CHAPTER 4

AIR FLOW THROUGH OPENINGS

Learning Objectives
This chapter introduces the equations that describe airflow through openings. After you have
studied this chapter and completed the personal feedback form you should be able to:
1. Identify the parameters that describe airflow;
2. Understand how airflow through openings can be approximated by a general mathematical
equation;
3. Understand what is meant by flow parameters and pressure drop.

The Calculation methods precented in Chapters 4, 5 and 6 are based on material published in the AIVC Air
Infiltration Calculation Techniques Guide, the AIVC Guide to Ventilation and the CIBSE Guide A Handbook
(Liddament 1986, 1996, CIBSE 2006).

Introduction

Natural ventilation is governed by the amount and distribution of openings in the envelope of the building, the
internal pattern of flow paths and the pressure generated by the natural driving forces. This Section is concerned
with outlining the flow characteristics of openings and explaining how the flow rate can be estimated from the
pressure drop across each opening. Because the variability of climate is so high and the mechanics of flow is
so complex, natural ventilation is often treated in very simplified or empirical terms. This includes treating
components individually or making generalisations about flow patterns. Often such rule of thumb approaches
are all that can be accomplished. At the other end of the spectrum increasing use is being made of computational
fluid dynamics to predict natural ventilation performance. While results can be obtained, there is much
uncertainty about the necessary approximations needed to reflect the driving parameters. This course follows a
theoretical approach that can enable good calculations to be performed. It too, however is restricted by the
following:

· Wind Induced Flow through Openings: Classical natural ventilation theory is based the assumption that
wind induced pressure is developed from the transfer of kinetic energy of the wind when it strikes a solid
body. However, if an opening is ‘large,’ kinetic energy is not fully converted to induce a surface pressure.
Instead the wind simply drives air under its own momentum through the opening. Some research suggests
that this breakdown occurs immediately an opening is present but a porosity figure of up to 30% of the
wall surface area has been suggested as satisfactory for classical theory to be acceptable.

· Discharge Coefficient: A “discharge coefficient” is frequently used to describe the flow characteristics if
an identifiable opening. This coefficient will depend on many factors including the geometry of the
opening and the direction of attack of the wind. The value suggested in this the theoretical sections is a
guideline figure within the classical range for an orifice opening in which wind is normal to the opening.
The literature reveals an increasing amount of discharge coefficients for a wider range of conditions.

As yet no further practical guidance on these issues can be given other than the need to carry out specific tests
on components, including wind tunnel analysis, for critical design.

Further guidance on ventilation calculations, based on a component basis, is given in CEN Standard /TC 156
Ventilation for buildings — Calculation methods for the determination of air flow rates in buildings including
infiltration.
4.1 FLOW THROUGH PURPOSE DESIGNED OPENINGS

For a given applied pressure, the nature of airflow is dependent on the dimensions and geometry of the opening
itself. For well-defined, purpose provided openings such as vents, airflow is usually assumed to be turbulent
and is often approximated by the orifice equation given by:

1
é 2 ù2
Q = Cd A ê Dp ú (m3/s) (4.1)
ër û

Where:
Q= air flow rate (m3/s)
Cd = discharge coefficient,
ρ= air density (kg/m3);
Δp = pressure difference across opening (Pa);
A= area of opening (m2).

In this instance the area, A, is the net physical openable area. This is usually much less than the dimension of
the vent itself because a significant part of the vent area is taken up with insect screen or loose filling.

The Discharge Coefficient

The discharge coefficient is dependent on the opening geometry and also on the direction of approaching flow
(e.g. wind direction). For a flat plate orifice in which the air stream is directed at right angles to the opening, it
typically has a value of approximately 0.61 – 0.65. Such a range is widely used in preliminary design
calculations. However for practical components the actual value will be dependent on the component itself and
on wind direction. For more detailed analysis, therefore, the compentent should be tested to obtain its actual
flow characteristics.

4.2 FLOW THROUGH GAPS AND CRACKS – AIR INFILTRATION

A particular type of opening is the adventitious construction crack that appears at each joint in the building
envelope or at each service penetration. Formerly such openings represented a significant component of the
overall porosity of the building which resulted in high and uncontrollable air change rates. In modern buildings
much effort goes into minimising such openings and airtightness requirements are included in the building
regulations of a number of countries. Despite increasing levels of airtightness it is still important to incorporate
the impact of air infiltration on natural ventilation design.

For very narrow cracks with relatively long flow paths, such as may be found in mortar and between tight fitting
components, the nature of flow at ambient flow is altogether very different and is dominated by the effects of
viscosity. Airflow through such openings is closer to laminar in which the flow rate and becomes proportional
to the applied pressure difference.

Often the flow rate through less well defined openings such as infiltration openings is represented by the Power
Law Equation:

Q = C ( Dp ) n m3/s (4.2)

Where:
C = flow coefficient;
n = flow exponent;
Δp = pressure difference across the opening.

