

 Explanation
The explanation of radar blocks are as follows:
a) Radar Transmitter
1) Pulser
-It is the electronic device which generates the pulses of radio waves in the
frequency range of 150MHz -30GHz.
-The time duration of these pulses is very short, generally between 0.25-50 µs.
2) RF Oscillator
-It generates the high frequency radio signal called carrier which carry low
frequency pulses of radio waves and fed to RF amplifier.
-The RF amplifier increasing the strength of radio signal, so that signal becomes
powerful for next movement.
 3) Combining Unit
-It is the electronic device which controls the transmitted and received pulse
switching, hence it is also called as Trans-Receive Switch.
-The single aerial (antenna ) is connected to the combining unit. The antenna
acts as transmitter when to transmit the pulse and acts as receiver when to
receive the pulse.
b) Radar Receiver
1) Aerial as Receiver
-When the radio pulse is reflected back from the target, it is capturing by the
aerial and acts receiver antenna.
-At the receiver side amplification of the reflected signal is done to increase the
strength, so signal can travel long distance.
2) Visual Display
-The aerial is switched to the receiver during the interval between transmitter
pulses.
-The transmitted pulses and received pulses are displayed simultaneously on a
CRT tube to give a visual indication of the time delay between the transmitted
pulse and its echo.

 A-Scan Display
 Definition
-The time for echo pulse to return to the receiver gives total distance out to the
target and back again is called as A-scan display.
 Distance Calculation
The distance to the target is given by:
D = (Total time required * speed of the radio signal) / 2
D = (T *3 * 108 ) / 2=1.5 T * 108
Where,
D=It is distance between radar unit and the target in meters
T=Time in second
 Figure of A-Scan display

 Plan Position Indicator (PPI) or Moving Target Indicator(MTI)

 Explanation
-It is used to display the azimuth (direction) of the target from the radar transmitter on
visual display.
-The PPI draws a rough map of the area scanned by the radar beam. This scheme is also
called Moving Target Indicator (MTI).
-The electron beam on the screen of PPI-scope is deflected in successive radial lines
though an entire circular area as shown in figure.
-The center of these circles indicates the position of the radar transmitter. The distance
from the center along each radial line represents the range of target.
-The direction of each radial line with respect to North or Zero degree reference
represents the azimuth or horizontal bearing of the target from the radar.
-Whenever a target is detected, an echo pulse is received and it is displayed on the
screen of the scope in the form of a bright spot.
-To make the azimuth presentation accurate, the rotation of the scanning antenna for
the radar system must be synchronized with the direction of the radial beam
deflection, so that each radial line points in the same direction at the same instant of
time.
-For this purpose, the motor that rotates the radar antenna is electrically coupled to the
PPI-scope.

 Applications Of RADAR
1) Marine radars are used to measure the azimuth and distance of ships to prevent
collision with other ships to navigate and to fix their position at sea when within
range of shore.
2) In port or in harbor, radar systems are used to monitor and regulate ship
movements in busy waters.
3) Weather forecasting