The Coefficient, C, is related to the size of the opening (i.e. it increases with opening size) while the exponent,
n, characterises the flow regime and varies in value between 0.5 (fully turbulent flow) to 1.0 (fully laminar
flow).
This power law is an approximation but is an approach that is most widely used in building airflow analysis.
This is because laminar, turbulent and intermediate flow characteristics can all be represented by the same
equation thus simplifying calculation techniques.

Sometimes a quadratic equation is recommended in which the laminar and turbulent terms are separated. This
form of the equation is given by:

Dp = a Q + b Q 2 (4.3)

Where α and β are constants

Unlike the power law, this equation is dimensionally correct and is often thought to represent flow at low driving
pressures much more accurately. However despite these benefits, use of the quadratic equation has not yet been
popular.

4.3 A GENERAL FLOW EQUATION FOR OPENINGS

In undertaking design calculations it is important to be able to express the flow through openings, regardless of
type, by a general equation. In this case the power law equation (Equation 4.2) represents the most general case
and can be applied to the various types of opening as follows:

Purpose Provided Ventilation Openings:

0.5
é2ù
C = Cd A ê ú ; n = 0.5 (4.4)
ër û

Infiltration Openings

C = C ; n » 0.6 (4.5)

4.4 PARAMETERS NEEDED TO DETERMINE AIRFLOW RATE

Thus to determine the flow rate through an opening it is necessary to know:

· The flow characteristics of the opening (either in relation to its area for well defined orifices or by
measuring its flow characteristics through the process of laboratory or site testing to obtain its C and n
value.
· The pressure drop, Δp, across the opening.

Flow Characteristics: In early design sizing calculations, based on defined openings, C and n can be based on
the orifice equation as outlined in Equation 4.4 above While an allowance for infiltration openings can be made
using Equation 4.2 directly. It is imperative that every opening is accounted for. More detailed analysis should
then be based on the measured flow characteristics of the intended devices. These characteristics should be
represented in terms of the C and n values (or of the quadratic exponents if the quadratic equation (much rarer)
is used).

Pressure Drop: The pressure drop across openings is developed by the driving forces of wind and temperature
as well as that induced by mechanical fans. The calculation of pressure drop forms the basis of natural
ventilation design since this defines the necessary openable area needed to achieve the required airflow rate.
Guidance in calculating the pressure distribution is covered in the following sections.
4.5 QUESTIONS

Answers:

1. An air vent has a dimension of 30 cm x 3 cm and is fitted with a gauze insect screen that reduces
the effective area of the opening by 40%. Based on the orifice flow equation, calculate the airflow
rate through the opening at a pressure drop of 5 Pa.

Gross area of vent = 0.30 * 0.03 m 2 = 0.009 m2

The area is reduced by 40% therefore the net area of opening is 0.0054 m 2
Assume an air density of 1.21 kg/m3 (20°C)

1
é 2 ù2
Flow Equation: Q = Cd A ê Dp ú
ër û

Thus Q = 0.61* 0.0054 * (2*5/1.21)1/2

= 0.0095 m3/s
= 9.5 L/s

Note: answer will vary according to density chosen

2. How could the estimate of flow rate vs pressure drop be improved?

By measuring the actual flow performance of the vent rather than relying on orifice assumptions.

3. For the same pressure drop, what is likely to happen to the flow rate over an extended period of
installation (e.g. over several years)?

The flow performance will reduce over time because the insect screen will steadily trap material thus
reducing the area of opening.
 CHAPTER 5
WIND DRIVEN VENTILATION

Learning Objectives
This chapter outlines the principles of wind driven ventilation. After you have studied this
Chapter and completed the personal feedback form you should be able to:
1. Understand how wind creates a driving pressure across a building opening;
2. Understand how the pressure is influenced by shelter;
3. Use equations and data to approximate the value of wind pressure acting at an opening on
the surface of a building.

Introduction

Wind provides one of the key driving forces for natural ventilation. It is harnessed in many ways varying from
purpose designed wind towers or “wind catchers” to reliance on ventilation grilles and openable windows.

To size a system correctly it is important to understand the wind pressure mechanism and to be able to estimate
the pressure induced at an opening by wind. This Section covers the development of wind pressure and outlines
simple calculation techniques that can be used to give an approximate estimate of wind induced pressure. More
detailed calculation methods may require wind tunnel analysis, computational fluid dynamics and an
understanding of how the size of the opening itself modifies the flow characteristics.

5.1 WIND INDUCED PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

Wind within the lower regions of the earth's atmosphere is characterised by random fluctuations in velocity
which, when averaged over a fixed period of time, possess a mean value of speed and direction. The strength
of the wind is also a function of height above ground, this function being dependent on surface or terrain
roughness, and on the thermal nature of the atmosphere (thermal stability).

On impinging the surface of an exposed building, wind induces a pressure distribution on the building as shown
in the examples illustrated in Figure 5.1

Wind deflection occurs which induces a positive pressure on the upwind face. The flow separates at the sharp
edges of the building, giving rise to negative pressures along the sides. Negative pressures are also experienced
within the wake region on the leeward face.

The pressure distribution on the roof varies according to pitch, with negative pressures being experienced on
both faces for roof pitches of less than approximately 30 º. Above this angle, positive pressures are experienced
on the leading face

Wind incident to the corner of the building will induce a net positive pressure on both upwind faces but, as flow
veers towards a particular side, the remaining face will undergo a transition from positive to negative pressure.
The angle at which this transition occurs is dependent on the side ratio of the building. For buildings with
ventilated roof spaces, wind will directly affect the ceiling pressure distribution.
 Figure 5.1. Wind pressure distribution for various building shapes and orientations.

Other considerations include protrusions from roofs such as chimneys and flues. The pressure due to wind acting
on the mouths of such components is a function of position, roof pitch and height of protrusion.
5.2 ESTIMATING WIND INDUCED PRESSURE

In general it is observed that relative to the static pressure of the free wind, the time averaged pressure acting at
any point on the surface of a building may be represented by the equation:

r
pw = C pv2 (5.1)
2

Where:
pw = wind induced pressure;
ρ = air density;
Cp = wind pressure coefficient;
v = wind velocity at a datum level (usually building height).

Terrain and Shielding

Since the strength of the wind close to the earth's surface is influenced by the roughness of the underlying terrain
and the height above ground, a reference level for wind velocity must be specified for use in the wind pressure
calculation. In calculating the wind impact on ventilation the wind velocity is commonly expressed as the
measured speed at building height. Unfortunately, as a general rule, "on-site" wind data are rarely available
and therefore data taken from the nearest climatalogical station must usually be applied. Before such data can
be used, however, it is essential that such measurements are corrected to account for any difference between
measurement height and building height and to account for intervening terrain roughness. By nature of the
square term in Equation 5.1, wind pressure is very sensitive to the wind velocity and, as a consequence, the
arbitrary use of raw wind data will invariably give rise to misleading results. This is, perhaps, one of the most
common causes of error in the calculation of air infiltration rates.

Suitable correction for the effects of these parameters may be achieved by using a power law wind profile
equation of the form:

V
= a zg (5.2)
Vm
Where:
z = datum height (m);
v = Mean wind speed at datum height (i.e. height of building) (m/s);
vm = mean wind speed at weather station (m/s);
α and γ are coefficients according to terrain roughness (see table **).

This equation and the associated coefficients are taken from BS 5925:1990. Example coefficients are given in
Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Terrain coefficients for use with Equation 5.2

Terrain Coefficient a g
Open, flat 0.68 0.17
Country with scattered wind breaks 0.52 0.20
urban 0.35 0.25
city 0.21 0.33

Such an approach is generally acceptable for winds measured between roof height and a recording height of
10m. It is inappropriate for the reduction of wind speeds measured in the upper atmosphere. Alternative methods
of wind correction are also used based on a log law profile.

Pressure Coefficient
The pressure coefficient, Cp, is an empirically derived parameter which is a function of the pattern of flow
around the building. It is normally assumed to be independent of wind speed but varies according to wind
direction and position on the building surface. It is also significantly affected by neighbouring obstructions with
the result that similar buildings subjected to different surroundings may be expected to exhibit similar markedly
different pressure coefficient patterns.

Accurate evaluation of this parameter is one of the most difficult aspects of natural ventilation and air infiltration
modelling and, as yet, is not possible by theoretical means alone. Although pressure coefficients can be
determined by direct measurements of buildings, most information comes from the results of wind loading tests
made on scale models of isolated buildings in wind tunnels.

Purpose designed tests for specific buildings and shielding conditions may be performed, but this is an expensive
exercise and is therefore rarely possible.

For low buildings of up to typically 3 storeys, pressure coefficients may be expressed as an average value for
each face of the building and for each 45 º sector, or even 30º sector in wind direction.

For taller buildings, the spatial distribution of wind pressure takes on much greater significance, since the
strength of the wind can vary considerably over the height range. In these instances spatial dependent data are
essential. Solutions include scale wind tunnel modelling and the use of cfd to predict the surrounding pressure
field.

Representative pressure coefficients for open and urban environments are presented in Table 5.2
 Table 5.2 sample face averaged pressure coefficients for low rise buildings
.(based on AIVC data guide Orme )

Turbulent Fluctuations
Turbulent fluctuations can provide background air change even when there is no net driving force from the
mean wind speed. Various formulas exist but resultant air exchange is low and should not be incorporated into
a design methodology.

5.3 QUESTIONS

1. Consider the wind pressure distribution as illustrated in the Figure below.

(a) If face average wind pressure coefficients were applied to describe the wind pressure in a
calculation model draw, with arrows, the flow direction for openings A and B.

(b) If the actual pressure distribution was applied, rather than face averaged values how would the
estimate flow pattern change?

Which of the two answers is most likely to represent the true situation?

A B
· Face average assumption: The pressure distribution is assumed to be uniform on each wall and
therefore the wind pressure at A and B are assumed to be identical. If A and B are the only openings
in the building then there will be no wind driven flow when using this assumption.
· Actual pressure distribution: the wind pressure is more negative at A than at B. Air will enter the
space via opening B and will exhaust via opening A.
· The actual pressure distribution answer will be the most accurate.

2. Given an open site wind speed of 10 m/s at a meteorological measurement height of 10 m above
ground calculate the wind speed at a building height of 8 m for:

(i) A building located on an exposed site

(ii) A building located at an urban site

3. Use the pressure coefficient tables to assess the average pressure coefficient values at openings
A1 and A2 indicated in the Figure below for:

(i) An open terrain with no surrounding

buildings

(ii) An urban environment with

surrounding buildings of equal height
 Building Height Windspeed = 4 m/s

A2

Building Height
= 4.5 m 4m

A1
1m

Answers:

1. Consider the wind pressure distribution as illustrated in the Figure below.

(a) If face average wind pressure coefficients were applied to describe the wind pressure in a
calculation model draw, with arrows, the flow direction for openings A and B.

(b) If the actual pressure distribution was applied, rather than face averaged values how would the
estimate flow pattern change?

Which of the two answers is most likely to represent the true situation?

A B
· Face average assumption: The pressure distribution is assumed to be uniform on each wall and
therefore the wind pressure at A and B are assumed to be identical. If A and B are the only openings
in the building then there will be no wind driven flow when using this assumption.
· Actual pressure distribution: the wind pressure is more negative at A than at B. Air will enter the
space via opening B and will exhaust via opening A.
· The actual pressure distribution answer will be the most accurate.
2. Given an open site wind speed of 10 m/s at a meteorological measurement height of 10 m above
ground calculate the wind speed at a building height of 8 m for:

(i) A building located on an exposed site 9.68 m/s

(ii) A building located at an urban site 5.89 m/s

3. Use the pressure coefficient tables to assess the average pressure coefficient values at openings
A1 and A2 indicated in the Figure below for:

(i) An open terrain with no surrounding A1 = .7 A2 = -.2

buildings

(ii) An urban environment with A1 = .2 A2 = -.25

surrounding buildings of equal height

·
Building Height Windspeed = 4 m/s

A2

Building Height
= 4.5 m 4m

A1
1m
 CHAPTER 6
STACK DRIVEN VENTILATION

Learning Objectives
This chapter outlines the principles of stack driven ventilation. After you have studied this
chapter and completed the personal feedback form you should be able to:
1. Understand how temperature difference creates a driving pressure across a building
opening;
2. Understand how the pressure is influenced by the height of openings;
3. Use equations and data to approximate the value of stack pressure acting at an opening on
the surface of a building.

Introduction

The stack effect arises as a result of differences in temperature and hence air density between the interior and
exterior of a building. This produces an imbalance in the pressure gradients of the internal and external air
masses, thus creating a vertical pressure difference (Figure 6.1). When the internal air temperature is higher
than that of the outside air mass, air enters through openings in the lower part of the building and escapes
through openings at a higher level. This flow direction is reversed when the interna1 air temperature is lower
than that of the air outside.

Figure 6.1. Principles of stack effect showing airflow derived from the imbalances in pressure
distribution caused by internal/external temperature difference.

The level at which the transition between inflow and outflow occurs is defined as the neutral pressure plane. In
practice, the level of the neutral plane is rarely known although it can be predicted for straightforward leakage
distributions.

More generally, the stack pressure is expressed relative to the level of the lowest opening or to some other
convenient datum (for example ground level).
For natural ventilation design, the consequences and significance of the stack effect must be considered for a
number of alternative configurations. These include:

· Single zone uniform internal temperature distribution;

· Multi-zone buildings with impermeably separated vertical zones;
· Multi-zone buildings in which interconnected vertically placed zones are at different temperatures;
· Multi-zone buildings in which horizontally placed zones are at different temperatures,
· Large single zone structures subjected to thermal stratification;
· Ventilation stacks,

Each of these configurations may be readily analysed and combined by consideration of the vertical pressure
gradient of the respective air masses.

6.1 STACK EFFECT: SINGLE ZONE - UNIFORM INTERNAL TEMPERATURE

DISTRIBUTION

Assuming a uniform air temperature, the pressure of an air mass at any height z above a convenient datum
level, zo, (for example ground or floor level) is given by:

pz = p0 - r gz (Pa) (6.1)

Where:
pz = pressure at datum level zo (Pa);
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
z = height above dataum (m).

The resultant pressure gradient is therefore:

dp
= -r g (6.2)
dz

which becomes, by consideration of the ideal (Gas Laws):

dp 273
= - ro g (6.3)
dz q

Where:
ρo = air density at 273K (kg/m3 );
θ = absolute temperature of the air mass (K).

Thus the pressure gradient is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the air mass.

Pressure gradients and the absolute pressure distribution for a building in which two openings, hl and h2, are
vertically separated a distance h apart are illustrated in Figure 6.1 above. The level of alignment of the internal
and external pressures (neutral pressure plane) is a function of the overall distribution and flow characteristics
of openings, and is fixed such that a mass flow balance is maintained. Knowledge of this level is not a pre-
requisite of natural ventilation modelling. The stack induced pressure at h2, with respect to the pressure at hl,
is represented in Figure 6.1 by the net horizontal displacement of the pressure curves at these locations (A + B)
and is given by:

é1 1ù
ps = - r o g 273(h2 - h1 ) ê - ú (Pa) (6.4)
ëqe qi û
Where:
θ e = Absolute temperature of the outdoor air (K);
θ i = Absolute temperature of the indoor air (K)

Stack Pressures are often comparable with wind induced pressures and many ventilation designs concentrate od
developing the stack pressure to drive ventilation airflow.

6.2 STACK EFFECT ADVANCED

Multizone Buildings with Impermeably Separated Vertical Zones

Figure 6.2 Stack induced pressure distribution in a multi-storey building in which each floor is isolated.

Often it is necessary to consider the design for a multi-storey building, such as an office or an apartment block,
in which each floor is essentially isolated (Figure 6.2). This isolation is usually necessary to ensure the
separation of individual units and to prevent fire spread. In this instance each floor displays its own neutral
pressure plane and it is possible to calculate the stack pressure distribution without reference to adjacent zones.
Thus the stack pressure equation 6.4 above can be applied to each floor to estimate flow rates stack flow rates
for opening configurations.
Multi-zone buildings in which vertically interconnected zones are at different temperatures

Figure 6.3 Stack pressure distribution for vertically placed zones at different temperatures.

In practice, a uniform temperature distribution may not always be possible or even desired. By design or
otherwise, it may be that the internal temperature of each zone will differ. In dwellings, for example, upstairs
bedrooms are frequently maintained at a lower temperature to the living area, while a roof space might not be
heated at all. The resultant stack pressure may be analysed in exactly the same way as the previous example,
except that the pressure gradient of each cell varies according to the zonal air temperature (Figure 6.3). The
stack pressure at any level is again given by the displacement in pressure gradients.

For example, the stack pressure at level h 2 with respect to level h 1 (horizontal displacement ‘A’ in the diagram)
is given by:
ìï é1 1ù é 1 1 ù üï
ps = - r o g 273 í( L1 - h1 ) ê - ú + (h2 - L1 ) ê - ú ý (Pa) (6.5)
ïî ë q1 q e û ëq 2 q e û ïþ
Where:
L1 = First floor level (m);
θ1 = Internal temperature of ground floor zone (K);
θ2 = Internal temperature of first floor zone (K).
Multi-Zone Building in which Horizontally Placed Zones are at Different Temperatures

Figure 6.4. Stack pressure for horizontally spaced zones at different temperatures.

This situation may occur in an office environment or multi-storey building in which the stairwell or public
access areas are maintained at a lower temperature than the occupied parts of the building. Again, the
temperature gradients in each of the zones are analysed as previously described with the stack pressure being
expressed relative to the lowest opening. The corresponding stack pressures at other heights are then determined
by the relative displacements (Figure 6.4 above).

Thus the stack pressure at height h5, between zone 1 and 4 (horizontal displacement ‘B’ in the Figure) is given
by:

é1 1 ù
ps = - r g 273(h5 - h1 ) ê - ú (Pa) (6.6)
ë q1 q 2 û
Where:
θ1 = Temperature of each of the vertical zones;
θ2 = Temperature of Zone 1.

6.3 QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the stack pressure difference between openings A1 and A2 the figure below:
 A2

θint =10°C θint =20°C

Building Height
= 4.5 m 4m

A1
1m

2. For the temperatures given draw, with arrows, the direction of airflow at openings A1 and A2.

3. If the external temperature was increased from 10 ºC to 25 ºC, while the internal temperature is
kept maintained at 20 ºC, how will the flow directions at A1 and A2 change.

Answers:

1. Calculate the stack pressure difference between openings A1 and A2 the figure below:

A2

θint =10°C θint =20°C

Building Height
= 4.5 m 4m

A1
1m

Stack Pressure between the two openings (3 m apart) = - 1.25 Pa

2. For the temperatures given draw, with arrows, the direction of airflow at openings A1 and A2.

Air enters through A1 into the building and leaves through A2

3. If the external temperature was increased from 10 ºC to 25 ºC, while the internal temperature is
kept maintained at 20 ºC, how will the flow directions at A1 and A2 change.

They are reversed

 CHAPTER 7
COMBINING WIND AND STACK DRIVEN VENTILATION
ADDING HYBRID FANS

Learning Objectives
This chapter outlines the process of combining the impact of wind and stack driven pressures. It
then describes how a hybrid fan can be introduced. After you have studied this chapter and
completed the personal feedback form you should be able to:
1. Describe the total pressure acting on an opening;
2. Understand how a hybrid fan influences the pressure distribution.

Introduction

It is usually impossible to separate stack driving forces from wind driving forces. In other words both stack and
wind forces are normally present at the same time. Therefore despite efforts to design a stack or wind driven
concept allowance must be made for the impact of the alternative force.

Unfortunately it is not possible to calculate the air change due to wind and stack pressure separately then to add
the two results together. It is possible, however to add the contributions of pressure due to stack and wind at
each opening to obtain a pressure acting on each opening. The calculation of air change or flow rate through
each opening can then be calculated.

In the case of hybrid ventilation, fans are used to enhance the driving pressure. Again it is not possible to add
the flow rate developed by the fan to the flow rate calculated by wind and stack effect. Instead the change in
pressure caused by the fan must be calculated. The means by which this may be achieved are described in the
next section

This Section describes the combining of pressures and the inclusion of hybrid fans.

7.1 COMBINING WIND WITH STACK PRESSURE

The total pressure, pti , acting at an opening, i, due to the combined impact of wind and stack effect, is given by:

pti = pwi + psi

It is important to understand that summing the pressures due to stack and wind effect at each opening is not the
same as summing the flow rates determined by calculating the flow rates due to wind and stack pressure
separately. Summing the flow rates would lead to an erroneous result.

7.2 PRESSURE EFFECTS DUE TO HYBRID VENTILATION

Mechanical ventilation may be analysed in terms of the induced flow rate and pressure imbalance created across
the fan and associated ducting. The resultant pressure difference becomes another component to the total
pressure equation.

The additional pressure imbalance created by an extract only ventilation system is very straightforward to
calculate by direct application of the Power Law equation (Equation 4.2). In this case the flow coefficient C is
given by the flow rate through the fan and the flow exponent, n, is set to zero i.e:
 Q f = C f (Dp) n=0 (7.1)

Where:
Qf = Specified flow rate through the fan;
Cf = Corresponding flow coefficient.

This forces a constant flow condition. A check must be performed to ensure that the fan can achieve the given
flow rate at the resultant induced pressure drop across the fan.

In practice the resultant induced pressure created by the fan (See Section 8).

7.3 QUESTIONS

1. For the Figure below calculate the combined stack and wind pressures at each opening
assuming that the building is located in an urban environment and surrounded by buildings of
equal height.

Building Height Windspeed = 4 m/s Building Volume =250 m³

A2 Area of opening,
A2 = 0.1 m²
θext = 10°C θint = 20°C

Building Height
= 4.5 m 4m
Area of opening, A1
= 0.1 m²
A1
1m

Exposure: Urban, surrounded by buildings of equal height.

2. Sketch the probable directions of airflow through openings A1 and A2. Explain your reasoning.
Answers:

1. For the Figure below calculate the combined stack and wind pressures at each opening
assuming that the building is located in an urban environment and surrounded by buildings of
equal height.

Building Height Windspeed = 4 m/s Building Volume =250 m³

A2 Area of opening,
A2 = 0.1 m²
θext = 10°C θint = 20°C

Building Height
= 4.5 m 4m
Area of opening, A1
= 0.1 m²
A1
1m

Exposure: Urban, surrounded by buildings of equal height.

Wind Pressure:
A1 = 2.02
A2 = -2.52

Stack Pressure
A1 = 0.0 or - 0.417
A2 = -1.25 or -1.667

Note: answer depends on the datum level (e.g. base level or level of first opening). However the pressure
difference will always be the same.

2. Sketch the probable directions of airflow through openings A1 and A2. Explain your reasoning.

· Flow through A1 into building;

· Flow out of building through A2;
· The wind pressure reinforces the stack pressure.
 CHAPTER 8
CALCULATING NATURAL VENTILATION RATE
USING THE FLOW EQUATIONS, WIND PRESSURE
AND STACK PRESSURE EQUATIONS

Learning Objectives
This chapter combines the flow Equations developed in Chapter 4 with the pressure equations
developed in chapters 5 to 7 in order to estimate the natural and hybrid ventilation flow through a
building. After you have studied this Chapter and completed the personal feedback form you
should be able to:
1. Understand the meaning of single and multizone models;
2. Undertake natural and hybrid ventilation flow calculations for a simple single zone building
structure;
3. Introducing hybrid fans;
4. Treatment of single sided openings.

Introduction

The calculation of ventilation rate involves:

· Identifying the ventilation openings;

· Determining the pressures acting on each opening;
· Applying the flow equations at each opening;
· Obtaining a flow balance so that the air entering the building (and individual zones in a building) is
balanced by the outgoing air.

The first three steps are covered by the preceding Sections. This section is concerned with the flow balance
calculation. Appropriate algorithms are presented in the common resource module.

Such calculations are needed to:

· Size ventilation openings as part of a ventilation design;

· Check on the adequacy of a ventilation design;
· Determine the need for and develop a hybrid ventilation strategy;

Suitable calculation techniques include:

· Single zone network models;

· Multi zone network models;
· Computational fluid dynamics (CFD).

This course provides sufficient information to undertake single zone modelling. While basic descriptions are
presented on multi zone and cfd technique. More details are available in the resource module.

8.1 SINGLE ZONE NETWORK MODELS

This approach is used to calculate infiltration into a single enclosed space. Model parameters include:

· Flow path distribution:

· Flow path characteristics (C and n values);
· Building height;
· Internal/external temperature difference;
· Local wind speed (or reduced from remote site);
· Local shielding conditions;
· Terrain roughness parameters;
· Characteristics of hybrid ventilation.

Any number of flow paths, terminating within the internal zone, can be selected to represent leakage openings
in each face of the building (Inset Figure).

A naturally ventilated building consists of a series of openings through which air will pass. These openings
include:

· Purpose provided openings (e.g vents and windows as described in chapter 3 );

· Adventitious infiltration openings.

In assessing the natural ventilation performance of a building, both types of openings must be included. Even
although buildings are less leaky than in the past, gaps and cracks can still adversely add to flow rates, especially
in winter when driving forces are usually higher.

Single Zone Buildings: In some cases the building itself may be considered as a single open space (e.g. an
open plan office, warehouse or a house in which internal doors are predominantly left open.

Multi Zone Buildings: In other cases a building may be considered as a multizone building in which each room
is separated form its neighbours by partitions and walls.

8.2 CALCULATING THE NATURAL VENTILATION RATE

By referring to Figure 8.1 above, the calculation of naturally induced airflow through the building requires the
following steps:

· Apply the general flow equation (chapter 4) to each path;

· Calculate wind pressure for each path;
· Calculate stack pressure for each path;
· Determine the total pressure (add wind +stack) for each path;
· Determine an internal pressure for the space such that the total airflow into a space is balanced by the
total airflow out of the space.

This final step is the central component of ventilation calculations. Except for very simple networks, the
calculation is not direct and the process of ‘iteration’ is required. It is this element that makes ventilation
calculation approaches so difficult to follow. This section attempts to present a simple explanation of the
process.

Taking all the flow paths, the conservation of mass requires a flow balance between the ingoing and outgoing
airflow. This is expressed by:

årQ
i =1
i i = 0 (kg/s) (8.1)

Where:
ρi = Density of air flowing through flow path i (kg/m³);
Qi = Volume airflow rate through flow path i (m³/s).

The air density, ρi , of incoming air is given by that of the value for the outside air while, for outflowing air, it
is given by that of the internal air density. If the density differences between the internal and external air masses
are negligible in comparison to the magnitude of the overall density of air then density term may be ignored
and, instead, calculation can be considered in terms of conservation of volume flow rather than mass flow.
Working in terms of volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate helps simplify iterative calculation and presents
results in the familiar format of volume flow.

Thus Equation (8.1) above is simplified to:

å
i =1
Qi = 0 (8.2)

To determine the flow rate through each flow path, it is necessary to express Qi by the chosen flow equation (in
this module the popular power law equation is used although alternative equations such as the quadratic
approach are equally applicable). The power law equation gives:

å C ( Dp ) =0
ni
i i (8.3)
i =1

Where:

Ci and ni = the flow coefficient and flow exponent of the i’th flow path respectively
(Δpi ) = the pressure difference acting across the path.

The pressure difference (Δpi ) is made up of the wind and stack pressure acting on the outside of the opening
and the internal pressure of the space, pint. This internal pressure adjusts itself to preserve flow balance and is
the unkown that must be determined in order calculate the flow through each opening.

For the airflows to add up to zero therefore some flows must be positive (air coming into the building) and
others must be negative (air leaving the building). This means, also, that some Δp’s will be positive and some
Δp’s will be negative. Unfortunately it is not possible to raise a negative Δp to the power n and therefore some
rearrangement of the Equation 8.3 above is needed. Incorporating this rearrangement and replacing Δpi by pi -
pint gives:

j æ pi - pint ö
åC pi - pint ÷÷ = 0
ni
çç (8.4)
è pi - pint
i
i =1 ø
(Term 1) (Term 2) (Term 3)

In this rearrangement, Term 2 is always positive (and hence can be raised to the power n) while term three
becomes either +1 or -1 and hence defines the flow direction.

Advantages
The single cell network approach offers many advantages. These include:

· Comparative ease of calculation;

· The incorporation of any number of flow paths;
· The inclusion of any combination of wind, stack and mechanically induced pressures;
· The ability to assess the effect of flow path distribution on air change rates);
· The ability to identify the flow direction and the magnitude of the flow rate through each of the defined
openings;
· The calculation of internal pressure;
· The ability to determine the neutral pressure plane using the external and internal pressure data.

Disadvantages
The principle disadvantage is:

· Only applicable to buildings that can be approximated by a zone of single uniform pressure;
8.3 MULTI-ZONE NETWORK MODELS

A Multizone network model is an approach in which individual rooms or zones within a space are separately
divided. This approach is needed when internal partitioning presents an impedance to the movement of air.
Possible exceptions to using a multizone approach may be permissible when:

· Only the absolute maximum air change rate for the building is required;
· When internal doors are very leaky or are generally left open.

There are therefore many instances in which single zone approaches will be of little value and, as a result,
consideration must be given to an internal flow structure.

Similar model parameters to the previous network approach apply, including:

· Flow path distribution (internal and external);

· Flow path characteristics;
· Building height;
· Internal/external temperature differences and the temperature of each zone;
· Wind speed;
· Local shielding conditions;
· Terrain roughness parameters;
· Details of mechanical systems.

Again, any number of flow paths, terminating within each internal zone, can be selected to represent leakage
openings in the building envelope. Additionally paths are selected to represent leakage openings across internal
zones. For the m'th such zone with a total of j. flow paths, the mass flow balance is given by:

jm
æ pim - pm ö
år pim - pm ÷÷ = 0
nim
k çç (8.5)
è pim - pm ø
im im
im =1

For q zones the mass balance is applied to each zone to give:

q jm
æ pim - pm ö
å (å rim kim pim - pm ÷÷) = 0
nim
çç (8.6)
m =1 im =1 è pim - pm ø

Unlike the 'single zone' approach, where there was only one internal pressure to determine, there are now many
values. This adds considerably to the complexity of the numerical solution method. Suitable algorithms are
outlined in the resource module.

8.4 INTRODUCING HYBRID VENTILATION

Hybrid fans are introduced by including in the network a fan equation of the type described in Chapter 7
Equation 7.1.

8.4.1 Treatment of Single Sided Openings

There are circumstance where other mechanisms may be relevant, in particular where a space within a building
has openings on one wall only and has either no flow paths to other zones or where such flow paths are
considerably smaller than the area of opening on the single outside wall. This could occur for instance where
offices or classrooms have one external wall and limited internal flow paths to ensure privacy or reduce
disturbance from other activities within the building. Equations have been derived which allow the ventilation
rate of such spaces to be determined, based upon adapting the wind and stack equations as outlined below.

Wind effect: Based upon full-scale measurements and wind-tunnel studies, a simple empirical equation has
been derived to predict wind driven ventilation:
 Q = k.A.U ref (8.7)

Where, A is the area of opening and Uref is the speed of the undisturbed wind at the height of the building
containing the space under consideration. In practice the value of k will depend upon a number of factors,
including wind direction relative to the façade containing the opening, surrounding structures and any local
obstruction at the surface of the building in proximity of the opening. However, a conservative value for design
purposes may be taken as 0.025.

Stack effect: The basic equations for stack effect set out in Section 6.1 can be applied to flow through a single
opening. The neutral plane (see Figure 6.1) occurs within the opening and, if internal air temperature is higher
than outside air, air flow out above the opening and in at the lower part of the opening. The position of the
neutral plane is determined by the equality of the mass flow in and mass flow out. For a plane rectangular
opening of height, h, and area A, the ventilation rate is given by the following equation;

æ A ö æ Dθ.h.g ö
0.5

Q = Cd . ç ÷ . ç ÷ (8.8)
è 3 ø è θ + 273 ø
where,
Δθ is the difference between internal and external air temperature
θ is the mean of internal and external air temperatures
g is the gravitational constant
Cd is the discharge coefficient of the opening (see Chapter 4)

Wind and Stack Effect: In the case of both wind and temperature difference being present, the contribution due
to wind and stack effect should be determined separately and the larger of the two values applied.
8.5 QUESTIONS

1. For the figure and conditions illustrated calculate the flow airflow rate through openings A1
and A2 assuming wind driven flow only.

Building Height Windspeed = 4 m/s Building Volume =250 m³

A Area of opening,
A2 = 0.1 m²
2
θ = 10°C θ = 20°C
ex in

t t

Building Height
= 4.5 m
4m
Area of opening, A1
= 0.1 m²
A
1 1m

Exposure: Urban, surrounded by buildings of equal height.

2. For the same configuration calculate stack driven flow only.

3. Calculate the airflow rates due to the combined influence of wind and stack pressure.

4. For the combined case what is: (a) The airflow direction through openings A1 and A2?
(b) The air change rate in air changes per hour (ac/h)?

Answers:

1. For the figure and conditions illustrated calculate the flow airflow rate through openings A1
and A2 assuming wind driven flow only.

60.83 L/s

2. For the same configuration calculate stack driven flow only.

144.5 L/s

3. Calculate the airflow rates due to the combined influence of wind and stack pressure.

156.72 L/s

4. For the combined case what is: (a) The airflow direction through openings A1 and A2?
(b) The air change rate in air changes per hour (ac/h)?

(a) Into A1 out of A2, (b) 2.26 ac/h